137:
429:
617:, a UK-based Enhanced Weathering company, spreads crushed silicate rock, such as basalt and wollastonite, on agricultural land in the United Kingdom, Canada and Australia. They claim to have spread more than 200,000 tonnes of crushed rock to date, which will capture over 40,000 tonnes of CO2 as their rock weathers. In March of 2024, they published a peer-reviewed paper in partnership with
153:
446:
weathering rate is a function of saturation of the dissolving mineral in solution (decreasing to zero in fully saturated solutions), some have suggested that lack of rainfall may limit terrestrial enhanced weathering, although others suggest that secondary mineral formation or biological uptake may suppress saturation and promote weathering.
462:
To overcome the limitations of solution saturation and to use natural comminution of sand particles from wave energy, silicate minerals may be applied to coastal environments, although the higher pH of seawater may substantially decrease the rate of dissolution, and it is unclear how much comminution
445:
Enhanced weathering was initially used to refer specifically to the spreading of crushed silicate minerals on the land surface. Biological activity in soils has been shown to promote the dissolution of silicate minerals, but there is still uncertainty surrounding how quickly this may happen. Because
171:
dissolving to the action of water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals, and temperature changes. It is mechanical (breaking up rock—also called physical weathering or disaggregation) and chemical (changing the chemical compounds in the rocks). Biological weathering is a form of weathering (mechanical
632:
An Irish company named
Silicate has run trials in Ireland and in 2023 is running trials in the USA near Chicago. Using concrete crushed down to dust it is scattered on farmland on the ratio 500 tonnes to 50 hectares, aiming to capture 100 tonnes of CO2 per annum from that area. Claiming it improves
1079:
Beerling, David J.; Kantzas, Euripides P.; Lomas, Mark R.; Wade, Peter; Eufrasio, Rafael M.; Renforth, Phil; Sarkar, Binoy; Andrews, M. Grace; James, Rachael H.; Pearce, Christopher R.; Mercure, Jean-Francois; Pollitt, Hector; Holden, Philip B.; Edwards, Neil R.; Khanna, Madhu; Koh, Lenny; Quegan,
436:
Weathering and biological carbonate precipitation are thought to be only loosely coupled on short time periods (<1000 years). Therefore, an increase in both carbonate and silicate weathering with respect to carbonate precipitation will result in a buildup of alkalinity in the ocean.
257:
This carbonic acid then attacks the mineral to form carbonate ions in solution with the unreacted water. As a result of these two chemical reactions (carbonation and dissolution), minerals, water, and carbon dioxide combine, which alters the chemical composition of minerals and removes
470:
regions of the ocean has been investigated. Carbonate minerals are supersaturated in the surface ocean but are undersaturated in the deep ocean. In areas of upwelling, this undersaturated water is brought to the surface. While this technology will likely be cheap, the maximum annual
562:
Where abundant electric surplus electricity is available, the electrolytic dissolution of silicate minerals has been proposed and experimentally shown. The process resembles the weathering of some minerals. In addition, hydrogen produced would be a carbon-negative.
453:
depends on the rate at which the minerals dissolve (less comminution is required for rapid mineral dissolution). A 2012 study suggested a large range in potential cost of enhanced weathering largely due to the uncertainty surrounding mineral dissolution rates.
2296:
Skov, Kirstine; Wardman, Jez; Healey, Matthew; McBride, Amy; Bierowiec, Tzara; Cooper, Julia; Edeh, Ifeoma; George, Dave; Kelland, Mike E.; Mann, Jim; Manning, David; Murphy, Melissa J.; Pape, Ryan; Teh, Yit A.; Turner, Will (2024-03-27).
633:
soil quality and crop productivity, the company sells carbon removal credits to fund the costs. The initial pilot funding comes from prize money awarded to the startup by the THRIVE/Shell
Climate-Smart Agriculture Challenge.
74:
emissions, according to estimates. Ocean-based techniques involve alkalinity enhancement, such as grinding, dispersing, and dissolving olivine, limestone, silicates, or calcium hydroxide to address ocean acidification and
553:
is a non-profit organization that promotes rock dust applications as natural fertilizers in agriculture fields to restore soils with minerals, improve the quality of vegetation and increase carbon sequestration.
65:
Enhanced weathering is a chemical approach to remove carbon dioxide involving land-based or ocean-based techniques. One example of a land-based enhanced weathering technique is in-situ carbonation of silicates.
768:
702:
86:
or alkaline industrial silicate minerals (such as steel slags, construction & demolition waste, or ash from biomass incineration) may be used at first, mining more basalt might eventually be required to
548:
contributes to the enhanced weathering process. Mixing the soil with crushed rock such as silicate benefits not only plants' health, but also carbon sequestration when calcium or magnesium are present.
205:
are examples of minerals affected by carbonation weathering. When silicate or carbonate minerals are exposed to rainwater or groundwater, they slowly dissolve due to carbonation weathering: that is the
905:
Goll, Daniel S.; Ciais, Philippe; Amann, Thorben; Buermann, Wolfgang; Chang, Jinfeng; Eker, Sibel; Hartmann, Jens; Janssens, Ivan; Li, Wei; Obersteiner, Michael; Penuelas, Josep (August 2021).
478:
Transforming the carbonate minerals into oxides and spreading this material in the open ocean ('Ocean Liming') has been proposed as an alternative technology. Here the carbonate mineral (CaCO
994:
673:
406:: in case of a change of this equilibrium state, it takes theoretically (if no other alteration is happening during this time) thousands of years to establish a new equilibrium state.
1024:
1240:
262:
from the atmosphere. Of course, these are reversible reactions, so if the carbonate encounters H ions from acids, such as in soils, they will react to form water and release CO
1901:
625:
concerning the agronomic co-benefits of crushed basalt in a temperate climate. They are 1 of 20 XPRIZE Carbon
Removal finalists, a $ 100 Million competition hosted by the
760:
413:
sequestered for every mol of Ca or Mg weathered out of the mineral. Given that some of the dissolved cations react with existing alkalinity in the solution to form CO
694:
2388:
2364:
506:(~15 MPa) inside controlled reactors ("ex-situ mineral carbonation"). Some research explores the potential of "in-situ mineral carbonation" in which the CO
387:
The carbonate minerals then eventually sink from the ocean surface to the ocean floor. Most of the carbonate is redissolved in the deep ocean as it sinks.
580:
538:
502:. This early research investigated the carbonation of extracted and crushed silicates at elevated temperatures (~180 °C) and partial pressures of CO
2275:
1852:
Lackner, Klaus S.; Wendt, Christopher H.; Butt, Darryl P.; Joyce, Edward L.; Sharp, David H. (1995). "Carbon dioxide disposal in carbonate minerals".
351:
Although some of the dissolved bicarbonate may react with soil acids during the passage through the soil profile to groundwater, water with dissolved
1057:
1926:
Lefebvre, David; Goglio, Pietro; Williams, Adrian; Manning, David; Azevedo, Antonio; Bergmann, Magda; Meersmans, Jeroen; Smith, Pete (2019-10-01).
1208:
986:
665:
2201:
1617:
575:. This is comparable with other methods of removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere currently available (BECCS (US$ 100–200 per tonne of CO
1928:"Assessing the potential of soil carbonation and enhanced weathering through Life Cycle Assessment: A case study for Sao Paulo State, Brazil"
1897:
1927:
136:
110:
In July 2020, a group of scientists assessed that the geo-engineering technique of enhanced rock weathering, i.e., spreading finely crushed
1016:
1985:
Scott, Allan; Oze, Christopher; Shah, Vineet; Yang, Nan; Shanks, Barney; Cheeseman, Chris; Marshall, Aaron; Watson, Matthew (2021-02-04).
1236:
1180:
735:
1888:
964:
795:
mineralization and enhanced weathering of ultramafic mine tailings from the
Baptiste nickel deposit in British Columbia, Canada"
2441:
2230:
2180:
1147:
571:
In a 2020 techno-economical analysis, the cost of utilizing this method on cropland was estimated at US$ 80–180 per tonne of CO
175:
Chemical weathering can happen by different mechanisms, depending mainly on the nature of the minerals involved. This includes
2046:
Rau, Greg H.; Carroll, Susan A.; Bourcier, William L.; Singleton, Michael J.; Smith, Megan M.; Aines, Roger D. (2013-06-18).
2456:
2446:
266:
back to the atmosphere. Applying limestone (a calcium carbonate) to acid soils neutralizes the H ions but releases CO
1357:
Manning, D. A. C. (2008). "Biological enhancement of soil carbonate precipitation: Passive removal of atmospheric CO
495:
88:
2299:"Initial agronomic benefits of enhanced weathering using basalt: A study of spring oat in a temperate climate"
1887:
O'Connor, W. K.; Dahlin, D. C.; Rush, G. E.; Gedermann, S. J.; Penner, L. R.; Nilsen, D. N. (March 15, 2005).
725:"Mapping the Mineral Resource Base for Mineral Carbon-Dioxide Sequestration in the Conterminous United States"
2259:
1680:
Hangx, Suzanne J.T.; Spiers, Christopher J. (2009). "Coastal spreading of olivine to control atmospheric CO
1282:
761:"Cloud spraying and hurricane slaying: how ocean geoengineering became the frontier of the climate crisis"
550:
534:
499:
115:
43:
1310:
Schuiling, R. D.; Krijgsman, P. (2006). "Enhanced
Weathering: An Effective and Cheap Tool to Sequester CO
1045:
1645:
concentrations: A critical analysis of viability. Comment: Nature and laboratory models are different".
1204:
409:
For silicate weathering, the theoretical net effect of dissolution and precipitation is 1 mol of CO
498:) was first proposed by Seifritz in 1990, and developed initially by Lackner et al. and further by the
790:
2310:
2209:
2138:
2075:
2002:
1939:
1861:
1816:
1773:
1764:
Kheshgi, Haroon S. (1995). "Sequestering atmospheric carbon dioxide by increasing ocean alkalinity".
1736:
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1578:
1531:
1464:
1417:
1370:
1323:
1274:
1261:
Berner, Robert A. Berner; Kothavala, Zavareth (2001). "GEOCARB III: A revised model of atmospheric CO
1097:
922:
861:
806:
618:
403:
176:
100:
2389:"Can concrete dust help to fight climate change? This Irish startup is trying it out on US farmland"
2451:
1287:
391:
145:
131:
59:
428:
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2028:
1967:
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956:
830:
584:
180:
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2328:
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2164:
2103:
2020:
1641:
Schuiling, R.D.; de Boer, P.L. (2010). "Coastal spreading of olivine to control atmospheric CO
1559:
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1123:
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887:
822:
360:
198:
51:
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and storage at large scale deployment and low-cost energy inputs (US$ 100–300 per tonne of CO
425:
sequestration of carbonate weathering reaction and carbonate precipitation reaction is zero.
417:
ions, the ratio is not exactly 1:1 in natural systems but is a function of temperature and CO
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2318:
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2010:
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318:
202:
141:
35:
1451:
Köhler, Peter; Hartmann, Jens; Wolf-Gladrow, Dieter A.; Schellnhuber, Hans-Joachim (2010).
1080:
Shaun; Pidgeon, Nick F.; Janssens, Ivan A.; Hansen, James; Banwart, Steven A. (July 2020).
510:
is injected into silicate rock formations to promote carbonate formation underground (see:
789:
Power, Ian M.; Dipple, Gregory M.; Bradshaw, Peter M. D.; Harrison, Anna L. (2020-03-01).
626:
67:
42:, onto surfaces which speeds up chemical reactions between rocks, water, and air. It also
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2006:
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810:
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1554:
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882:
849:
666:"Guest post: How 'enhanced weathering' could slow climate change and boost crop yields"
526:
215:
164:
2435:
2176:
2032:
1971:
1873:
1785:
1404:
Manning, David A. C.; Renforth, Phil (2013). "Passive
Sequestration of Atmospheric CO
1343:
1143:
960:
943:
906:
834:
592:
223:
104:
70:, for example, has the potential to store hundreds to thousands of years' worth of CO
27:
2238:
2122:
1838:
1613:
1390:
1081:
607:
One example of a research project on the feasibility of enhanced weathering is the
1952:
1453:"Geoengineering potential of artificially enhanced silicate weathering of olivine"
1382:
2426:
2403:"CONGRATULATIONS TO OUR THRIVE SHELL CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE CHALLENGE WINNERS"
2323:
1725:
increase and ocean acidification by adding limestone powder to upwelling regions"
1705:
1666:
1605:
818:
483:
450:
352:
192:
2015:
1986:
934:
873:
402:) to the quantity of carbon dioxide converted into carbonate is regulated by a
2402:
2150:
1335:
1109:
274:
184:
160:
127:
55:
31:
2332:
2271:
2024:
1127:
987:"Ever been to a green sand beach? The newest geohack to fight climate change"
952:
826:
2088:
1544:
1477:
467:
188:
2350:
2168:
2107:
1563:
1504:
1437:
1135:
891:
517:
Mineral carbonation research has largely focused on the sequestration of CO
99:
Enhanced weathering has been proposed for both terrestrial and ocean-based
1296:
1046:"Applying rock dust to croplands could absorb up to 2 billion tonnes of CO
118:
by nations, identifying costs, opportunities, and engineering challenges.
1749:
1720:
911:
removal from enhanced weathering by ecosystem responses to powdered rock"
622:
522:
83:
2159:
1520:"Enhanced silicate weathering is not limited by silicic acid saturation"
1486:
1118:
152:
1987:"Transformation of abundant magnesium silicate minerals for enhanced CO
645:
608:
511:
395:
324:
168:
2365:"20 Teams Bring Cutting-Edge Solutions to XPRIZE Carbon Removal Final"
1962:
1429:
1829:
1800:
363:
to carbonate minerals for shells and skeletons through the reaction:
111:
39:
466:
Alternatively, the direct application of carbonate minerals to the
427:
359:) eventually ends up in the ocean, where the bicarbonate ions are
314:
207:
151:
135:
327:(a carbonate mineral) is instead dissolved through the reaction:
2048:"Direct electrolytic dissolution of silicate minerals for air CO
1518:
Schuiling, Roelof D.; Wilson, Siobhan A.; Power, lan M. (2011).
103:. Ocean methods are being tested by the non-profit organization
2202:"CarbFix Project | Global Carbon Capture and Storage Institute"
486:. The energy requirements for this technology are substantial.
398:. The ratio of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere as a gas (CO
107:
to see if they are environmentally and economically viable.
1017:"How This Strange Green Sand Could Reverse Climate Change"
172:
or chemical) by plants, fungi, or other living organisms.
30:
systems, is a process that aims to accelerate the natural
1408:
through
Coupled Plant-Mineral Reactions in Urban soils".
277:(a silicate mineral) is dissolved through the reaction:
195:
weathering is a particular type of solution weathering.
850:"The negative emission potential of alkaline materials"
494:
The enhanced dissolution and carbonation of silicates (
50:) from the atmosphere, permanently storing it in solid
614:
2127:
removal via enhanced rock weathering with croplands"
1086:
removal via enhanced rock weathering with croplands"
156:
Role of carbonate in sea exchange of carbon dioxide.
1684:concentrations: A critical analysis of viability".
1237:"Encyclopædia Britannica - Biological carbon cycle"
2260:"Turning Carbon Dioxide Into Rock, and Burying It"
122:Natural mineral weathering and ocean acidification
1579:"The potential of enhanced weathering in the UK"
595:was estimated lower than US$ 100 per tonne of CO
2068:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1686:International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control
1647:International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control
1586:International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control
1524:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1457:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
799:International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control
695:"Maps show rocks ideal for sequestering carbon"
533:was derived from the atmosphere, e.g. through
558:Electrolytic dissolution of silicate minerals
394:these processes are thought to stabilize the
8:
2237:(in Icelandic). 2017-08-22. Archived from
581:Bio-Energy with Carbon Capture and Storage
449:The amount of energy that is required for
144:on the mountain path to the tongue of the
2340:
2322:
2158:
2097:
2087:
2014:
1961:
1951:
1890:Aqueous mineral carbonation, Final Report
1828:
1748:
1553:
1543:
1494:
1476:
1286:
1171:
1169:
1167:
1165:
1117:
942:
881:
482:) is transformed into lime (CaO) through
1231:
1229:
1227:
1225:
1199:
1197:
657:
317:and "(aq)" indicates a substance in an
313:where "(s)" indicates a substance in a
1995:Communications Earth & Environment
1410:Environmental Science & Technology
1060:from the original on 12 September 2020
1898:National Energy Technology Laboratory
7:
475:sequestration potential is limited.
2427:Enhanced Weathering Conference 2022
1907:from the original on March 4, 2016
1177:"National Geographic - Weathering"
771:from the original on June 23, 2021
741:from the original on July 27, 2020
114:on fields – has potential use for
14:
2278:from the original on May 16, 2018
1205:"Brandon Vogt, "Rock Weathering""
1150:from the original on 16 July 2020
723:U.S. Department of the Interior.
705:from the original on May 16, 2018
222:) present in the atmosphere form
1015:Delbert, Caroline (2020-06-11).
432:Carbon-silicate cycle feedbacks.
16:Approach to carbon sequestration
2183:from the original on 2020-07-16
2052:mitigation and carbon-negative
1805:disposal by means of silicates"
1729:Journal of Geophysical Research
1623:from the original on 2020-12-05
1243:from the original on 2020-12-12
1211:from the original on 2020-10-27
1183:from the original on 2017-01-25
1027:from the original on 2020-10-12
997:from the original on 2020-10-29
967:from the original on 2021-10-26
676:from the original on 2021-09-08
441:Terrestrial enhanced weathering
2121:Beerling, David (2020-07-08).
1721:"Mitigating the atmospheric CO
463:is possible from wave action.
1:
2123:"Potential for large-scale CO
1953:10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.06.099
1932:Journal of Cleaner Production
1383:10.1180/minmag.2008.072.2.639
1082:"Potential for large-scale CO
848:Renforth, Phil (2019-03-28).
2324:10.1371/journal.pone.0295031
1874:10.1016/0360-5442(95)00071-N
1786:10.1016/0360-5442(95)00035-F
985:Peters, Adele (2020-05-29).
591:). In contrast, the cost of
421:partial pressure. The net CO
24:ocean alkalinity enhancement
1706:10.1016/j.ijggc.2009.07.001
1667:10.1016/j.ijggc.2010.04.012
1606:10.1016/j.ijggc.2012.06.011
1267:American Journal of Science
819:10.1016/j.ijggc.2019.102895
458:Oceanic enhanced weathering
34:by spreading finely ground
2473:
2206:www.globalccsinstitute.com
2016:10.1038/s43247-021-00099-6
935:10.1038/s41561-021-00798-x
874:10.1038/s41467-019-09475-5
163:is the natural process of
125:
2151:10.1038/s41586-020-2448-9
1719:Harvey, L. D. D. (2008).
1336:10.1007/s10584-005-3485-y
1110:10.1038/s41586-020-2448-9
944:10067/1800910151162165141
1265:over Phanerozoic time".
58:. The latter also slows
2089:10.1073/pnas.1222358110
1545:10.1073/pnas.1019024108
1478:10.1073/pnas.1000545107
525:. It could be used for
392:geological time periods
82:Although existing mine
2442:Carbon dioxide removal
1363:Mineralogical Magazine
732:U.S. Geological Survey
551:Remineralize The Earth
500:Albany Research Center
433:
157:
149:
116:carbon dioxide removal
44:removes carbon dioxide
2231:"The CarbFix Project"
1799:Seifritz, W. (1990).
1577:Renforth, P. (2012).
1297:10.2475/ajs.301.2.182
854:Nature Communications
496:'mineral carbonation'
431:
297:(aq) → 2Mg(aq) + 4HCO
155:
139:
1750:10.1029/2007JC004373
1050:from the atmosphere"
619:Newcastle University
611:project in Iceland.
404:chemical equilibrium
343:(aq) → Ca(aq) + 2HCO
270:from the limestone.
101:carbon sequestration
89:limit climate change
2457:Enhanced weathering
2447:Climate engineering
2315:2024PLoSO..1995031S
2143:2020Natur.583..242B
2080:2013PNAS..11010095R
2074:(25): 10095–10100.
2007:2021ComEE...2...25S
1944:2019JCPro.233..468L
1866:1995Ene....20.1153L
1821:1990Natur.345..486S
1778:1995Ene....20..915K
1741:2008JGRC..113.4028H
1698:2009IJGGC...3..757H
1659:2010IJGGC...4..855S
1598:2012IJGGC..10..229R
1536:2011PNAS..108E..41S
1469:2010EGUGA..12.6986K
1422:2013EnST...47..135M
1375:2008MinM...72..639M
1328:2006ClCh...74..349S
1279:2001AmJS..301..182B
1207:. 17 October 2012.
1102:2020Natur.583..242B
927:2021NatGe..14..545G
866:2019NatCo..10.1401R
811:2020IJGGC..9402895P
734:. Data Series 414.
529:if the source of CO
490:Mineral carbonation
234:) by the reaction:
146:Morteratsch glacier
132:Ocean acidification
60:ocean acidification
20:Enhanced weathering
2391:. 27 October 2023.
2264:The New York Times
699:The New York Times
585:direct air capture
535:direct air capture
434:
158:
150:
52:carbonate minerals
26:when proposed for
2137:(7815): 242–248.
1430:10.1021/es301250j
1096:(7815): 242–248.
1021:Popular Mechanics
915:Nature Geoscience
791:"Prospects for CO
203:silicate minerals
2464:
2414:
2413:
2411:
2409:
2399:
2393:
2392:
2385:
2379:
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2283:
2256:
2250:
2249:
2247:
2246:
2227:
2221:
2220:
2218:
2217:
2208:. Archived from
2198:
2192:
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2189:
2188:
2162:
2118:
2112:
2111:
2101:
2091:
2063:
2062:
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2043:
2037:
2036:
2018:
1982:
1976:
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1965:
1955:
1923:
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1906:
1895:
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1878:
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1849:
1843:
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1830:10.1038/345486b0
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1716:
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1622:
1583:
1574:
1568:
1567:
1557:
1547:
1515:
1509:
1508:
1498:
1480:
1463:(47): 20228–33.
1448:
1442:
1441:
1401:
1395:
1394:
1354:
1348:
1347:
1307:
1301:
1300:
1290:
1258:
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1248:
1233:
1220:
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1201:
1192:
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1121:
1076:
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1042:
1036:
1035:
1033:
1032:
1012:
1006:
1005:
1003:
1002:
982:
976:
975:
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972:
946:
902:
896:
895:
885:
845:
839:
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748:
746:
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691:
685:
684:
682:
681:
662:
623:PLOS ONE journal
603:Example projects
546:Remineralization
353:bicarbonate ions
319:aqueous solution
142:frost weathering
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28:carbon credit
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2160:10871/122894
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1911:December 29,
1909:. Retrieved
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1213:. Retrieved
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1119:10871/122894
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1053:
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1020:
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991:Fast Company
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765:The Guardian
764:
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743:. Retrieved
731:
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698:
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678:. Retrieved
670:Carbon Brief
669:
660:
646:Olivine#Uses
635:
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191:weathering.
174:
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2064:production"
1938:: 468–481.
1530:(12): E41.
860:(1): 1401.
539:biomass-CCS
484:calcination
451:comminution
315:solid state
193:Carbonation
2452:Weathering
2436:Categories
2408:3 November
2374:2024-06-11
2282:2018-05-15
2245:2018-05-15
2216:2018-05-15
2187:2021-02-09
1963:2164/12752
1627:2019-12-10
1592:: 229–43.
1247:2020-11-30
1215:2020-11-30
1187:2020-11-30
1031:2020-11-06
1001:2020-11-06
971:2021-11-03
805:: 102895.
775:2021-06-23
709:2018-05-15
680:2021-11-03
652:References
275:forsterite
185:hydrolysis
161:Weathering
128:Weathering
126:See also:
56:alkalinity
32:weathering
2333:1932-6203
2272:0362-4331
2235:www.or.is
2177:220417075
2033:231793974
2025:2662-4435
2001:(1): 25.
1972:197776092
1344:131280491
1283:CiteSeerX
1154:16 August
1144:220417075
1128:1476-4687
1064:28 August
961:236438034
953:1752-0908
835:213320687
827:1750-5836
468:upwelling
367:Ca + 2HCO
199:Carbonate
189:oxidation
181:hydration
54:or ocean
2351:38536835
2342:10971544
2303:PLOS ONE
2276:Archived
2181:Archived
2169:32641817
2108:23729814
1902:Archived
1839:38210921
1618:Archived
1614:96612612
1564:21368192
1505:21059941
1487:25756680
1438:22616942
1391:94528533
1241:Archived
1209:Archived
1181:Archived
1148:Archived
1136:32641817
1058:Archived
1054:phys.org
1025:Archived
995:Archived
965:Archived
892:30923316
769:Archived
736:Archived
703:Archived
674:Archived
640:See also
523:flue gas
301:(aq) + H
289:(s) + 4H
177:solution
169:minerals
84:tailings
36:silicate
2311:Bibcode
2139:Bibcode
2099:3690887
2076:Bibcode
2003:Bibcode
1940:Bibcode
1862:Bibcode
1817:Bibcode
1774:Bibcode
1737:Bibcode
1694:Bibcode
1655:Bibcode
1594:Bibcode
1555:3064366
1532:Bibcode
1496:2996662
1465:Bibcode
1418:Bibcode
1371:Bibcode
1324:Bibcode
1275:Bibcode
1098:Bibcode
923:Bibcode
883:6438983
862:Bibcode
807:Bibcode
745:May 15,
609:CarbFix
512:CarbFix
335:(s) + H
325:Calcite
214:O) and
95:History
2369:XPRIZE
2349:
2339:
2331:
2270:
2175:
2167:
2131:Nature
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1854:Energy
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1809:Nature
1766:Energy
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583:) and
371:→ CaCO
242:O + CO
187:, and
112:basalt
40:basalt
2173:S2CID
2029:S2CID
1968:S2CID
1905:(PDF)
1894:(PDF)
1835:S2CID
1621:(PDF)
1610:S2CID
1582:(PDF)
1483:JSTOR
1387:S2CID
1340:S2CID
1140:S2CID
957:S2CID
831:S2CID
739:(PDF)
728:(PDF)
544:Soil
521:from
390:Over
208:water
165:rocks
2410:2023
2347:PMID
2329:ISSN
2268:ISSN
2165:PMID
2104:PMID
2021:ISSN
1913:2015
1560:PMID
1501:PMID
1434:PMID
1156:2020
1132:PMID
1124:ISSN
1066:2020
949:ISSN
888:PMID
823:ISSN
747:2018
615:UNDO
567:Cost
375:+ CO
355:(HCO
347:(aq)
331:CaCO
309:(aq)
201:and
167:and
130:and
2337:PMC
2319:doi
2155:hdl
2147:doi
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2084:doi
2072:110
2011:doi
1958:hdl
1948:doi
1936:233
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1825:doi
1813:345
1801:"CO
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1745:doi
1733:113
1702:doi
1663:doi
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1550:PMC
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1379:doi
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1332:doi
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1271:301
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878:PMC
870:doi
815:doi
621:in
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305:SiO
285:SiO
246:→ H
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