Fasciolosis - Knowledge (XXG)

1166:; however, this list of available drugs has some drawbacks. Closantel, nitroxynil, and oxyclozanide are not effective against young liver flukes and should only be used to treat subacute and chronic infections. Triclabendazole is effective at killing flukes of any age, but over-use has resulted in increasing resistance to this drug, so it should only be used to treat early infections, with later stages treated with other fasciolicides. The timing of treatment is critical for success, and is determined by environmental factors and analysis of the expected distribution and prevalence of the disease. For example, in European countries that have large numbers of sheep, computerized systems predict when fascioliasis is most likely to make the biggest impact on sheep populations and how many sheep will most likely be affected. The predictions are dependent on guessing when environmental conditions that are most conducive to parasite multiplication will occur, such as amount of rainfall, evapotranspiration, and the ratio of wet to dry days in a particular month. If heavy infections are expected to occur, treatment for sheep should begin in September/October, then again in January/February, and finally in April/May; the amount of hatching fluke eggs is minimal during these times because they require a warm, wet environment, making treatment more effective. 653:

The number 4c). The cercariae are released from the snail 5 and encyst as metacercariae on aquatic vegetation or other surfaces. Mammals acquire the infection by eating vegetation containing metacercariae. Humans can become infected by ingesting metacercariae-containing freshwater plants, especially watercress 6. After ingestion, the metacercariae excyst in the duodenum 7 and migrate through the intestinal wall, the peritoneal cavity, and the liver parenchyma into the biliary ducts, where they develop into adults 8. In humans, maturation from metacercariae into adult flukes takes approximately 3 to 4 months. The adult flukes (Fasciola hepatica: up to 30 mm by 13 mm; F. gigantica: up to 75 mm) reside in the large biliary ducts of the mammalian host. Fasciola hepatica infect various animal species, mostly herbivores.

253:. In case of a suspected outbreak it may be useful to keep track of dietary history, which is also useful for exclusion of differential diagnoses. Fecal examination is generally not helpful because the worm eggs can seldom be detected in the chronic phase of the infection. Eggs appear in the feces first between 9–11 weeks post-infection. The cause of this is unknown, and it is also difficult to distinguish between the different species of fasciola as well distinguishing them from 4742: 4753: 56: 1327: 4773: 647: 851: 1077:

protect themselves by not eating raw watercress and other water plants, especially from endemic grazing areas. Travelers to areas with poor sanitation should avoid food and water that might be contaminated (tainted). Vegetables grown in fields, that might have been irrigated with polluted water, should be thoroughly cooked, as should viscera from potentially infected animals.

4783: 4732: 4763: 610:(LDH), is detected in subacute or chronic fasciolosis from 12 to 15 weeks after ingestion of metacercariae. Economical effect of fasciolosis in sheep consists in sudden deaths of animals as well as in reduction of weight gain and wool production. In goats and cattle, the clinical manifestation is similar to sheep. However, acquired resistance to 1182:

problem. Human fasciolosis has been reported from countries in Europe, America, Asia, Africa and Oceania. The incidence of human cases has been increasing in 51 countries of the five continents. A global analysis shows that the expected correlation between animal and human fasciolosis only appears at

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infection is well known in adult cattle. Calves are susceptible to disease but in excess of 1000 metacercariae are usually required to cause clinical fasciolosis. In this case the disease is similar to sheep and is characterized by weight loss, anemia, hypoalbuminemia and (after infection with 10,000

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and more recently in the Netherlands. Considering this fact, scientists have started to work on the development of new drug. Recently, a new fasciolicide was successfully tested in naturally and experimentally infected cattle in Mexico. This new drug is called 'Compound Alpha' and is chemically very

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In some areas special control programs are in place or have been planned. The types of control measures depend on the setting (such as epidemiologic, ecologic, and cultural factors). Strict control of the growth and sale of watercress and other edible water plants is important. Individual people can

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or when using utensils washed with contaminated water. Cultivated plants do not spread the disease in the same capacity. Human infection is rare, even if the infection rate is high among animals. Especially high rates of human infection have been found in Bolivia, Peru and Egypt, and this may be due

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25–75 × 12 mm (0.98–2.95 × 0.47 inches), fasciolosis is a big concern. The amount of symptoms depend on how many worms and what stage the infection is in. The death rate is significant in both cattle (67.55%) and goats (24.61%), but generally low among humans. Treatment with

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situation, and examinations of snails must be considered. Similarly to humans, faeces examinations are not reliable. Moreover, the fluke eggs are detectable in faeces 8–12 weeks post-infection. In spite of that fact, faecal examination is still the only used diagnostic tool in some countries. While

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1. Eggs become embryonated in water 2, eggs release miracidia 3, which invade a suitable snail intermediate host 4, including the genera Galba, Fossaria and Pseudosuccinea. In the snail the parasites undergo several developmental stages (sporocysts The number 4a, rediae The number 4b, and cercariae

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This phase may develop months or years after initial infection. Adult flukes in the bile ducts cause inflammation and hyperplasia of the epithelium. The resulting cholangitis and cholecystitis, combined with the large body of the flukes, are sufficient to cause mechanical obstruction of the biliary

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The development of infection in definitive host is divided into two phases: the parenchymal (migratory) phase and the biliary phase. The parenchymal phase begins when excysted juvenile flukes penetrate the intestinal wall. After the penetration of the intestine, flukes migrate within the abdominal

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with thickening of the wall (Ref: Hepatobiliary Fascioliasis: Sonographic and CT Findings in 87 Patients During the InitialPhase and Long-Term Follow-Up. Adnan Kabaalioglu, Kagan Ceken, Emel Alimoglu, Rabin Saba, Metin Cubuk, Gokhan Arslan, Ali Apaydin. AJR 2007; 189:824–828). Fibrous adhesions of

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Human and animal fasciolosis occurs worldwide. While animal fasciolosis is distributed in countries with high cattle and sheep production, human fasciolosis occurs, excepting Western Europe, in developing countries. Fasciolosis occurs only in areas where suitable conditions for intermediate hosts

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infection. Preventative measures are primarily treating and immunization of the livestock, which are required to host the live cycle of the worms. Veterinary vaccines are in development, and their use is being considered by a number of countries on account of the risk to human health and economic

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Triclabendazole (Fasinex) is considered as the most common drug due to its high efficacy against adult as well as juvenile flukes. Triclabendazole is used in control of fasciolosis of livestock in many countries. Nevertheless, long-term veterinary use of triclabendazole has caused appearance of

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In Europe, human fasciolosis occur mainly in France, Spain, Portugal, and the former USSR. France is considered an important human endemic area. A total of 5863 cases of human fasciolosis were recorded from nine French hospitals from 1970 to 1982. Concerning the former Soviet Union, almost all

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Most immunodiagnostic tests will detect infection and have a sensitivity above 90% during all stages of the diseases. In addition antibody concentration quickly drops post treatment and no antibodies are present one year after treatment, which makes it a very good diagnostic method. In humans,

217:. The disease progresses through four distinct phases; an initial incubation phase of between a few days up to three months with little or no symptoms; an invasive or acute phase which may manifest with: fever, malaise, abdominal pain, gastrointestinal symptoms, urticaria, 332:

Fascioliasis occurs in Europe, Africa, the Americas as well as Oceania. Recently, worldwide losses in animal productivity due to fasciolosis were conservatively estimated at over US$ 3.2 billion per annum. Fasciolosis is now recognized as an emerging human disease: the

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Up to half of those infected display no symptoms, and diagnosis is difficult because the worm eggs are often missed in fecal examination. The methods of detection are through fecal examination, parasite-specific antibody detection, or radiological diagnosis, as well as

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also encyst on water surface, humans can be infected by drinking of fresh untreated water containing cercariae. In addition, an experimental study suggested that humans consuming raw liver dishes from fresh livers infected with juvenile flukes could become infected.

4362: 1415:, and horses in the province's 10 towns and lone city showed the level of infection at 89.5%, a sudden increase of positive cases among large livestock due to the erratic weather condition in the area. They must be treated forthwith to prevent complications with 1052:) refers to the presence of eggs in the stool resulting not from an actual infection but from recent ingestion of infected livers containing eggs. This situation (with its potential for misdiagnosis) can be avoided by having the patient follow a liver-free 1047:

of liver, and gallbladder punctuate can also be used (ref: US-guided gallbladder aspiration: a new diagnostic method for biliary fascioliasis. A. Kabaalioglu, A. Apaydin, T. Sindel, E. Lüleci. Eur. Radiol. 9, 880±882 (1999) . False fasciolosis

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Sykes A.R., Coop A.R., Robinson M.G. (1980). "Chronic subclinical ovine fascioliasis: plasma glutamate dehydrogenase, gamma glutamyl transpeptidase and aspartate aminotransferase activities and their significance as diagnostic aids".

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van Milligen FJ, Cornelissen JB, Bokhout BA (August 1998). "Location of induction and expression of protective immunity against Fasciola hepatica at the gut level: a study using an ex vivo infection model with ligated gut segments".

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Methods based on antigen detection (circulating in serum or in faeces) are less frequent. In addition, biochemical and haematological examinations of human sera support the exact diagnosis (eosinophilia, elevation of liver enzymes).

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to decrease the number of snails that act as vectors, but it is not practical. Educational methods to decrease consumption of wild watercress and other waterplants has been shown to work in areas with a high disease burden.

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Veterinary clinical signs of fasciolosis are always closely associated with infectious dose (amount of ingested metacercariae). In sheep, as the most common definitive host, clinical presentation is divided into 4 types:

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A number of drugs have been used in control fasciolosis in animals. Drugs differ in their efficacy, mode of action, price, and viability. Fasciolicides (drugs against Fasciola spp.) fall into five main chemical groups:

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In North America, the disease is very sporadic. In Mexico, 53 cases have been reported. In Central America, fasciolosis is a human health problem in the Caribbean islands, especially in zones of Puerto Rico and Cuba.

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infection is determined by the presence of the intermediate snail hosts, domestic herbivorous animals, climatic conditions and the dietary habits of man. Sheep, goats and cattle are considered the predominant animal

263:. Most immunodiagnostic tests detect infection with very high sensitivity, and as concentration drops after treatment, it is a very good diagnostic method. Clinically it is not possible to differentiate from other 2447:

Mas-Coma S, Rodriguez A, Bargues M, Valero M, Coello J, Angles R (1998). "Secondary reservoir role of domestic animals other than sheep and cattle in fascioliasis transmission on the northern Bolivian Altiplano".

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when they have been sensitized with primary patent or drug-abbreviated infection. Resistance to fasciolosis was also documented in rats. On the other hand, sheep and goats are not resistant to re-infection with

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In Africa, human cases of fasciolosis, except in northern parts, have not been frequently reported. The highest prevalence was recorded in Egypt where the disease is distributed in communities living in the

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are morphologically indistinguishable. Therefore, immunonological methods such ELISA and enzyme-linked immunoelectrotransfer blot, also called Western blot, are the most important methods in diagnosis of

1306:. It was mentioned that more than 10,000 human cases were detected in Iran. In eastern Asia, human fasciolosis appears to be sporadic. Few cases were documented in Japan, Koreas, Vietnam, and Thailand. 229:. The disease later progresses to a latent phase with less symptoms and ultimately into a chronic or obstructive phase months to years later. In the chronic state the disease causes inflammation of the 1977:

Anderson P.H., Matthews J.G., Berrett S., Brush P.J., Patterson D.S. (1981). "Changes in plasma enzyme activities and other blood components in response to acute and chronic liver damage in cattle".

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In animals, intravital diagnosis is based predominantly on faeces examinations and immunological methods. However, clinical signs, biochemical and haematological profile, season, climate conditions,

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countries are considered to be the area with the highest prevalence of human fasciolosis in the world. Well-known human hyperendemic areas are localized predominately in the high plain called

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Itagaki T, Tsutsumi K (May 1998). "Triploid form of Fasciola in Japan: genetic relationships between Fasciola hepatica and Fasciola gigantica determined by ITS-2 sequence of nuclear rDNA".

1277:. In other South American countries like Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil, Venezuela and Colombia, human fasciolosis appear to be sporadic, despite the high prevalences of fasciolosis in cattle. 615:

metacercariae) death. Importance of cattle fasciolosis consist in economic losses caused by condemnation of livers at slaughter and production losses especially due to reduced weight gain.

465:: This phase can last for months or years. The proportion of asymptomatic subjects in this phase is unknown. They are often discovered during family screening after a patient is diagnosed. 4525: 380:: from the ingestion of metacercariae to the appearance of the first symptoms; time period: few days to 3 months; depends on number of ingested metacercariae and immune status of host 2951:

Duménigo BE, Espino AM, Finlay CM, Mezo M (March 2000). "Kinetics of antibody-based antigen detection in serum and faeces of sheep experimentally infected with Fasciola hepatica".

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Phiri IK, Phiri AM, Harrison LJ (November 2006). "Serum antibody isotype responses of Fasciola-infected sheep and cattle to excretory and secretory products of Fasciola species".

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Ibarra F, Vera Y, Quiroz H, et al. (February 2004). "Determination of the effective dose of an experimental fasciolicide in naturally and experimentally infected cattle".

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Behm, C.A., Sangster, N.C., 1999. Pathology, pathophysiology and clinical aspects. In: Dalton, J.P. (Ed.), Fasciolosis. CAB International Publishing, Wallingford, pp. 185–224.

1224:, Mediterranean region of Turkey. In other European countries, fasciolosis is sporadic and the occurrence of the disease is usually combined with travelling to endemic areas. 830:) were reported as a source of human infections. In the Northern Bolivian Altiplano, some authors suggested that several aquatic plants such as bero-bero (watercress), algas ( 4490: 980:. Coprological examinations of stool alone are generally not adequate because infected humans have important clinical presentations long before eggs are found in the stools. 1191:

are found in Bolivia and Peru where the veterinary problem is less important, while in countries such as Uruguay, Argentina and Chile, human fasciolosis is only sporadic or

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Doyle J.J. (1973). "The relationship between the duration of a primary infection and the subsequent development of an acquired resistance to experimental infections with

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Zimmerman GL, Jen LW, Cerro JE, Farnsworth KL, Wescott RB (December 1982). "Diagnosis of Fasciola hepatica infections in sheep by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay".

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Demirci, M., 2003. Insanlarda epidemiyoloji. In: Tinar, R., Korkmaz, M. (Eds.), Fasciolosis. Türkiye Parazitoloji Derněgi, META Basim, İzmir, pp. 343–358 (in Turkish).

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Chauvin A, Bouvet G, Boulard C (October 1995). "Humoral and cellular immune responses to Fasciola hepatica experimental primary and secondary infection in sheep".

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Chen, M.G., Mott, K.E., 1990. "Progress in assessment of morbidity due to Fasciola hepatica infection: a review of recent literature". Trop. Dis. Bull. 87, R1–R38.

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Dubinský, P., 1993. Trematódy a trematodózy. In: Jurášek, V., Dubinský, P. a kolektív, Veterinárna parazitológia. Príroda a.s., Bratislava, 158–187. (in Slovakian)

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Wamae, L.W., 1996. Comparative pathogenesis and immunochemistry analysis of Fasciola gigantica infection in cattle and sheep. PhD Thesis. University of Edinburgh.

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specific-antibodies are recognized using ELISA or Western blot after 2-4 week post-infection. Therefore, these methods provide early detection of the infection.

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Moll L, Gaasenbeek CP, Vellema P, Borgsteede FH (July 2000). "Resistance of Fasciola hepatica against triclabendazole in cattle and sheep in The netherlands".

267:. Radiological methods can detect lesions in both acute and chronic infection, while laparotomy will detect lesions and also occasionally eggs and live worms. 2879:"Immunodiagnosis of Fasciola hepatica infection (fascioliasis) in a human population in the Bolivian Altiplano using purified cathepsin L cysteine proteinase" 1183:

a basic level. High prevalences in humans are not necessarily found in areas where fasciolosis is a great veterinary problem. For instance, in South America,

758:. While other animals can be infected, they are usually not very important for human disease transmission. On the other hand, some authors have observed that 4665: 4379: 938:

in host and are necessary in development of vaccine against the parasite. It has been established that cattle acquire resistance to challenge infection with

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Roberts JA, Estuningsih E, Wiedosari E, Spithill TW (December 1997). "Acquisition of resistance against Fasciola gigantica by Indonesian thin tail sheep".

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are Cuban regions where fasciolosis was hyperendemic. In South America, human fasciolosis is a serious problem in Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador. These

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Moreover, in many human infections, the fluke eggs are often not found in the faeces, even after multiple faecal examinations. Furthermore, eggs of

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Bjorland J, Bryan R, Strauss W, Hillyer G, McAuley J (1995). "An outbreak of acute fascioliasis among Aymara Indians in the Bolivian Altiplano".

245:. While chronic inflammation is connected to increased cancer rates, it is unclear whether fasciolosis is associated with increased cancer risk. 4299: 4446: 4394: 2211: 1090:

Several drugs are effective for fascioliasis, both in humans and in domestic animals. The drug of choice in the treatment of fasciolosis is

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Mechanisms of resistance have been studied by several authors in different animal species. These studies may help to better understand the

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Mas-Coma S, Fons R, Feliu C, Bargues M, Valero M, Galán-Puchades M (1988). "Small mammals as natural definitive hosts of the liver fluke,

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are approved for use in the treatment of domestic animals in the United States, but the available flukicides used worldwide also include

4637: 4515: 3650: 910:, intestinal wall, kidneys, and subcutaneous tissue can occur. During the migration of flukes, tissues are mechanically destroyed and 5900: 4654: 4613: 4578: 4563: 4545: 4470: 4249: 2861: 2833: 2631: 2328: 1876: 1709: 1614: 4659: 4495: 4426: 4421: 4598: 4505: 4369: 4284: 4047: 3610: 3592: 1734:

Esteban J, Bargues M, Mas-Coma S (1998). "Geographical distribution, diagnosis and treatment of human fascioliasis: a review".

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and has been recorded in Africa, the Middle East, Eastern Europe and south and eastern Asia. In domestic livestock in Japan,

574:: infectious dose is 200-800 ingested metacercariae. Asymptomatic or gradual development of bottle jaw and ascites (ventral 2471:

Linnaeus, 1758 (Trematoda: Fasciolidae): a review and two new records of epidemiologic interest on the island of Corsica".

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diagnosis of fasciolosis is usually achieved parasitologically by findings the fluke eggs in stool, and immunologically by

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and pigs contribute to disease transmission in Bolivia. Among wild animals, it has been demonstrated that the peridomestic

554:: infectious dose is 1000-5,000 ingested metacercariae. As above, sheep die but briefly show pallor, loss of condition and 4403: 4357: 3793: 3643: 3066:

Mulcahy G, Dalton JP (1998). "Vaccines in control of liver fluke infections in ruminants: current status and prospects".

5278: 4632: 386:: fluke migration up to the bile ducts. This phase is a result of mechanical destruction of the hepatic tissue and the 5615: 5264: 5171: 4812: 4686: 4384: 4342: 3696: 206: 906:

has a strong predilection for the tissues of the liver. Occasionally, ectopic locations of flukes such as the lungs,

1928: 529:: infectious dose is more than 5000 ingested metacercariae. Sheep suddenly die without any previous clinical signs. 5910: 4681: 603: 5855: 5778: 5749: 4711: 4431: 1234: 686: 334: 2763: 952: 914:

appears around migratory tracks of flukes. The second phase (the biliary phase) begins when parasites enter the

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Mitchell GB, Maris L, Bonniwell MA (October 1998). "Triclabendazole-resistant liver fluke in Scottish sheep".

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Fairweather I, Boray JC (September 1999). "Fasciolicides: efficacy, actions, resistance and its management".

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is common in the environment, black disease is found wherever populations of liver flukes and sheep overlap.

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Markell, E.K., Voge, M., 1999. Medical Parasitology, eighth ed.. Saunders Company Publication, pp. 185–188.

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Mas-Coma S, Bargues MD, Valero MA (October 2005). "Fascioliasis and other plant-borne trematode zoonoses".

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Rossignol JF, Abaza H, Friedman H (1998). "Successful treatment of human fascioliasis with nitazoxanide".

1364: 1249:. In the Northern Bolivian Altiplano, prevalences detected in some communities were up to 72% and 100% in 264: 5577: 5120: 5001: 4882: 4643: 4593: 4588: 4332: 4080: 2824:

Hillyer GV (1988). "Fascioliasis and fasciolopsiasis.". In A. Turano, Balows, Albert, M. Ohashi (eds.).

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preparations used have been primarily derived from extracts of excretory/secretory products from adult

956: 488:, right upper-quadrant abdominal tenderness, etc., are clinical manifestations indistinguishable from 5829: 5656: 5496: 5470: 5452: 5222: 4756: 4070: 3899: 3754: 2828:. Vol. 1: Bacterial, mycotic, and parasitic diseases. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. pp. 856–62. 1299: 1238: 798: 226: 5112: 5868: 5843: 5770: 5437: 5386: 4961: 4942: 4888: 4877: 4772: 4716: 4475: 4173: 3627: 3524: 1923: 1394:

Asia: Turkey, Russia, Thailand, Iraq, Iran, China, Vietnam, India, Nepal, Japan, Korea, Philippines

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are moderately effective but also cause more side effects. Secondary bacterial infection causing

194: 86: 75: 1753: 1382:. In animals, triclabendazole resistance was first described in Australia, later in Ireland and 1155: 4976: 4921: 4828: 4701: 4510: 4196: 3830: 3815: 3797: 3711: 3546: 3450: 3415: 3380: 3344: 3309: 3265: 3168: 3133: 3098: 3048: 3009: 2968: 2933: 2898: 2857: 2829: 2794: 2747: 2726:

Martínez-Moreno A, Martínez-Moreno FJ, Acosta I, Gutiérrez PN, Becerra C, Hernández S (1997).

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Europe: UK, Ireland, France, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, Italy, Netherlands, Germany, Poland

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similar to triclabendazole. Countries where fasciolosis in livestock was repeatedly reported:

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of human fasciolosis was performed in some parts of Turkey. The prevalence of the disease was

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of biliar ducts associated with obstruction of the lumen occurs as a result of tissue damage.

868: 790:. Several species of aquatic vegetables are known as a vehicle of human infection. In Europe, 755: 718: 625: 375: 188: 138: 70: 2728:"Humoral and cellular immune responses to experimental Fasciola hepatica infections in goats" 770:) may play an important role in the spread as well as in the transmission of the parasite in 5762: 5755: 5635: 5249: 5217: 4797: 4352: 4264: 4244: 4092: 4062: 3678: 3605: 3442: 3407: 3336: 3301: 3257: 3160: 3125: 3040: 2999: 2960: 2890: 2786: 2739: 2700: 2657: 2592: 2553: 2509: 2376: 2244: 2199: 2161: 2122: 2084: 2057: 2022: 1986: 1800: 1790: 1538: 1221: 1217: 1128:

being successfully used in human fasciolosis treatment in Mexico. There are also reports of

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type B. The bacteria will release toxins into the bloodstream resulting in what is known as

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of the bile duct or gall bladder is frequent and the stones are usually small and multiple.

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Hillyer GV (1999). "Immunodiagnosis of human and animal fasciolosis.". In Dalton JP (ed.).

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coprological diagnosis of fasciolosis is possible from 8- to 12-week post-infection (WPI),

5589: 5503: 5241: 5191: 5186: 5084: 5069: 5008: 4907: 4568: 4274: 4236: 4206: 4052: 3985: 3850: 3835: 3759: 3726: 3617: 3596: 1443: 1348: 1151: 1091: 1036: 1017: 931: 713:. As a result of this unclear classification, flukes in Japan are normally referred to as 710: 587: 280: 163: 1314:

In Australia, human fasciolosis is very rare (only 12 cases documented). In New Zealand,

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measures 4 to 10 cm in length and the distribution of the species is limited to the

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Overend DJ, Bowen FL (July 1995). "Resistance of Fasciola hepatica to triclabendazole".

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has been highly effective against the adult worms as well as various developing stages.

5721: 5684: 5629: 5444: 5423: 5392: 5350: 5229: 5178: 5157: 5126: 5098: 5041: 4968: 4691: 3855: 3820: 3716: 3340: 3044: 3004: 2987: 2088: 1805: 1779:"Fascioliasis risk factors and space-time clusters in domestic ruminants in Bangladesh" 1778: 1408: 1403:

Americas: United States, Mexico, Cuba, Peru, Chile, Uruguay, Argentina, Jamaica, Brazil

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Mas-Coma S, Bargues MD, Esteban JG (1999). "Human fasciolosis.". In Dalton, JP (ed.).

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Yilmaz H, Gödekmerdan A (October 2004). "Human fasciolosis in Van Province, Turkey".

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Schubert S, Phetsouvanh R (1990). "Praziquantel weitgehend unwirksam: Behandlung des

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Roseby F (1970). "The effect of fasciolosis on the wool production of merino sheep".

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Facey, R.V., Marsden, P.D. (1960). "Fascioliasis in man: an outbreak in Hampshire".

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Studies carried out in recent years have shown human fasciolosis to be an important

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O’Brien, D.J., 1998. Fasciolosis: a threat to livestock. Irish Vet. J. 51, 539–541.

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Sinclair K (1962). "Observations on the clinical pathology of ovine fascioliasis".

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In sheep and sometimes cattle, the damaged liver tissue may become infected by the

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to consumption of certain foods. No vaccine is available to protect people against

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in humans occurs throughout the country. The highest prevalences were reported in

786:. Humans are infected by ingestion of aquatic plants that contain the infectious 3540: 3446: 2248: 1867:: epidemiology, control, immunology and molecular biology". In Dalton, JP (ed.). 1542: 5835: 5820: 5676: 5557: 5538: 5529: 5517: 5371: 5335: 5317: 5284: 5270: 5062: 4933: 4868: 4776: 4736: 4322: 4279: 4211: 4191: 4168: 4143: 3947: 3942: 3920: 3913: 3870: 3810: 3666: 2557: 2319:

Torgerson P, Claxton J (1999). "Epidemiology and control". In Dalton, JP (ed.).

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infection. These immunological tests are based on detection of species-specific

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of the liver. In biliary ducts, flukes mature, feed on blood, and produce eggs.

886: 678: 620: 537: 489: 397:

Fever: usually the first symptom of the disease; 40–42 °C (104–108 °F)

292: 254: 125: 55: 3129: 3116:

Price TA, Tuazon CU, Simon GL (1993). "Fascioliasis: case reports and review".

2583:

spp. by consumption of freshly prepared raw liver containing immature flukes".

1118:

to triclabendazole has been recorded in Australia in 1995 and Ireland in 1998.

850: 314:

in Asia. Infection may also occur by drinking contaminated water with floating

5740: 5662: 5647: 5417: 5376: 4537: 4289: 4254: 4183: 3970: 3845: 3805: 3674: 3551: 3514: 2894: 1795: 1423: 1339: 1326: 1287: 1205: 1159: 882: 481: 431: 404: 387: 363: 307: 296: 250: 158: 131: 79: 2513: 1777:

Rahman AK, Islam SK, Talukder MH, Hassan MK, Dhand NK, Ward MP (8 May 2017).

834:), kjosco and tortora could act as a source of infection for humans. Because 504:

or ascites. In case of obstruction, the gall bladder is usually enlarged and

5362: 5205: 4858: 4853: 4583: 4294: 4226: 4201: 4163: 4128: 4120: 4102: 4087: 4075: 4019: 3996: 3964: 3959: 3749: 3570: 3201:

Ballweber, L. (2018). Fasciola hepatica in ruminants. Merck vet manual (1.2)

2579:

Taira N, Yoshifuji H, Boray J (1997). "Zoonotic potential of infection with

2492:

Menard A, Agoulon A, L'Hostis M, Rondelaud D, Collard S, Chauvin A (2001). "

2344:

Sakaguchi Y (1980). "Karyotype and gametogenesis of the common liver fluke,

2113:

Haroun ET, Hillyer GV (March 1986). "Resistance to fascioliasis--a review".

1427: 1270: 1250: 1246: 1129: 827: 813: 787: 670: 565: 510: 417: 390:

by migrating juvenile flukes causing localized and or generalized toxic and

288: 274:: 20–30 × 13 mm (0.79–1.18 × 0.51 inches) or adult 230: 199: 3454: 3419: 3313: 3305: 3269: 3013: 2972: 2521: 2256: 1814: 1550: 3384: 3348: 3172: 3137: 3102: 3052: 2937: 2902: 2798: 2751: 2743: 2712: 2677: 2604: 2565: 2388: 2221: 2173: 2134: 2096: 2034: 1998: 1479: 5789: 5670: 5562: 5511: 5326: 4840: 4558: 4148: 4097: 3953: 3893: 3721: 3691: 1603:

Farrar J, Hotez P, Junghanss T, Kang G, Lalloo D, White NJ (2013-10-26).

1431: 1383: 1262: 1254: 1213: 1028: 1001: 838: 738: 702: 500:

of other origins. Hepatic enlargement may be associated with an enlarged

485: 455: 427: 412: 391: 242: 222: 202: 183: 116: 22: 3497: 5400: 5142: 4014: 3731: 3701: 3635: 2669: 1412: 1103: 1009: 771: 698: 694: 658: 555: 534: 530: 450: 445: 324:

losses resulting from livestock infection. Other methods include using

4731: 2877:

O'Neill SM, Parkinson M, Strauss W, Angles R, Dalton JP (April 1998).

1501:"Fascioliasis - Infectious Diseases - MSD Manual Professional Edition" 1138:

has been found effective in trials, but is currently not recommended.

1016:, or with partially purified fractions. Recently, purified native and 306:

Humans are infected by eating watergrown plants, primarily wild-grown

4158: 4116: 3686: 3509: 2826:

Laboratory diagnosis of infectious diseases: principles and practices

1342: 1044: 775: 759: 583: 545: 501: 408: 218: 210: 105: 2661: 2402:

Singh K, Srivastava V, Prasad A, Pandey A (1994). "Pathology due to

1208:. Several papers referred to human fasciolosis in Turkey. Recently, 1361:(Vermitan, Valbazen), mebendazol (Telmin), luxabendazole (Fluxacur) 1345:: bithionol (Bitin), hexachlorophene (Bilevon), nitroxynil (Trodax) 1298:

In Asia, the most human cases were reported in Iran, especially in

650:

Immature eggs are discharged in the biliary ducts and in the stool

4112: 3764: 2270: 1416: 1351:: closantel (Flukiver, Supaverm), rafoxanide (Flukanide, Ranizole) 1325: 1242: 1102:. The drug works by preventing the polymerization of the molecule 973: 951:. However, there is evidence that two sheep breeds, in particular 849: 831: 674: 575: 505: 477: 423: 214: 3469:"SunStar: Rise in animal liver fluke cases alarms South Cotabato" 3234:

Danis, M., Nozais, J.P., Chandenier, J., 1985. "La distomatose à

295:

has also been a concern and can be treated with antibiotics, and

209:(NTD). It affects humans, but its main host is ruminants such as 1013: 564:: infectious dose is 800-1000 ingested metacercariae. Sheep are 4801: 3639: 1411:, Philippines said that laboratory tests on samples from cows, 4009: 1453: 763: 337:(WHO) has estimated that 2.4 million people are infected with 1654: 1652: 709:

flukes (2n/3n) have been described, many of which reproduce

3212:"NADIS Animal Health Skills - Liver Fluke Control in Sheep" 2190:

Boray JC (1969). "Experimental fascioliasis in Australia".

21:

This article is about the infection. For the organism, see

594:

may be observed in all types of fasciolosis. Elevation of

2656:(4). The Journal of Parasitology, Vol. 84, No. 4: 771–7. 1456:- chemical produced by fasciolosis infection in the liver 3238:, II: La fasciolose humaine en France". Action Vet. 907. 1397:

Africa: Kenya, Zimbabwe, Nigeria, Egypt, Gambia, Morocco

370:

The course of fasciolosis in humans has 4 main phases:

568:, anemic and may die. Weight loss is dominant feature. 341:, and a further 180 million are at risk of infection. 1871:. Wallingford, Oxon, UK: CABI Pub. pp. 465–525. 1759:. Göteborgs universitetsbibliotek: Logga in via proxy 3606:

Immunodiagnosis of fasciolosis in Bolivian Altiplano

3487: 2856:. Wallingford, Oxon, UK: CABI Pub. pp. 435–47. 2323:. Wallingford, Oxon, UK: CABI Pub. pp. 113–49. 1704:. Wallingford, Oxon, UK: CABI Pub. pp. 411–34. 1124:

treatment is ineffective. There are case reports of

669:. Adult flukes of both species are localized in the 5819: 5788: 5739: 5646: 5556: 5528: 5481: 5370: 5361: 5334: 5325: 5316: 5303: 5240: 5156: 5141: 5052: 5019: 4932: 4867: 4852: 4839: 4674: 4612: 4536: 4491:

2024 United Kingdom Shigatoxigenic E. coli outbreak

4313: 4235: 4182: 4111: 4061: 4033: 3995: 3884: 3792: 3740: 3673: 3561: 3491: 2988:"New opportunities for the control of fascioliasis" 2626:. Wallingford, Oxon, UK: CABI Pub. pp. 31–46. 169: 157: 149: 137: 124: 111: 95: 85: 69: 45: 40: 49:Fascioliasis, fasciolasis, distomatosis, liver rot 3027:Overend DJ & Bowen FL (1995). "Resistance of 2622:in the intermediate host.". In Dalton, JP (ed.). 1400:Australia and the Oceania: Australia, New Zealand 634:. There is no cure and death follows quickly. As 403:Gastrointestinal disturbances: loss of appetite, 394:reactions. The major symptoms of this phase are: 1056:several days before a repeat stool examination. 902:cavity and penetrate the liver or other organs. 548:of membranes, weakness may be observed in sheep. 509:the gall bladder to adjacent organs are common. 484:pain, fatty food intolerance, nausea, jaundice, 1407:On September 8, 2007, Veterinary officials in 270:Because of the size of the parasite, as adult 4813: 3651: 1863:Spithill TW, Smooker PM, Copeman DB (1999). " 1474: 1472: 1470: 8: 4666:Spanish Agency for Food Safety and Nutrition 4481:2017–2018 South African listeriosis outbreak 4380:1985 Austrian diethylene glycol wine scandal 2847: 2845: 2819: 2817: 2618:Graczyk TK, Fried B (1999). "Development of 1695: 1693: 1691: 1689: 1687: 1685: 1683: 1681: 1679: 1524: 1522: 1520: 1518: 873:Fasciola gigantica § Intermediate hosts 782:) was confirmed as a wild reservoir host of 4604:United Kingdom food information regulations 2986:Savioli L, Chitsulo L, Montresor A (1999). 2314: 2312: 2310: 2308: 2108: 2106: 1949: 1947: 1945: 1840:"CDC - Fasciola - Prevention & Control" 186:infection caused by the common liver fluke 5367: 5331: 5322: 5313: 5153: 4864: 4849: 4820: 4806: 4798: 3658: 3644: 3636: 3488: 2185: 2183: 1598: 1596: 1594: 1592: 1590: 1588: 1586: 1584: 1582: 1580: 1020:antigens have been used, e.g. recombinant 287:is not effective, and older drugs such as 54: 37: 4442:2008 United States salmonellosis outbreak 3003: 1963: 1961: 1959: 1893:Control of Foodborne Trematode Infections 1804: 1794: 1729: 1727: 1725: 1723: 1721: 1578: 1576: 1574: 1572: 1570: 1568: 1566: 1564: 1562: 1560: 4486:2018 Australian strawberry contamination 4348:Morinaga Milk arsenic poisoning incident 645: 353: 4456:2011 United States listeriosis outbreak 2433: 2431: 2429: 2427: 2425: 1466: 859:- the most common intermediate host of 4471:2015 Mozambique funeral beer poisoning 4048:Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) 3197: 3195: 1834: 1832: 1830: 1828: 1826: 1824: 1426:diseases. Surra already affected all 7: 4762: 4650:Institute for Food Safety and Health 4390:Australian meat substitution scandal 4358:Moroccan oil poisoning disaster 1959 4134:Arsenic contamination of groundwater 4782: 4638:Food Information and Control Agency 1318:has never been detected in humans. 869:Fasciola hepatica § Life cycle 91:Abdominal pain, nausea, yellow skin 3341:10.1111/j.1751-0813.1995.tb03546.x 3045:10.1111/j.1751-0813.1995.tb03546.x 2089:10.1111/j.1751-0813.1970.tb15573.x 881:are freshwater snails from family 685:measures 2 to 3 cm and has a 422:Respiratory symptoms (very rare): 14: 4655:International Food Safety Network 4579:International Food Safety Network 4300:Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease 4250:Acid-hydrolyzed vegetable protein 3977:Shigatoxigenic and verotoxigenic 3262:10.1016/j.actatropica.2004.04.009 721:analysis has shown that Japanese 4781: 4771: 4761: 4752: 4751: 4740: 4730: 4660:Ministry of Food and Drug Safety 4496:Kobayashi red yeast rice scandal 4427:2008 Canada listeriosis outbreak 4422:ICA meat repackaging controversy 3089:-Befalles (grosser Leberegel)". 1257:surveys, respectively. In Peru, 725:spp. is more closely related to 4599:Quality Assurance International 4506:Food safety incidents in Taiwan 4476:2017 Brazil Operation Weak Meat 4370:1971 Iraq poison grain disaster 4285:Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon 1754:"Fasciolosis and tumour growth" 889:act as an intermediate host of 198:. The disease is a plant-borne 4628:European Food Safety Authority 4501:Food safety incidents in China 4338:1858 Bradford sweets poisoning 4305:Water fluoridation controversy 1220:, and between 0.9 and 6.1% in 1: 3412:10.1016/S0304-4017(00)00267-3 3165:10.1016/S0035-9203(98)90974-9 3153:Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg 3033:Australian Veterinary Journal 2965:10.1016/S0304-4017(00)00206-5 2791:10.1016/S0304-4017(97)00119-2 2597:10.1016/S0020-7519(97)00038-6 2381:10.1016/S0020-7519(98)00037-X 2204:10.1016/S0065-308X(08)60435-2 2166:10.1016/S0034-5288(18)33945-6 2062:10.1016/S0007-1935(17)43201-5 2027:10.1016/S0034-5288(18)32775-9 1991:10.1016/S0034-5288(18)32510-4 1631:"Neglected Tropical Diseases" 1357:: triclabendazole (Fasinex), 1204:reported cases were from the 733:. In India, a species called 717:spp. Recent reports based on 657:Fasciolosis is caused by two 476:duct. In this phase, biliary 5279:Diphyllobothrium mansonoides 4633:Food and Drug Administration 4315:Food contamination incidents 3447:10.1016/j.vetpar.2003.12.005 2705:10.1016/0020-7519(95)00039-5 2249:10.1016/j.vetpar.2006.05.019 2194:. Advances in Parasitology. 2127:10.1016/0304-4017(86)90093-2 1897:WHO Technical Series No. 849 1660:"CDC - Fasciola - Treatment" 1609:. Elsevier Health Sciences. 1543:10.1016/j.ijpara.2005.07.010 469:Chronic or obstructive phase 5616:Angiostrongylus cantonensis 5265:Spirometra erinaceieuropaei 4687:Food and drink prohibitions 4461:Bihar school meal poisoning 4385:United Kingdom BSE outbreak 4343:1900 English beer poisoning 3697:Antibiotic use in livestock 2289:"CDC - DPDx - Fascioliasis" 863:in Europe and South America 578:), emaciation, weight loss. 5929: 4682:Curing (food preservation) 3755:Monosodium glutamate (MSG) 1606:Manson's Tropical Diseases 1330:Formula of triclabendazole 953:Indonesian thin tail sheep 866: 604:gamma-glutamyl transferase 207:neglected tropical disease 27: 20: 5856:Capillaria philippinensis 5779:Halicephalobus gingivalis 5750:Strongyloides stercoralis 4725: 4712:Genetically modified food 4564:Food labeling regulations 4432:2008 Chinese milk scandal 3185:Ramachandran, A. (2000). 2895:10.4269/ajtmh.1998.58.417 2558:10.1093/clinids/21.5.1228 2474:Rivista di Parassitologia 2271:"Merck Veterinary Manual" 1922:Bardsley M (2021-10-05). 1796:10.1186/s13071-017-2168-7 1373:: diamphenetide (Coriban) 1367:: clorsulon (Ivomec Plus) 1310:Australia and the Oceania 1132:being used successfully. 1043:of the abdominal cavity, 687:cosmopolitan distribution 552:Acute Type II Fasciolosis 335:World Health Organization 205:, and is classified as a 62: 53: 5901:Veterinary helminthology 5862:Intestinal capillariasis 4957:Dicrocoelium dendriticum 4574:Food safety in Australia 3770:High-fructose corn syrup 3623:Pictures of adult flukes 3130:10.1093/clinids/17.3.426 2992:Bull. World Health Organ 527:Acute Type I Fasciolosis 28:Not to be confused with 16:Parasitic worm infection 5849:Trichuriasis / Whipworm 5799:Enterobius vermicularis 5594:Cutaneous larva migrans 5167:Echinococcus granulosus 5107:Heterophyes heterophyes 5093:Gastrodiscoides hominis 4916:Trichobilharzia regenti 4554:Acceptable daily intake 4466:2013 horse meat scandal 3907:Clostridium perfringens 3091:Z Arztl Fortbild (Jena) 2496:as a reservoir host of 2275:Merck Veterinary Manual 1924:"Fasciolosis in cattle" 1108:cytoskeletal structures 926:Resistance to infection 600:glutamate dehydrogenase 384:Invasive or acute phase 265:liver and bile diseases 153:Proper food preparation 5697:Visceral larva migrans 5492:Gnathostoma spinigerum 5345:Dracunculus medinensis 5251:Diphyllobothrium latum 5030:Paragonimus westermani 4997:Opisthorchis viverrini 4622:Centre for Food Safety 4437:2008 Irish pork crisis 4139:Benzene in soft drinks 3306:10.1053/tvjl.1999.0377 2514:10.1051/vetres:2001141 1899:. WHO, Geneva, 157 pp. 1331: 1235:Pinar del Río Province 877:Intermediate hosts of 864: 822:(lamb's lettuce), and 654: 367: 5578:Ancylostoma duodenale 5121:Metagonimus yokogawai 4644:Food Standards Agency 4594:Organic certification 4589:Nutrition facts label 4333:Esing Bakery incident 4121:environment pollution 3031:to triclabendazole". 2883:Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg 2744:10.1007/s004360050319 2348:sp., in Japan. Jap". 1329: 1216:found to be 3.01% in 885:. Snails from family 853: 819:Valerianella olitoria 810:Taraxacum dens leonis 796:(common watercress), 793:Nasturtium officinale 649: 608:lactate dehydrogenase 357: 5830:Trichinella spiralis 5657:Ascaris lumbricoides 5471:Lymphatic filariasis 5453:Wuchereria bancrofti 4413:2006 North American 4071:Acesulfame potassium 3900:Campylobacter jejuni 3794:Intestinal parasites 3667:Consumer food safety 3590:Fasciolosis Overview 2406:in Indian elephants 1503:. Richard D. Pearson 1239:Villa Clara Province 799:Nasturtium sylvestre 562:Subacute Fasciolosis 299:may be treated with 227:respiratory symptoms 5844:Trichuris trichiura 5771:Trichostrongyliasis 5387:Onchocerca volvulus 4943:Clonorchis sinensis 4878:Schistosoma mansoni 4859:Trematode infection 4717:Conspiracy theories 4270:Heterocyclic amines 4174:Shellfish poisoning 3475:. 8 September 2007. 3187:Pharmacology Recall 2450:Res. Rev. Parasitol 2412:Ind. J. Anim. Scien 1929:Veterinary Practice 1736:Res. Rev. Parasitol 1146:Only clorsulon and 959:, are resistant to 893:very occasionally. 808:(wild watercress), 719:mitochondrial genes 711:parthenogenetically 598:activities, such a 572:Chronic Fasciolosis 5730:Parascaris equorum 5716:Dioctophyme renale 5622:Angiostrongyliasis 5602:Necator americanus 5572:Hookworm infection 5432:Dirofilaria repens 5257:Diphyllobothriasis 5148:Tapeworm infection 5079:Fasciolopsis buski 4375:Toxic oil syndrome 4328:Swill milk scandal 4154:Diethylstilbestrol 3826:Diphyllobothriasis 3616:2009-03-10 at the 3595:2008-02-04 at the 3562:External resources 1865:Fasciola gigantica 1537:(11–12): 1255–78. 1332: 1210:serological survey 1162:, nitroxynil, and 1094:, a member of the 993:Fasciolopsis buski 865: 846:Intermediate hosts 655: 368: 345:Signs and symptoms 195:Fasciola gigantica 76:Infectious disease 5911:Tropical diseases 5883: 5882: 5879: 5878: 5815: 5814: 5552: 5551: 5548: 5547: 5299: 5298: 5295: 5294: 5173:E. multilocularis 5137: 5136: 4977:Fasciola hepatica 4829:Parasitic disease 4795: 4794: 4702:Food preservation 4511:Foodborne illness 4063:Sugar substitutes 3816:Cryptosporidiosis 3798:parasitic disease 3712:HGH controversies 3679:food contaminants 3585: 3584: 3236:Fasciola hepatica 3087:Fasciola-hepatica 3029:Fasciola hepatica 2693:Int. J. Parasitol 2620:Fasciola hepatica 2585:Int. J. Parasitol 2546:Clin. Infect. Dis 2498:Fasciola hepatica 2469:Fasciola hepatica 2404:Fasciola jacksoni 2369:Int. J. Parasitol 2213:978-0-12-031707-3 2150:Fasciola hepatica 1891:Anonymus (1995). 1531:Int. J. Parasitol 1050:pseudofasciolosis 737:was described in 360:Fasciola hepatica 189:Fasciola hepatica 177: 176: 139:Diagnostic method 64:Fasciola hepatica 35:Medical condition 5918: 5764:Trichostrongylus 5756:Strongyloidiasis 5636:Metastrongylosis 5368: 5332: 5323: 5314: 5218:Hymenolepis nana 5154: 5054:Intestinal fluke 4865: 4850: 4822: 4815: 4808: 4799: 4785: 4784: 4775: 4765: 4764: 4755: 4754: 4747:Drink portal 4745: 4744: 4743: 4735: 4734: 4646:(United Kingdom) 4395:Jack in the Box 4366: 4353:Minamata disease 4265:Food irradiation 4245:4-Hydroxynonenal 4093:Sodium cyclamate 3936:Escherichia coli 3928:Escherichia coli 3660: 3653: 3646: 3637: 3630:F. hepatica eggs 3489: 3477: 3476: 3465: 3459: 3458: 3430: 3424: 3423: 3395: 3389: 3388: 3368: 3362: 3359: 3353: 3352: 3324: 3318: 3317: 3289: 3283: 3280: 3274: 3273: 3245: 3239: 3232: 3226: 3225: 3223: 3222: 3216:www.nadis.org.uk 3208: 3202: 3199: 3190: 3183: 3177: 3176: 3148: 3142: 3141: 3113: 3107: 3106: 3082: 3076: 3075: 3063: 3057: 3056: 3024: 3018: 3017: 3007: 2983: 2977: 2976: 2948: 2942: 2941: 2932:(12): 2097–100. 2921: 2915: 2914: 2874: 2868: 2867: 2849: 2840: 2839: 2821: 2812: 2809: 2803: 2802: 2774: 2768: 2767: 2762:. Archived from 2723: 2717: 2716: 2688: 2682: 2681: 2644: 2638: 2637: 2615: 2609: 2608: 2576: 2570: 2569: 2552:(5): 1228–1233. 2541: 2535: 2532: 2526: 2525: 2494:Myocastor coypus 2489: 2483: 2482: 2464: 2458: 2457: 2444: 2438: 2435: 2420: 2419: 2399: 2393: 2392: 2364: 2358: 2357: 2341: 2335: 2334: 2316: 2303: 2302: 2300: 2299: 2285: 2279: 2278: 2267: 2261: 2260: 2232: 2226: 2225: 2187: 2178: 2177: 2145: 2139: 2138: 2110: 2101: 2100: 2072: 2066: 2065: 2045: 2039: 2038: 2009: 2003: 2002: 1974: 1968: 1965: 1954: 1951: 1940: 1939: 1937: 1936: 1919: 1913: 1906: 1900: 1889: 1883: 1882: 1860: 1854: 1853: 1851: 1850: 1836: 1819: 1818: 1808: 1798: 1774: 1768: 1767: 1765: 1764: 1758: 1750: 1744: 1743: 1731: 1716: 1715: 1697: 1674: 1673: 1671: 1670: 1656: 1647: 1646: 1644: 1642: 1627: 1621: 1620: 1600: 1555: 1554: 1526: 1513: 1512: 1510: 1508: 1497: 1491: 1490: 1488: 1486: 1480:"CDC - Fasciola" 1476: 1222:Isparta Province 1218:Antalya Province 1142:Domestic animals 1114:. Resistance of 957:Red maasai sheep 856:Galba truncatula 805:Rorippa amphibia 780:Myocastor coypus 58: 38: 5928: 5927: 5921: 5920: 5919: 5917: 5916: 5915: 5906:Animal diseases 5886: 5885: 5884: 5875: 5811: 5784: 5735: 5642: 5590:Ancylostomiasis 5560: 5544: 5524: 5504:Gnathostomiasis 5477: 5374: 5357: 5308: 5305: 5291: 5242:Pseudophyllidea 5236: 5187:Taenia saginata 5145: 5133: 5085:Fasciolopsiasis 5070:Echinostomiasis 5048: 5015: 5009:Opisthorchiasis 4928: 4908:Schistosomiasis 4902:S. intercalatum 4856: 4854:Fluke/trematode 4845: 4842: 4835: 4826: 4796: 4791: 4741: 4739: 4737:Food portal 4729: 4721: 4670: 4608: 4569:Food libel laws 4532: 4360: 4309: 4275:Modified starch 4237:Food processing 4231: 4178: 4107: 4057: 4053:Sodium benzoate 4029: 3991: 3986:Vibrio cholerae 3880: 3851:Gnathostomiasis 3836:Fasciolopsiasis 3788: 3736: 3727:Mercury in fish 3669: 3664: 3618:Wayback Machine 3597:Wayback Machine 3586: 3581: 3580: 3557: 3556: 3500: 3486: 3481: 3480: 3473:GMA News Online 3467: 3466: 3462: 3432: 3431: 3427: 3397: 3396: 3392: 3370: 3369: 3365: 3360: 3356: 3326: 3325: 3321: 3291: 3290: 3286: 3281: 3277: 3247: 3246: 3242: 3233: 3229: 3220: 3218: 3210: 3209: 3205: 3200: 3193: 3184: 3180: 3150: 3149: 3145: 3118:Clin Infect Dis 3115: 3114: 3110: 3084: 3083: 3079: 3065: 3064: 3060: 3026: 3025: 3021: 2985: 2984: 2980: 2959:(1–2): 153–61. 2950: 2949: 2945: 2926:Am. J. Vet. Res 2923: 2922: 2918: 2876: 2875: 2871: 2864: 2851: 2850: 2843: 2836: 2823: 2822: 2815: 2810: 2806: 2785:(3–4): 215–24. 2776: 2775: 2771: 2725: 2724: 2720: 2699:(10): 1227–41. 2690: 2689: 2685: 2662:10.2307/3284586 2646: 2645: 2641: 2634: 2617: 2616: 2612: 2578: 2577: 2573: 2543: 2542: 2538: 2533: 2529: 2491: 2490: 2486: 2466: 2465: 2461: 2446: 2445: 2441: 2436: 2423: 2408:Elephas indicus 2401: 2400: 2396: 2366: 2365: 2361: 2343: 2342: 2338: 2331: 2318: 2317: 2306: 2297: 2295: 2287: 2286: 2282: 2269: 2268: 2264: 2243:(3–4): 234–42. 2234: 2233: 2229: 2214: 2189: 2188: 2181: 2147: 2146: 2142: 2112: 2111: 2104: 2074: 2073: 2069: 2047: 2046: 2042: 2011: 2010: 2006: 1976: 1975: 1971: 1966: 1957: 1952: 1943: 1934: 1932: 1921: 1920: 1916: 1907: 1903: 1890: 1886: 1879: 1862: 1861: 1857: 1848: 1846: 1838: 1837: 1822: 1783:Parasit Vectors 1776: 1775: 1771: 1762: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1751: 1747: 1733: 1732: 1719: 1712: 1699: 1698: 1677: 1668: 1666: 1658: 1657: 1650: 1640: 1638: 1629: 1628: 1624: 1617: 1602: 1601: 1558: 1528: 1527: 1516: 1506: 1504: 1499: 1498: 1494: 1484: 1482: 1478: 1477: 1468: 1463: 1444:Fasciolopsiasis 1440: 1349:Salicylanilides 1324: 1312: 1296: 1283: 1230: 1201: 1172: 1152:triclabendazole 1144: 1092:triclabendazole 1088: 1083: 1074: 1037:Ultrasonography 969: 932:immune response 928: 899: 875: 867:Main articles: 848: 747: 651: 644: 588:hypoalbuminemia 519: 366:(liver of goat) 352: 347: 281:triclabendazole 164:Triclabendazole 36: 33: 26: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5926: 5925: 5922: 5914: 5913: 5908: 5903: 5898: 5888: 5887: 5881: 5880: 5877: 5876: 5874: 5873: 5866: 5865: 5864: 5852: 5840: 5839: 5838: 5825: 5823: 5817: 5816: 5813: 5812: 5810: 5809: 5808: 5807: 5794: 5792: 5786: 5785: 5783: 5782: 5775: 5774: 5773: 5760: 5759: 5758: 5745: 5743: 5737: 5736: 5734: 5733: 5726: 5725: 5724: 5722:Dioctophymosis 5712: 5705: 5704: 5703: 5685:Toxocara canis 5681: 5680: 5679: 5667: 5666: 5665: 5652: 5650: 5644: 5643: 5641: 5640: 5639: 5638: 5630:Metastrongylus 5626: 5625: 5624: 5612: 5611: 5610: 5598: 5597: 5596: 5584:A. braziliense 5574: 5568: 5566: 5554: 5553: 5550: 5549: 5546: 5545: 5543: 5542: 5534: 5532: 5526: 5525: 5523: 5522: 5521: 5520: 5508: 5507: 5506: 5487: 5485: 5479: 5478: 5476: 5475: 5474: 5473: 5449: 5448: 5447: 5445:Dirofilariasis 5435: 5428: 5427: 5426: 5424:Mansonelliasis 5414: 5413: 5412: 5397: 5396: 5395: 5393:Onchocerciasis 5382: 5380: 5365: 5359: 5358: 5356: 5355: 5354: 5353: 5351:Dracunculiasis 5340: 5338: 5329: 5320: 5311: 5301: 5300: 5297: 5296: 5293: 5292: 5290: 5289: 5288: 5287: 5275: 5274: 5273: 5261: 5260: 5259: 5246: 5244: 5238: 5237: 5235: 5234: 5233: 5232: 5230:Hymenolepiasis 5214: 5213: 5212: 5183: 5182: 5181: 5179:Echinococcosis 5162: 5160: 5158:Cyclophyllidea 5151: 5139: 5138: 5135: 5134: 5132: 5131: 5130: 5129: 5127:Metagonimiasis 5117: 5116: 5115: 5113:Heterophyiasis 5103: 5102: 5101: 5099:Amphistomiasis 5089: 5088: 5087: 5075: 5074: 5073: 5058: 5056: 5050: 5049: 5047: 5046: 5045: 5044: 5042:Paragonimiasis 5025: 5023: 5017: 5016: 5014: 5013: 5012: 5011: 4993: 4992: 4991: 4973: 4972: 4971: 4969:Dicrocoeliasis 4953: 4952: 4951: 4938: 4936: 4930: 4929: 4927: 4926: 4925: 4924: 4922:Swimmer's itch 4912: 4911: 4910: 4896:S. haematobium 4873: 4871: 4862: 4847: 4837: 4836: 4827: 4825: 4824: 4817: 4810: 4802: 4793: 4792: 4790: 4789: 4779: 4769: 4759: 4749: 4726: 4723: 4722: 4720: 4719: 4714: 4709: 4704: 4699: 4694: 4692:Food marketing 4689: 4684: 4678: 4676: 4675:Related topics 4672: 4671: 4669: 4668: 4663: 4657: 4652: 4647: 4641: 4635: 4630: 4625: 4618: 4616: 4610: 4609: 4607: 4606: 4601: 4596: 4591: 4586: 4581: 4576: 4571: 4566: 4561: 4556: 4550: 4548: 4534: 4533: 4531: 4530: 4529: 4528: 4523: 4518: 4508: 4503: 4498: 4493: 4488: 4483: 4478: 4473: 4468: 4463: 4458: 4453: 4444: 4439: 4434: 4429: 4424: 4419: 4410: 4401: 4392: 4387: 4382: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4355: 4350: 4345: 4340: 4335: 4330: 4325: 4319: 4317: 4311: 4310: 4308: 4307: 4302: 4297: 4292: 4287: 4282: 4277: 4272: 4267: 4262: 4260:Food additives 4257: 4252: 4247: 4241: 4239: 4233: 4232: 4230: 4229: 4224: 4219: 4214: 4209: 4204: 4199: 4194: 4188: 4186: 4180: 4179: 4177: 4176: 4171: 4166: 4161: 4156: 4151: 4146: 4141: 4136: 4131: 4125: 4123: 4109: 4108: 4106: 4105: 4100: 4095: 4090: 4085: 4084: 4083: 4073: 4067: 4065: 4059: 4058: 4056: 4055: 4050: 4045: 4039: 4037: 4031: 4030: 4028: 4027: 4022: 4017: 4012: 4007: 4001: 3999: 3993: 3992: 3990: 3989: 3982: 3974: 3967: 3962: 3957: 3950: 3945: 3940: 3932: 3924: 3917: 3910: 3903: 3896: 3890: 3888: 3886:Microorganisms 3882: 3881: 3879: 3878: 3873: 3868: 3863: 3858: 3856:Paragonimiasis 3853: 3848: 3843: 3838: 3833: 3828: 3823: 3821:Cyclosporiasis 3818: 3813: 3808: 3802: 3800: 3790: 3789: 3787: 3786: 3785: 3784: 3774: 3773: 3772: 3762: 3757: 3752: 3746: 3744: 3742:Food additives 3738: 3737: 3735: 3734: 3729: 3724: 3719: 3717:Lead poisoning 3714: 3709: 3704: 3699: 3694: 3689: 3683: 3681: 3671: 3670: 3665: 3663: 3662: 3655: 3648: 3640: 3634: 3633: 3625: 3620: 3608: 3603: 3583: 3582: 3579: 3578: 3566: 3565: 3563: 3559: 3558: 3555: 3554: 3543: 3532: 3517: 3501: 3496: 3495: 3493: 3492:Classification 3485: 3484:External links 3482: 3479: 3478: 3460: 3441:(1–2): 65–74. 3435:Vet. Parasitol 3425: 3406:(1–2): 153–8. 3400:Vet. Parasitol 3390: 3363: 3354: 3319: 3284: 3275: 3240: 3227: 3203: 3191: 3178: 3143: 3108: 3077: 3058: 3039:(7): 275–276. 3019: 2978: 2953:Vet. Parasitol 2943: 2916: 2869: 2862: 2841: 2834: 2813: 2804: 2779:Vet. Parasitol 2769: 2766:on 2001-09-11. 2732:Parasitol. Res 2718: 2683: 2639: 2632: 2610: 2591:(7): 775–779. 2571: 2536: 2527: 2508:(5): 499–508. 2484: 2459: 2439: 2421: 2394: 2359: 2336: 2329: 2304: 2280: 2262: 2237:Vet. Parasitol 2227: 2212: 2192:Adv. Parasitol 2179: 2140: 2121:(1–3): 63–93. 2115:Vet. Parasitol 2102: 2083:(8): 361–365. 2067: 2040: 2004: 1969: 1955: 1941: 1914: 1901: 1884: 1877: 1855: 1820: 1769: 1745: 1717: 1710: 1675: 1648: 1637:. June 6, 2011 1622: 1615: 1556: 1514: 1492: 1465: 1464: 1462: 1459: 1458: 1457: 1451: 1446: 1439: 1436: 1409:South Cotabato 1405: 1404: 1401: 1398: 1395: 1392: 1378:resistance in 1375: 1374: 1371:Phenoxyalkanes 1368: 1362: 1355:Benzimidazoles 1352: 1346: 1323: 1320: 1311: 1308: 1300:Gīlān Province 1295: 1292: 1282: 1279: 1267:Mantaro Valley 1229: 1226: 1206:Tajik Republic 1200: 1197: 1171: 1168: 1143: 1140: 1087: 1084: 1082: 1079: 1073: 1070: 968: 965: 927: 924: 898: 895: 847: 844: 824:Mentha viridis 746: 743: 705:(3n = 30) and 643: 640: 580: 579: 569: 559: 549: 518: 515: 498:cholelithiasis 473: 472: 466: 460: 459: 458: 453: 448: 443: 434: 430:, chest pain, 420: 415: 401: 400:Abdominal pain 398: 381: 351: 348: 346: 343: 316:young fasciola 237:and may cause 192:as well as by 184:parasitic worm 175: 174: 171: 167: 166: 161: 155: 154: 151: 147: 146: 141: 135: 134: 128: 122: 121: 113: 109: 108: 99: 93: 92: 89: 83: 82: 73: 67: 66: 60: 59: 51: 50: 47: 43: 42: 34: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5924: 5923: 5912: 5909: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5899: 5897: 5896:Helminthiases 5894: 5893: 5891: 5872: 5871: 5867: 5863: 5860: 5859: 5858: 5857: 5853: 5850: 5846: 5845: 5841: 5837: 5834: 5833: 5832: 5831: 5827: 5826: 5824: 5822: 5818: 5806: 5803: 5802: 5801: 5800: 5796: 5795: 5793: 5791: 5787: 5781: 5780: 5776: 5772: 5769: 5768: 5767: 5765: 5761: 5757: 5754: 5753: 5752: 5751: 5747: 5746: 5744: 5742: 5738: 5732: 5731: 5727: 5723: 5720: 5719: 5718: 5717: 5713: 5711: 5710: 5709:Baylisascaris 5706: 5702: 5698: 5695: 5694: 5693: 5692: 5687: 5686: 5682: 5678: 5675: 5674: 5673: 5672: 5668: 5664: 5661: 5660: 5659: 5658: 5654: 5653: 5651: 5649: 5645: 5637: 5634: 5633: 5632: 5631: 5627: 5623: 5620: 5619: 5618: 5617: 5613: 5609: 5606: 5605: 5604: 5603: 5599: 5595: 5591: 5588: 5587: 5586: 5585: 5580: 5579: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5569: 5567: 5564: 5559: 5555: 5541: 5540: 5536: 5535: 5533: 5531: 5527: 5519: 5516: 5515: 5514: 5513: 5509: 5505: 5502: 5501: 5500: 5499: 5494: 5493: 5489: 5488: 5486: 5484: 5480: 5472: 5469: 5468: 5467: 5466: 5461: 5460: 5459:Brugia malayi 5455: 5454: 5450: 5446: 5443: 5442: 5441: 5440: 5436: 5434: 5433: 5429: 5425: 5422: 5421: 5420: 5419: 5415: 5411: 5409: 5405: 5404: 5403: 5402: 5398: 5394: 5391: 5390: 5389: 5388: 5384: 5383: 5381: 5378: 5373: 5369: 5366: 5364: 5360: 5352: 5349: 5348: 5347: 5346: 5342: 5341: 5339: 5337: 5333: 5330: 5328: 5324: 5321: 5319: 5315: 5312: 5310: 5302: 5286: 5283: 5282: 5281: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5269: 5268: 5267: 5266: 5262: 5258: 5255: 5254: 5253: 5252: 5248: 5247: 5245: 5243: 5239: 5231: 5228: 5227: 5226: 5225: 5220: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5210:Cysticercosis 5207: 5204: 5203: 5202: 5200: 5195: 5194: 5189: 5188: 5184: 5180: 5177: 5176: 5175: 5174: 5169: 5168: 5164: 5163: 5161: 5159: 5155: 5152: 5149: 5144: 5140: 5128: 5125: 5124: 5123: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5111: 5110: 5109: 5108: 5104: 5100: 5097: 5096: 5095: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5083: 5082: 5081: 5080: 5076: 5072: 5071: 5067: 5066: 5065: 5064: 5060: 5059: 5057: 5055: 5051: 5043: 5040: 5039: 5038: 5037: 5036:P. kellicotti 5032: 5031: 5027: 5026: 5024: 5022: 5018: 5010: 5007: 5006: 5005: 5004: 4999: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4987: 4986: 4985: 4984: 4979: 4978: 4974: 4970: 4967: 4966: 4965: 4964: 4959: 4958: 4954: 4950: 4949:Clonorchiasis 4947: 4946: 4945: 4944: 4940: 4939: 4937: 4935: 4931: 4923: 4920: 4919: 4918: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4906: 4905: 4904: 4903: 4898: 4897: 4892: 4891: 4886: 4885: 4880: 4879: 4875: 4874: 4872: 4870: 4866: 4863: 4860: 4855: 4851: 4848: 4844: 4843:platyhelminth 4838: 4834: 4833:helminthiases 4830: 4823: 4818: 4816: 4811: 4809: 4804: 4803: 4800: 4788: 4780: 4778: 4774: 4770: 4768: 4760: 4758: 4750: 4748: 4738: 4733: 4728: 4727: 4724: 4718: 4715: 4713: 4710: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4700: 4698: 4697:Food politics 4695: 4693: 4690: 4688: 4685: 4683: 4680: 4679: 4677: 4673: 4667: 4664: 4662:(South Korea) 4661: 4658: 4656: 4653: 4651: 4648: 4645: 4642: 4639: 4636: 4634: 4631: 4629: 4626: 4623: 4620: 4619: 4617: 4615: 4611: 4605: 4602: 4600: 4597: 4595: 4592: 4590: 4587: 4585: 4582: 4580: 4577: 4575: 4572: 4570: 4567: 4565: 4562: 4560: 4557: 4555: 4552: 4551: 4549: 4547: 4543: 4539: 4535: 4527: 4526:United States 4524: 4522: 4519: 4517: 4514: 4513: 4512: 4509: 4507: 4504: 4502: 4499: 4497: 4494: 4492: 4489: 4487: 4484: 4482: 4479: 4477: 4474: 4472: 4469: 4467: 4464: 4462: 4459: 4457: 4454: 4452: 4450: 4447:2011 Germany 4445: 4443: 4440: 4438: 4435: 4433: 4430: 4428: 4425: 4423: 4420: 4418: 4416: 4411: 4409: 4407: 4404:1996 Odwalla 4402: 4400: 4398: 4393: 4391: 4388: 4386: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4364: 4359: 4356: 4354: 4351: 4349: 4346: 4344: 4341: 4339: 4336: 4334: 4331: 4329: 4326: 4324: 4321: 4320: 4318: 4316: 4312: 4306: 4303: 4301: 4298: 4296: 4293: 4291: 4288: 4286: 4283: 4281: 4278: 4276: 4273: 4271: 4268: 4266: 4263: 4261: 4258: 4256: 4253: 4251: 4248: 4246: 4243: 4242: 4240: 4238: 4234: 4228: 4225: 4223: 4220: 4218: 4215: 4213: 4210: 4208: 4205: 4203: 4200: 4198: 4195: 4193: 4190: 4189: 4187: 4185: 4181: 4175: 4172: 4170: 4167: 4165: 4162: 4160: 4157: 4155: 4152: 4150: 4147: 4145: 4142: 4140: 4137: 4135: 4132: 4130: 4127: 4126: 4124: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4104: 4101: 4099: 4096: 4094: 4091: 4089: 4086: 4082: 4079: 4078: 4077: 4074: 4072: 4069: 4068: 4066: 4064: 4060: 4054: 4051: 4049: 4046: 4044: 4041: 4040: 4038: 4036: 4035:Preservatives 4032: 4026: 4025:Methamidophos 4023: 4021: 4018: 4016: 4013: 4011: 4008: 4006: 4003: 4002: 4000: 3998: 3994: 3988: 3987: 3983: 3981: 3980: 3975: 3973: 3972: 3968: 3966: 3963: 3961: 3958: 3956: 3955: 3951: 3949: 3946: 3944: 3941: 3939: 3937: 3933: 3931: 3929: 3925: 3923: 3922: 3918: 3916: 3915: 3911: 3909: 3908: 3904: 3902: 3901: 3897: 3895: 3892: 3891: 3889: 3887: 3883: 3877: 3874: 3872: 3869: 3867: 3866:Toxoplasmosis 3864: 3862: 3859: 3857: 3854: 3852: 3849: 3847: 3844: 3842: 3839: 3837: 3834: 3832: 3829: 3827: 3824: 3822: 3819: 3817: 3814: 3812: 3809: 3807: 3804: 3803: 3801: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3783: 3780: 3779: 3778: 3777:Vegetable oil 3775: 3771: 3768: 3767: 3766: 3763: 3761: 3758: 3756: 3753: 3751: 3748: 3747: 3745: 3743: 3739: 3733: 3730: 3728: 3725: 3723: 3720: 3718: 3715: 3713: 3710: 3708: 3705: 3703: 3700: 3698: 3695: 3693: 3690: 3688: 3685: 3684: 3682: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3661: 3656: 3654: 3649: 3647: 3642: 3641: 3638: 3632: 3631: 3626: 3624: 3621: 3619: 3615: 3612: 3609: 3607: 3604: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3591: 3588: 3587: 3577: 3573: 3572: 3568: 3567: 3564: 3560: 3553: 3549: 3548: 3544: 3542: 3538: 3537: 3533: 3531: 3527: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3516: 3512: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3502: 3499: 3494: 3490: 3483: 3474: 3470: 3464: 3461: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3429: 3426: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3394: 3391: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3367: 3364: 3358: 3355: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3323: 3320: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3300:(2): 81–112. 3299: 3295: 3288: 3285: 3279: 3276: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3244: 3241: 3237: 3231: 3228: 3217: 3213: 3207: 3204: 3198: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3182: 3179: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3147: 3144: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3124:(3): 426–30. 3123: 3119: 3112: 3109: 3104: 3100: 3097:(14): 705–7. 3096: 3092: 3088: 3081: 3078: 3073: 3069: 3062: 3059: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3023: 3020: 3015: 3011: 3006: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2982: 2979: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2947: 2944: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2920: 2917: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2889:(4): 417–23. 2888: 2884: 2880: 2873: 2870: 2865: 2863:0-85199-260-9 2859: 2855: 2848: 2846: 2842: 2837: 2835:0-387-96755-9 2831: 2827: 2820: 2818: 2814: 2808: 2805: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2773: 2770: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2722: 2719: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2687: 2684: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2643: 2640: 2635: 2633:0-85199-260-9 2629: 2625: 2621: 2614: 2611: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2575: 2572: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2540: 2537: 2531: 2528: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2488: 2485: 2480: 2476: 2475: 2470: 2463: 2460: 2455: 2451: 2443: 2440: 2434: 2432: 2430: 2428: 2426: 2422: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2405: 2398: 2395: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2375:(5): 777–81. 2374: 2370: 2363: 2360: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2340: 2337: 2332: 2330:0-85199-260-9 2326: 2322: 2315: 2313: 2311: 2309: 2305: 2294: 2290: 2284: 2281: 2276: 2272: 2266: 2263: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2231: 2228: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2186: 2184: 2180: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2160:(1): 97–103. 2159: 2155: 2154:Res. Vet. Sci 2151: 2144: 2141: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2109: 2107: 2103: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2071: 2068: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2044: 2041: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2015:Res. Vet. Sci 2008: 2005: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1973: 1970: 1964: 1962: 1960: 1956: 1950: 1948: 1946: 1942: 1931: 1930: 1925: 1918: 1915: 1911: 1905: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1888: 1885: 1880: 1878:0-85199-260-9 1874: 1870: 1866: 1859: 1856: 1845: 1841: 1835: 1833: 1831: 1829: 1827: 1825: 1821: 1816: 1812: 1807: 1802: 1797: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1773: 1770: 1755: 1749: 1746: 1741: 1737: 1730: 1728: 1726: 1724: 1722: 1718: 1713: 1711:0-85199-260-9 1707: 1703: 1696: 1694: 1692: 1690: 1688: 1686: 1684: 1682: 1680: 1676: 1665: 1661: 1655: 1653: 1649: 1636: 1632: 1626: 1623: 1618: 1616:9780702053061 1612: 1608: 1607: 1599: 1597: 1595: 1593: 1591: 1589: 1587: 1585: 1583: 1581: 1579: 1577: 1575: 1573: 1571: 1569: 1567: 1565: 1563: 1561: 1557: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1525: 1523: 1521: 1519: 1515: 1502: 1496: 1493: 1481: 1475: 1473: 1471: 1467: 1460: 1455: 1452: 1450: 1449:Clonorchiasis 1447: 1445: 1442: 1441: 1437: 1435: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1402: 1399: 1396: 1393: 1390: 1389: 1388: 1385: 1381: 1372: 1369: 1366: 1365:Sulphonamides 1363: 1360: 1356: 1353: 1350: 1347: 1344: 1341: 1338: 1337: 1336: 1328: 1322:Other animals 1321: 1319: 1317: 1309: 1307: 1305: 1301: 1293: 1291: 1289: 1280: 1278: 1276: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1227: 1225: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1214:serologically 1211: 1207: 1198: 1196: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1185:hyperendemics 1181: 1180:public health 1176: 1169: 1167: 1165: 1161: 1158:, closantel, 1157: 1153: 1149: 1141: 1139: 1137: 1133: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1100:anthelmintics 1097: 1096:benzimidazole 1093: 1085: 1080: 1078: 1071: 1069: 1067: 1062: 1057: 1055: 1051: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1032: 1030: 1026: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 994: 990: 986: 981: 979: 975: 966: 964: 962: 958: 954: 950: 945: 941: 937: 933: 925: 923: 921: 917: 916:biliary ducts 913: 909: 905: 896: 894: 892: 888: 884: 880: 874: 870: 862: 858: 857: 852: 845: 843: 840: 837: 833: 829: 825: 821: 820: 815: 811: 807: 806: 801: 800: 795: 794: 789: 785: 781: 777: 774:. 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