Feeding behaviour of Tyrannosaurus

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flight to be obligate scavengers. This study also suggested the evolution of a terrestrial obligate scavenger was unlikely even with the absence of birds because for terrestrial carnivores there is a lack of strong selection pressure towards becoming an exclusive scavenger. The study further adds that it may always be more advantageous for terrestrial carnivores to be able to retain the flexibility of obtaining food through hunting and scavenging. A census study of the Hell Creek Formation published by John Horner, Mark B. Goodwin and Nathan Myhrvold in 2011 found that because of their relative abundance, tyrannosaurs were more like hyenas: opportunistic feeders that dined on more than just live prey and a specific group of dinosaurs. Riley Black, however, held that this research did not overturn

855: 903: 1026: 1046:. Paul stated that duck-billed dinosaurs may have been able to kick out with its heavy footed hindlimbs. When faced with a predator, some duckbills were large and may have been able to use their size for protection, otherwise that the only apparent option for them to escape was to flee at maximum speed while attempting to land kicks on its pursuer. He would write that hadrosaurs, while using its forelimbs for locomotion, may have been able out turn tyrannosaurids. Paul wrote that hadrosaurs may have been 746: 1195: 19: 641: 290: 582:. Another Edmontosaur specimen that is suspected to have survived a tyrannosaur attack had also been previously identified by Bruce Rothschild and Robert DePalma in an article published in the journal "Cretaceous Research". This specimen is described to have fossilized skin showing scars and tooth induced traumas on the skull in the form of large tooth drags, with size and spacing that leaves only 531: 1254:, and this was seen as evidence for opportunistic scavenging, rather than wounds caused by intraspecific combat. In a fight, they proposed it would be difficult to reach down to bite in the feet of a rival, making it more likely that the bitemarks were made in a carcass. As the bitemarks were made in body parts with relatively scantly amounts of flesh, it is suggested that the 1134: 1050:(lived in groups) and may have prioritized trying to lose itself in the herd. He would also note that hadrosaurs were also lower-slung than their predators and may have therefore been able to use their forelimbs to push themselves through heavy vegetation; making it difficult for their predators to deliver effective bites. 281:

was exclusively a scavenger and did not engage in active hunting at all, though Horner himself has claimed that he never published this idea in the peer reviewed scientific literature and used it mainly as a tool to teach a popular audience, particularly children, the dangers of making assumptions in

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had a bony skull that was well-adapted to withstand biting and shearing forces, with strong nasal bones that helped it withstand compression and shearing stresses and lacrimal bones that enabled the skull to withstand a variety of stresses. Her study also found that the maxilla jugal sutures found in

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is known to have been carnivorous due primarily to the shape of the teeth. A study conducted by Miriam Reichel of the University of Alberta found that the tyrannosaurs' dissimilar teeth had different uses depending on their size, placement, serrated edge and angle in the mouth. While the teeth at the

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and other carnivorous theropods were equipped with teeth that were highly complex for carnivores; specialized layers of dentine enlarged the serration on the inside of the tooth structure. This unique structure, found in other large predators from other prehistoric eras, and found only in the modern

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adults may have allowed them to act as large prey specialists and thereby alleviate competition with younger tyrannosaurs. The juveniles according to the scientists were long-legged runners, but had relatively shallow skulls that were incapable of anchoring the muscles necessary to generate an adult

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Tyrannosaur arms are short when compared to other known predators. Horner argues that the arms were too short to make the necessary gripping force to hold on to prey. Other paleontologists such as Thomas Holtz Jr. and James Farlow, however, gave examples of animals that do not use their forelimbs to

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to drive open cracks present in bone during repetitive, mammal-like biting and produce high-pressure fracture arcades, leading to catastrophic explosions of some bones and allowing the theropod to fully exploit the carcasses of other dinosaurs such as hadrosaurs and ceratopsians, giving it access to

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only gained their powerful bite forces during their adulthood. This, according to the pair, suggest a difference in feeding ecologies between juveniles and adults; that the animals may have fed on different prey items at different stages of their lives. They propose that the powerful bite forces of

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would have been unable to compete as an obligate scavenger against smaller theropods and it would have been necessary for it to primarily hunt large prey. In addition, a study by Graeme D. Ruxton and David C. Houson in 2004 found that vertebrates would need to be large bodied and capable of soaring

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had large olfactory bulbs, suggesting a highly developed sense of smell which could sniff out carcasses over great distances, as modern vultures do. Because vultures are primarily scavengers, it has been suggested that such a highly developed sense of smell may imply that tyrannosaurs were as well.

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had a powerful neck that would have enabled it to strike rapidly at prey and take on complex and modulated inertial feeding; a way of feeding used by modern archosaurs that involved the animal ripping away chunks of meat, tossing it into the air and swallowing it. A team of paleontologists, led by

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was both an active predator and a scavenger like most large carnivores. David Hone of Queen Mary, University of London, for example, wrote in his blog that ancering that it was either predator or scavenger in various papers has been unsatisfactory because it was most likely both. Switek also wrote

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was a high-risk predator that also attacked massive and dangerous prey; citing this as a reason tyrannosaurs died young. He would indicate that the fossil evidence of animals that surviving tyrannosaur attacks show that these animals were at least healthy enough to heal from their injuries; even

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Gregory S. Paul stated that tyrannosaurids attacked hadrosaurs by targeting the caudofemoralis muscle and thigh muscle to disable their prey's locomotor system, the abdomen to eviscerate their prey and the neck which would have caused the most rapid death by damaging the trachea and major blood

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found at the roof of its mouth that would also have strengthened it against torsional loads, a similar adaptation to that of crocodiles but uncommon amongst other theropods. In a lecture in 2013, Thomas Holtz Jr. would point out that torsion is encountered when biting into struggling prey and

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also had a good sense of smell. Others have argued that the primary scavenger hypothesis is implausible because the only modern pure scavengers are large gliding birds, which use their keen senses and energy-efficient gliding to cover vast areas economically. However, researchers from Glasgow

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arms were adapted for this strategy, pushing the prey with its chest while gripping it with its arms reduced the chance of the prey slipping away while being pushed. The arms, being short yet strong reduced the chance of joint injury during this struggle. Also having more of the arm's power

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cheeks acted as shock absorbers. These joints had soft tissue that absorbed some of the stresses encountered when biting. This traded some of the skull's durability in return for enabling it to better protect the surrounding bones from damage when biting. The study also found that the skull

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s bite force. However, when the animals grew their jaw muscles grew exponentially to the point that these muscles were huge even for animals of their size. The scientists suggest that juveniles chased after small prey while adults had the power to prey on megaherbivores such as

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probably preferred to target small prey animals, including juveniles of larger dinosaur species. A 2010 analysis by Hone & Rauhut suggested that this may partially explain the general lack of small and juvenile dinosaur skeletons in the fossil record. Tyrannosaurids like

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front were specially designed for gripping and pulling, the teeth at the side of the jaw were meant to puncture, and the teeth at the back were specialized both to slice pieces of prey and to force the slices into the throat. She also proposed that the banana-shaped teeth of

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A study by Lisa Cooper, Andrew H. Lee, Mark L. Taper and John R. Horner suggested that hadrosaurs may have also protected themselves through their rapid growth rates, growing faster than their predators, thus giving them a size advantage and enabling them to breed early. In

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obtained a majority of their food from hunting; scavenging as little as 5% in some locations. He also noted that the census is an imperfect depiction of the area's ecology since various biases in collecting and preservation may have affected the results. For example,

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may have hunted. Though adult tyrannosaurs are often depicted in art and other media as frequently attacking other giant dinosaurs, research suggests this type of behavior would have been rare. As with other carnivorous dinosaurs and modern carnivores in general,

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do to extract marrow. Gregory Paul also wrote that a bone-crushing bite would also have been advantageous to a predator; providing the extreme bite force to kill prey and later consume it efficiently. Other paleontologists would also find similarities between

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is unclear. However, further recent investigation of these purported wounds has shown that most are infections rather than injuries (or simply damage to the fossil after death) and the few injuries are too general to be indicative of intraspecific conflict.

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Choiniere, Jonah N.; Neenan, James M.; Schmitz, Lars; Ford, David P.; Chapelle, Kimberley E. J.; Balanoff, Amy M.; Sipla, Justin S.; Georgi, Justin A.; Walsh, Stig A.; Norell, Mark A.; Xu, Xing; Clark, James M.; Benson, Roger B. J. (7 May 2021).

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tooth serrations as more like cubes in shape than the serrations on a Komodo monitor's teeth, which are rounded. All forms of saliva contain possibly hazardous bacteria, so the prospect of it being used as a method of predation is disputable.

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However, Farlow and Holtz have noted that a good sense of smell could also be used to detect live prey as well as for behaviors unrelated to food acquisition. Darla K. Zelenitsky, Francois Therrien and Yoshitsugu Kobayashi also discussed the

1094:, being better equipped for pursuit, likely would be able to, if able to keep the animal in sight, outpace and eventually subdue the hadrosaur once the herbivore tired. Such a strategy would save valuable energy while still allowing the 174:

was likely capable of exerting a bite force of between 35 and 57 kN (kilonewtons) (7,800–12,700 pounds force), around ten times as great as the strongest alligator bite. However, other, heavier predators, such as the crocodilian

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s small, yet strong arms could have been adapted to grasp onto the back of Triceratops while pushing with its pectoral region, its large clawed feet would have given it better traction, its large head could have been used to tip the

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resistance to torsional loads showed that it used a 'puncture and pull' method as opposed to the 'bite and slice' of many other theropods. He would also elaborate that like many reptiles, many dinosaurs did not have a hard palate.

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tooth embedded in the bone, with evidence of new bone growth that wrapped around the tooth. Burnham and his colleagues suggest that this Edmontosaur had also survived a tyrannosaur attack and that this was further proof that

395:). They also suggested that modern ecosystems like Serengeti have no large terrestrial scavengers because gliding birds now do the job much more efficiently, while large theropods did not face competition for the scavenger 216:

indicate that despite lacking the bone-crushing adaptations of the adults, young individuals were still capable of using the same bone-puncturing feeding technique as their adult counterparts. The bite force of a juvenile

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may have been mainly restricted to juvenile individuals as a recent study has shown that multi-ton theropods would have gained little energy from scavenging after accounting for the energy expended from foraging.

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today is perfectly designed to handle the stresses of ripping into the flesh and biting into the bones of large prey animals without suffering large amounts of wear. This unique feature allowed theropods such as

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as the only likely assailant. Phil Bell of Pipestone Creek further stated that the skull injuries were consistent with tyrannosaur-bitten bones. There is also evidence for an aggressive interaction between a

574:) from Montana as having healed supposed tyrannosaur-inflicted damage on its tail vertebrae; having some of its caudal neural spines mutilated. The fact that the damage seems to have healed suggests that the 2501: 1018:, providing a place to grip on. Furthermore, Krauss and Robinson suggest that this strategy would have been effective against other large ceratopsians and because the attack was done through an ambush, 355:

s sense of smell in their 2009 study and stated that it was not an indication of a particular feeding strategy the animal was using (predator versus scavenger), but indicate that tyrannosaurids such as

2383: 609:); the bitten horn is also broken, with new bone growth after the break. It is not known what the exact nature of the interaction was, though: either animal could have been the aggressor. Since the 777:

preferred different prey at different stages of its life. In K. T. Bates and P. L. Falkingham's 2012 study, they found that there was a great disparity between the bite force of adult and juvenile

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from gliding birds. However, further research by the same scientists found that the evolution of a terrestrial obligate scavenger was unlikely (read more on Ruxton & Houson's 2004 study below).

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embedded in a neck vertebra. If correct, these might be strong evidence for aggressive behavior between tyrannosaurs but whether it would have been competition for food and mates or active

2923:, Than, Ker(28, February 2013)Scarred Duckbill Dinoasaur Survived T. Rex Attack: A fossilized bite mark on a dinosaur indicates it survived a T. Rex attack. Retrieved July 22, 2013 from 1550: 204:

could bite down with around 8,000 pounds force (36 kN) when feeding, exerting a pressure of 431,000 pounds per square inch (3 gigapascals) with their teeth. This adaptation allowed

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were active during low light conditions and may have used their sense of smell to search for food and navigate through large home ranges. In a 2013 lecture, Holtz. also noted that like

2921: 140:, having teeth at the front of the jaw that are similar to those in the rest of the jaw, and suggested that these incisors were used to scrape the meat from bones. He also stated that 144:

teeth were different from previous theropods because they were thick from side to side, and while the teeth of many other theropods had roots just as long as the crown, the teeth of

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by biomechanical expert Karl Bates of the University of Liverpool and paleontologist Peter Falkingham of the Royal Veterinary College, London, and Brown University was published in

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were mechanically stronger than those of other theropods, with deep roots to withstand lateral forces during predation or feeding with a greater torsional component. Furthermore,

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appear to have been specialized to crush and likely ingest the bones of their prey, and predation of juvenile dinosaurs would therefore have left fewer skeletons to fossilize.

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was capable of a maximum jaw gape of around 80 degrees; this enormous jaw gape was a necessary adaptation for a wide range of jaw angles to power the creature's strong bite.

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had a bite force of no more than 880 pounds force, or 3.9 kN, and that the bite became more powerful as the animal matured. This also supports the theory that juvenile

2853: 847:, however, had a hard palate, just like mammals and crocodiles. Holtz along with James O. Farlow would also support freelance researcher Gregory S. Paul's suggestion that 578:

survived a tyrannosaur's attack on a living target, i.e. the tyrannosaur had attempted active predation; however, the damage is ambiguous and not directly attributable to

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most scientists have speculated that it was a predator; like modern large predators it would readily scavenge or steal another predator's kill if it had the opportunity.

1149:, and most other theropods, probably primarily processed carcasses with lateral shakes of the head, like crocodilians. The head was not as maneuverable as the skulls of 899:

would have done this through either ambushing or trying to intimidate the horned animals into trying to run away which would have then exposed these animals to attack.

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attacked prey like canids and hyaenids do; seizing and killing prey with the jaws, with limited use of the forelimbs for capture and dispatch. Holtz pointed out that

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to resist greater twisting loads and occasional bone contact than allosaurids or other typical theropods. Holtz elaborated that the incrassate (thickened) teeth of

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s potential prey could move quickly, evidence that it walked instead of ran could indicate that it was a scavenger. On the other hand, recent analyses suggest that

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teeth showed hardly any wear. This argument is no longer taken seriously, because theropods replaced their teeth quite rapidly. Ever since the first discovery of

3614:

2535: 443:) obtaining most of its food through this means. He also notes that hyaenids mainly crunch bone with their molars and premolars. Holtz also pointed out that 3447: 1177:

s teeth have also revealed that the animal's dentition was more complex than previously imagined. Researchers Kirstin Brink, Robert Reisz et al. found that

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Studies published in 2019 on hadrosaur vertebrae from the Hell Creek Formation that were punctured by the teeth of what appears to be a late-stage juvenile

3198: 1511: 410:(fossilized feces) that they attribute to tyrannosaurs, but point out that a tyrannosaur's teeth were not well adapted to systematically chewing bone like 286:

was a hunter) without using evidence. Nevertheless, Horner presented several arguments in the popular literature to support the pure scavenger hypothesis:

3040:"Dinosaur Census Reveals Abundant Tyrannosaurus and Rare Ontogenetic Stages in the Upper Cretaceous Hell Creek Formation (Maastrichtian), Montana, USA" 675:

remain as feasible top predators. In this light, scavenger hypothesis adherents have suggested that the size and power of tyrannosaurs allowed them to

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would have experienced some difficulty quickly getting back up from being toppled on to its side. According to the study, modern day analogues of

185:, surpassed this bite in strength, having bite forces of about 100 kN and 180 kN respectively. The study also revealed that a juvenile 1112:. Abler examined the teeth of tyrannosaurids between each tooth serration; the serrations may have held pieces of carcass with bacteria, giving 1558: 854: 170:

s skull and relevant jaw musculature based on anatomical research on crocodilians and birds. From these reconstructions, it was estimated that

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Cooper Susan M.; Holekamp Kaye E.; Smale Laura (June 1999). "A seasonal feast: long-term analysis of feeding behaviour in the spotted hyaena (

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concentrated on its flexors instead of the extensors, were ideal since it would have had to flex its arms to keep its prey close. When the

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Hayward M. (2006). "Prey preferences of the spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) and degree of dietary overlap with the lion (Panthera leo)".

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were designed to withstand the strain of violently struggling prey which would otherwise snap teeth that were sharp, flat and knife-like.

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Rothschild, Bruce M.; DePalma, Robert (2013). "Skin pathology in the Cretaceous: Evidence for probable failed predation in a dinosaur".

2860:, Edwards, Tim(5 March 2013). First fossilized dinosaur scar suggest Edmontosaurus survived T. Rex attack. Retrieved July 22, 2013 from 2301: 957:

would then bitten it at the rib cage; killing it. Krauss and Robinson backed up their proposal through physical analyses; finding that

315:. Holtz later stated that the use of forelimbs are not the only viable way of prey capture giving examples of modern predators such as 2875: 2872: 2022:"Chapter 18: The Extreme Life Style and Habits of the Gigantic Tyrannosaurid Superpredators of the Cretaceous North America and Asia" 1258:

was feeding on a cadaver in which the more fleshy parts already had been consumed. They were also open to the possibility that other

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also developed thickened teeth as adaptations to resist contact with bone during prey capture or dispatch as well as during feeding.

485:. Horner also pointed out that the tyrannosaur lineage had a history of steadily improving binocular vision. It is not obvious why 1304:

Reichel Miriam; Sues Hans-Dieter (2012). "The variation of angles between anterior and posterior carinae of tyrannosaurid teeth".

1153:, due to flat joints of the neck vertebrae. Eric Snively and Anthony Russell further elaborates in a study published in 2007 that 704:

which it preyed upon. Horner, Goodwin and Myhrvold's study, according to, actually shows what most palaeontologists believe; that

107:

would startle its prey with a powerful bite and then drag its teeth back through its prey's flesh and bone. The study found that

2861: 2851: 1812: 406:) as possible from carcass remnants, usually the least nutritious parts. Karen Chin and colleagues have found bone fragments in 895:

would attack these prey from behind, attempting to bite either the thigh or the caudofemoralis muscle to disable its prey. The

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Furthermore, fossil evidence of tyrannosaur attacks on other dinosaurs have been discovered. A pair of hadrosaur caudal (tail)

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a large evolutionary advantage. Horner, Goodwin and Myhrvold's 2011 census makes a similar proposition, proposing that adult

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was an opportunistic carnivore; an animal that both hunted and scavenged. However, the energetic importance of scavenging in

1984:"Chapter 20: A critical re-appraisal of the obligate scavenging hypothesis for Tyrannosaurus rex and other tyrant dinosaurs" 489:

would have favored this long-term trend if tyrannosaurs had been pure scavengers, which would not have needed the advanced

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over to fall on its side. This strategy, according to the Krauss and Robinson could explain the unique characteristics of

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were a scavenger, another dinosaur had to be the top predator in the Amerasian Upper Cretaceous. Top prey were the larger

514:

was a diurnal animal and would have hunted or scavenged predominantly during daylight hours, a feature it shared with the

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such as rhinoceros, camels and large bovids, experience the same kind of difficulty, taking 3–10 seconds to recover. But

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A study from Currie, Horner, Erickson and Longrich in 2010 has been put forward as evidence of cannibalism in the genus

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may have started out the same size when they hatched, but by 5 years of age hadrosaurs would be the size of a cow while

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from smaller predators. However, a study published in 2011 by Chris Carbone, Samuel T. Turvey and Jon Bielby found that

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over and its large mouth and bone piercing teeth would have made bites to the side more efficient and deadly. When the

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Two teeth from the lower jaw of specimen MOR 1125, "B-rex", showing the variation in tooth size within an individual

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the mineral salts and marrow within bone that other carnivores in the same environment could not take advantage of.

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Happ, John; Carpenter, Kenneth (2008). "An analysis of predator–prey behavior in a head-to-head encounter between

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s most challenging and dangerous prey; with horns and parrot like beaks that they could use for defence, and that

152:

didn't look like they were for cutting, but instead looked like they were for pulverizing, crushing and piercing.

3451: 1953:

Novella, S. "Interview with Jack Horner." The Skeptics Guide to the Universe. 14-OCT-2011. Accessed 24-OCT-2011,

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after analyzing various specimens. This involved the theropod repositioning and tearing off the head of the dead

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may not have directly competed with juveniles if the possibility of scavenging increased with size as they aged.

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http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/crux/2013/02/20/dinosaurs-flesh-wound-preserved-in-fossil-record/#.Ue0quUpZOSp

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Ruxton Graeme D.; Houson David C. (7 June 2004). "Obligate vertebrate scavengers must be large soaring fliers".

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specimens with tooth marks in the bones, attributable to the same genus. The tooth marks were identified in the

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Abler William (1992). "The serrated teeth of tyrannosaurid dinosaurs, and biting structures in other animals".

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Hotz, Robert Lee(July 16, 2013). Fossil Proves T. Rex Wasn't Just a Scavenger. Retrieved on July 16, 2013 from

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Gregory S. Paul also discussed the defenses that hadrosaurs may have employed against tyrannosaurids such as

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skeleton (on display at the Denver Museum of Nature and Science) indicates that it may have been bitten by a

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for a large theropod scavenger, although the theropod might have had to be cold-blooded in order to get more

564: 392: 2874:, Vergano, Dan (21, February 2013). Duckbill dinosaur survived T. Rex attack. Retrieved July 22, 2013 from 2783: 2724:

DePalma, II; Robert, A.; Burnham, David A.; Martin, Larry D.; Rotchild Bruce, M.; Larson, Peter L. (2013).

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Robert, A. DePalma II; Burnham, David A.; Martin, Larry D.; Rothschild, Bruce M.; Larson, Peter L. (2013).

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was later calculated to be around 5.6 kN based on these puncture marks and others on another juvenile

3891: 3746:"Dinos with bite: Unique tooth structure allowed predatory dinosaurs to efficiently crunch flesh and bone" 2925:

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/13/130228-duckbill-tyrannosaurus-dinosaur-wound-scar-science/

1526: 745: 1665:"Feeding traces attributable to juvenile Tyrannosaurus rex offer insight into ontogenetic dietary trends" 1108:

was once proposed to have had infectious saliva used to kill its prey. This theory was first proposed by

1834: 461:, while slower than large modern terrestrial predators, may well have been fast enough to prey on large 2832:, Tennant, Jon (2013). Dinosaur's Flesh Wound Preserved in Fossil Record. Retrieved July 22, 2013 from 1954: 1194: 1076:

on the other hand reached a length of 40 feet, but it took more than twice as long to reach that size.

1966:

The king of killers or fearsome freeloader? It is one of the big questions currently in palaeontology.

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suggesting the possibility that some of them may have been able to kill the attacker. Paul wrote that

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was an obligate scavenger and that there have only been a few studies to directly support the idea of

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as an obligate scavenger. John Hutchinson, writing in his blog state that most scientists agree that

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without injuring itself, though there could be some variance depending on the sizes of the animals (

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head-on because that would have maximized the danger while lessening the chance of success. Instead

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Hone, D. W.; Rauhut, O. W. (2010). "Feeding behaviour and bone utilization by theropod dinosaurs".

2876:

https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/sciencefair/2013/02/21/tyrannosaur-teeth-duckbill-skin/1933843/

1879: 1501: 1475: 477:. The eye-sockets of tyrannosaurs are positioned so that the eyes would point forward, giving them 245:, however, is as old as the debate about its locomotion. Lambe (1917) described a good skeleton of 125: 18: 1066:

would still be the size of a dog. It would also be stated that the sample hadrosaur in the study,

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hunted different prey in a form of niche partitioning so as to avoid competition with the adults.

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was undoubtedly a predator and a scavenger, and that researchers have objected to the idea that

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Additionally, research done by Greg Erikson and Paul Gignac et al. and published in the journal

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switched between being a predator and scavenger; not turning down a meal either dead or alive.

3862: 3793: 3733: 3527: 3504: 3419: 3392: 3382: 3239: 3231: 3079: 3017: 2949: 2795: 2765: 2682: 2594: 2586: 2445: 2414: 2362: 2242: 2196: 2167:"Could Tyrannosaurus rex have been a scavenger rather than a predator? An energetics approach" 2147: 2137: 2112: 2029: 2021: 1991: 1883: 1747: 1696: 1650:"Secrets behind T. Rex's bone crushing bites: T. Rex could crush with 8,000 pound bite forces" 1613: 1456: 1378: 559: 486: 294: 32: 27: 2862:

http://www.walkingwithdinosaurs.com/news/post/fossilised-edmontosaurus-scar-dinosaur-picture/

2333: 3852: 3842: 3693: 3641: 3581: 3494: 3486: 3354: 3221: 3213: 3153: 3106: 3069: 3059: 3007: 2999: 2984:"Intra-guild Competition and its Implications for One of the Biggest Terrestrial Predators, 2904: 2755: 2745: 2672: 2662: 2620: 2578: 2519: 2474: 2406: 2317: 2281: 2234: 2186: 2178: 2102: 2094: 1921: 1782: 1737: 1727: 1686: 1676: 1603: 1595: 1446: 1438: 1368: 1360: 1321: 834: 676: 490: 478: 396: 40:(its jaws, legs and overall body design) are often interpreted to be indicative of either a 2712:

Tyrannosaurus rex tooth found in dinosaur's tail bone 'proves' it was hunter, not scavenger

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Bloomsbury Illustrated Dictionary of Prehistoric Life (Bloomsbury Illustrated Dictionaries)

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at a conservative estimated speed of 7.5 meters per second would have enabled it to topple

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had the upper hand and would successfully defend itself by inflicting fatal wounds to the

369: 3414:. In Parrish, Michael J.; Molnar, Ralph E.; Currie, Philip J.; Koppelhus, Eva B. (eds.). 3838: 3821:

Longrich, Nicholas R.; Horner, John R.; Erickson, Gregory M.; Currie, Philip J. (2010).

3760: 3689: 3577: 3350: 3149: 3055: 2900: 2741: 2658: 2574: 2402: 2277: 2230: 1356: 1317: 289: 3857: 3822: 3499: 3474: 3074: 3039: 3012: 2983: 2760: 2725: 2677: 2638: 2440:

Manning P (2008). "T. rex speed trap". In Carpenter, Kenneth; Larson, Peter E. (eds.).

2191: 2166: 2107: 2082: 1742: 1715: 1691: 1664: 1608: 1583: 1451: 1426: 1373: 1340: 1210: 61: 2558: 1716:"Bite force estimates in juvenile Tyrannosaurus rex based on simulated puncture marks" 802:. The scientists call this phenomenon as resource partitioning which would have given 3880: 3376: 3358: 3157: 3110: 2606: 2131: 1875: 1869: 1823: 1183: 1150: 1117: 1109: 1090:

was the faster animal, its greater speed was only useful over short distances, while

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had roots that were twice as long as the crowns. He further states that the teeth of

3705: 3655: 3601: 3412:"Chapter 13: The Biomechanics of a Plausible Hunting Strategy for Tyrannosaurus rex" 3118: 2486: 2081:

Zelenitsky, Darla K.; Therrien, Francois; Kobayashi, Yoshitsugu (22 February 2009).

1908:

Horner, J.R. (1994). "Steak knives, beady eyes, and tiny little arms (a portrait of

1584:"Estimating maximum bite performance in Tyrannosaurus rex using multi-body dynamics" 549:

found in 2007 was described by David Burnham et al. in 2013 has the tip of an adult

3778: 3475:"Relative growth rates of predator and prey dinosaurs reflect effects of predation" 3251: 2510: 2426: 2293: 859: 672: 622: 466: 424: 374: 99:

A study by Emily J. Rayfield from the University of Bristol further supported that

88: 2908: 1965: 1940: 1766: 530: 3847: 3411: 3064: 1226: 1214: 1030: 664: 589: 570: 439:, but further added that all hyaenids are known to kill prey, with the largest ( 403: 254: 177: 2238: 2083:"Olfactory acuity in theropods: palaeobiological and evolutionary implications" 921:

could have used a hunting strategy similar in concept to "cow tipping" against

3732:

Kaplan, Matt(2012). How to eat a Triceratops. Retrieved on July 16, 2013 from

3585: 3197:

Kane, Adam; Healy, Kevin; Ruxton, Graeme D.; Jackson, Andrew L. (2016-04-12).

2700:

Subbaraman, Nidhi(2013, July 16). Crunch! T. rex tooth found in dino tailbone.

1925: 1865: 1505: 1251: 1047: 998: 606: 494: 462: 402:

Tyrannosaur teeth could crush bone, and therefore could extract as much food (

82: 45: 3801: 3797: 3235: 2590: 1170:, so that it could consume its meal's nutrient-rich neck muscles. Studies of 22:

Mounted skeletons of different age groups, Los Angeles Natural History Museum

3816: 3814: 3624:

Snively, Eric.; Cotton, John R.; Ridgely, Ryan; Witmer, Lawrence M. (2013).

3396: 2750: 2667: 2582: 2151: 821:

had stout, strong teeth and a bony palate; both of which would have enabled

602: 497:

provides. In modern animals, binocular vision is found mainly in predators.

428: 407: 380: 338: 329: 242: 238: 182: 41: 3866: 3508: 3490: 3473:

Cooper, Lisa Noelle; Lee, Andrew H.; Taper, Mark L; Horner, John R (2008).

3243: 3083: 3021: 3003: 2769: 2686: 2598: 2418: 2246: 2200: 2182: 2116: 2098: 1751: 1700: 1617: 1599: 1460: 1442: 1382: 1158:

Denver Fowler from the University of the Rockies would later discover that

419:

teeth and those of other predators. Farlow and Holtz pointed out that like

1510:(Lecture). Kane Hall Room 130 University of Washington Seattle, WA 98195: 752:

and a cast of the "Wankelrex" specimen, Houston Museum of Natural Science

667:. The other tyrannosaurids share so many characteristics that only small 546: 502: 388: 3783:"Head-biting behavior in theropod dinosaurs: paleopathological evidence" 2784:

https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887323664204578607911233796672

2465:

Stevens, Kent A. (June 2006). "Binocular vision in theropod dinosaurs".

1732: 1364: 1133: 48:

lifestyle, and as such the biomechanics, feeding strategies and diet of

3593: 3226: 2531: 2329: 1811:

Farlow, J.O.; Holtz, T.R. (2002). Kowalewski, M.; Kelley, P.H. (eds.).

1806: 1804: 1802: 1800: 1798: 1681: 1247: 384: 316: 308: 137: 129: 1341:"Estimating cranial musculoskeletal constraints in theropod dinosaurs" 500:

A 2021 study focusing on the vision and hearing of the small theropod

2410: 1218: 961:

moving at moderate speed could have generated enough force to topple

3697: 3038:

Horner John R.; Goodwin Mark B.; Myhrvold Nathan (9 February 2011).

2523: 2321: 2261: 1955:

http://media.libsyn.com/media/skepticsguide/skepticast2009-10-14.mp3

1544: 1542: 1325: 965:

and would have only taken 2–3 seconds. Their study suggested that a

3217: 2982:

Carbone, Chris; Turvey, Samuel T.; Bielby, Jon (January 26, 2011).

1787: 1632:"T. Rex Bite Strongest Ever on Land—Ten Times Greater Than Gator's" 813:

The University of Maryland's Thomas R. Holtz Jr. has proposed that

76:

In a study made by Stephan Lautenschlager and colleagues comparing

2559:"Evolution of vision and hearing modalities in theropod dinosaurs" 2285: 1983: 1221:

and tail vertebrae, scarred facial bones and a tooth from another

1193: 1132: 1024: 901: 853: 744: 639: 529: 444: 436: 411: 320: 288: 17: 3646: 3625: 1397:"The better to eat you with? How dinosaurs' jaws influenced diet" 431:

also had broad-based teeth. Holtz noted the similarities between

651:

Various studies have also taken into account the ecosystem that

482: 365: 304: 3378:

Predatory dinosaurs of the world: a complete illustrated guide

3033: 3031: 2726:"Physical evidence of predatory behavior in Tyrannosaurus rex" 2212: 2210: 1507:

The Life and Times of Tyrannosaurus rex, with Dr. Thomas Holtz

1014:, its arms were at the right height to reach the spine of the 562:(1998) had also described another specimen of the hadrosaurid 1120:

was originally thought to have. However, Jack Horner regards

597:

in the form of partially healed tyrannosaur tooth marks on a

163:. Bates and Falkingham used computer modeling to reconstruct 1714:

Peterson, Joseph E.; Tseng, Z. Jack; Brink, Shannon (2021).

136:

and its relatives. He stated that most reptiles do not have

3734:

http://www.nature.com/news/how-to-eat-a-triceratops-1.11650

3199:"Body Size as a Driver of Scavenging in Theropod Dinosaurs" 2948:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. pp. 355–368. 2444:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. pp. 205–228. 863:

and the "Wyrex" specimen, Houston Museum of Natural Science

691:

s image as a predator, noting that research has found that

36:

has been studied extensively. The well known attributes of

3526:. Bedford Square, London: Bloomsbury Sigma. p. 229. 379:

concluded that an ecosystem as productive as the current

3418:. Indiana University Press. pp. 251–253, 257, 260. 2479:

10.1671/0272-4634(2006)26[321:BVITD]2.0.CO;2

1903: 1901: 1899: 3626:"Multibody dynamics model of head and neck function in 2992:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

2015: 2013: 2011: 2009: 2007: 1431:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

568:(in some newspapers it is misidentified as the similar 103:

used the puncture and pull feeding strategy, where the

3671:"Craniocervical feeding dynamics of Tyrannosaurus rex" 3332: 3330: 2800:"Evidence of predatory behavior by theropod dinosaurs" 2946:

Tyrannosaurus rex, the Tyrant King (Life of the Past)

2442:

Tyrannosaurus rex, the Tyrant King (Life of the Past)

1577: 1575: 1478:. American Association for the Advancement of Science 1098:

to actively chase down and kill its intended target.

2260:

Chin, K.; Erickson, G.M.; et al. (1998-06-18).

1427:"Cranial mechanics and feeding in Tyrannosaurus rex" 1082:

may have had more endurance than hadrosaurs such as

756:

Various proposals have been made regarding the ways

2944:". In Carpenter, Kenneth; Larson, Peter E. (eds.). 1551:"The Tyrannosaurus Rex's Dangerous and Deadly Bite" 917:David A. Krauss and John M. Robinson proposed that 617:survived the encounter and managed to overcome the 323:). He also cited other extinct animals such as the 3410:Krauss, David A.; Robinson, John M. (2013-07-05). 2024:. In Larson, Peter L.; Carpenter, Kenneth (eds.). 1496: 1494: 1492: 128:stated that fused nasal bones and the presence of 3448:"Duck-Billed Dinosaurs "Outgrew" Their Predators" 2352: 2350: 1977: 1975: 1973: 1191:to flourish for the entirety of their existence. 851:could have used hit-and-run attacks on its prey. 117:redirected much of the strain from biting to the 2632: 2630: 997:may have experienced more difficulty due to its 2647:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1986:. In Larson, Peter; Carpenter, Kenneth (eds.). 1914:The Paleontological Society Special Publication 1162:employed a complex feeding strategy to consume 52:have been subject to much research and debate. 2621:"Shuvuuia: A dinosaur that hunted in the dark" 2028:. Indiana University Press. pp. 307–345. 700:may have regularly destroyed the skeletons of 3416:Tyrannosaurid Paleobiology (Life of the Past) 2057:"T. Rex brain study reveals a refined "nose"" 1813:"The Fossil Record of Predation in Dinosaurs" 1663:Peterson, Joseph E.; Daus, Karsen N. (2019). 8: 3314:"Tyrannosaurus rex: predator or media hype?" 3289:"Time to Slay the T. rex Scavenger "Debate"" 2639:"Physical evidence of predatory behavior in 473:Other evidence suggests hunting behavior in 391:from carrion than it spent on foraging (see 2714:(2013, July 16). Retrieved on July 16, 2013 1512:Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture 1209:interacted with each other. When examining 1058:, Andrew Lee explained that hadrosaurs and 1022:would not have needed to compete in speed. 277:has been a major advocate of the idea that 3669:Snively, Eric; Russell, Anthony P (2007). 3450:. National Geographic News. Archived from 1775:Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Canada 1205:More findings have also shed light on how 1086:; though biomechanical studies have shown 647:tooth marks on bones of various herbivores 625:estimated that in a battle against a bull 613:wounds healed, it is most likely that the 3856: 3846: 3645: 3498: 3225: 3073: 3063: 3011: 2759: 2749: 2676: 2666: 2382:Hutchinson JR, Garcia M (February 2002). 2190: 2106: 1786: 1741: 1731: 1690: 1680: 1607: 1450: 1372: 1072:reached a length 30 feet in 10–12 years. 655:lived in. Some researchers argue that if 534:The damage to the tail vertebrae of this 258:and concluded that it and therefore also 3173:"Tyrannosaurus: Hyena of the Cretaceous" 1116:a deadly, infectious bite much like the 3267:"So tyrannosaurs were scavengers then…" 1271: 985:). Furthermore, their study noted that 1843: 1832: 1818:. The Paleontological Society Papers. 1524: 1339:Lautenschlager, Stephan (2015-11-04). 887:did not attack horned animals such as 3761:"Structural secret of T. Rex's teeth" 2384:"Tyrannosaurus was not a fast runner" 1990:. Book Publishers. pp. 371–394. 1767:"The Cretaceous theropodous dinosaur 1582:Bates, K.T; Falkingham, P.L. (2012). 913:at Los Angeles Natural History Museum 7: 2302:"Getting the scoop from the poop of 2165:Ruxton GD, Houston DC (April 2003). 1279:University of Alberta (2012-03-18). 481:slightly better than that of modern 1425:Rayfield, Emily J. (22 July 2004). 1141:A few studies have also focused on 867:Gregory S. Paul has suggested that 3823:"Cannibalism in Tyrannosaurus rex" 3479:Proceedings of the Royal Society B 2467:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 2087:Proceedings of the Royal Society B 1988:Tyrannosaurus rex: The Tyrant King 1306:Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 1201:bones with evidence of cannibalism 262:was a pure scavenger, because the 132:were some of the unique traits of 14: 3269:. David Hone's Archosaur Musing's 2262:"A king-sized theropod coprolite" 716:Most paleontologists accept that 3381:. New York: Simon and Schuster. 3359:10.1111/j.1502-3931.2009.00187.x 3158:10.1046/j.1365-2028.1999.00161.x 3111:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00183.x 2171:Proceedings: Biological Sciences 2133:Predatory Dinosaurs of the World 1476:"T. rex's Shock-Absorbing Skull" 1281:"T. rex's killer smile revealed" 155:In 2012, a study of the jaws of 3312:Hutchinson, John (2013-07-15). 2506:vision was among nature's best" 2361:. Godfrey Cave Associates Ltd. 1010:is pressed against the side of 773:Some studies also suggest that 2300:Monastersky, R. (1998-06-20). 2219:Journal of Theoretical Biology 2026:Tyrannosaurus, The Tyrant King 1549:Switek, Brian (October 2012). 1474:Nicholls, Henry (2004-06-09). 981:could have attacked a smaller 225:in a study published in 2021. 1: 2909:10.1016/j.cretres.2013.01.005 953:had fallen over to its side, 523:, which was also compared to 293:Cast of the braincase at the 3848:10.1371/journal.pone.0013419 3781:; Currie, Philip J. (1998). 3287:Switek, Brian (2013-07-16). 3065:10.1371/journal.pone.0016574 1634:. 2012-02-28. Archived from 1403:. 2015-11-03. Archived from 121:skull's robust nasal bones. 3316:. What's in John's Freezer? 929:would ambush and knock the 510:was compared suggests that 3913: 3759:Ali, Yasmin (2015-07-29). 3634:Palaeontologia Electronica 3524:The Tyrannosaur Chronicles 3265:Hone, David (2010-07-13). 3171:aitek Brian (2011-03-07). 3138:African Journal of Ecology 2702:Retrieved on July 16, 2013 2500:Jaffe, Eric (2006-07-01). 2239:10.1016/j.jtbi.2004.02.005 1345:Royal Society Open Science 1217:found a broken and healed 1001:. According to the study, 781:. According to the study, 282:science (such as assuming 3586:10.1017/s0094837300013956 2020:Paul, Gregory S. (2008). 1982:Holtz, Thomas R. (2008). 1926:10.1017/S2475262200009497 1822:: 251–266. Archived from 833:had a solidly built bony 383:would provide sufficient 233:The debate about whether 92:, it was calculated that 3630:(Dinosauria, Theropoda)" 3446:Than, Ker (6 Aug 2008). 2357:Walters, Martin (1995). 1531:: CS1 maint: location ( 1145:complex feeding habits. 1056:National Geographic News 337:. Gregory S. Paul cited 3546:1999. The teeth of the 3206:The American Naturalist 2972:, Princeton Press. p.19 2751:10.1073/pnas.1216534110 2668:10.1073/pnas.1216534110 2583:10.1126/science.abe7941 2502:"Sight for 'Saur Eyes: 1939:Amos, J. (2003-07-31). 1262:practiced cannibalism. 637:using its sharp horns. 565:Edmontosaurus annectens 536:Edmontosaurus annectens 450:Since at least some of 393:Metabolism of dinosaurs 3491:10.1098/rspb.2008.0912 3004:10.1098/rspb.2010.2497 2183:10.1098/rspb.2002.2279 2136:. Simon and Schuster. 2099:10.1098/rspb.2008.1075 1941:"T. rex goes on trial" 1842:Cite journal requires 1600:10.1098/rsbl.2012.0056 1443:10.1098/rspb.2004.2755 1202: 1138: 1039: 914: 864: 753: 648: 542: 298: 23: 1765:Lambe, L. B. (1917). 1197: 1136: 1028: 905: 857: 748: 643: 533: 292: 124:In his 2013 lecture, 21: 3522:Hone, David (2016). 3177:Smithsonian Magazine 2970:The Horned Dinosaurs 1880:Simon & Schuster 1242:. They studied some 181:and the giant shark 80:to fellow theropods 3839:2010PLoSO...513419L 3690:2007Pbio...33..610S 3578:1992Pbio...18..161A 3552:Scientific American 3485:(1651): 2609–2615. 3351:2010Letha..43..232H 3293:National Geographic 3179:. Smithsonian Media 3150:1999AfJEc..37..149C 3056:2011PLoSO...616574H 2998:(1718): 2682–2690. 2901:2013CrRes..42...44R 2889:Cretaceous Research 2742:2013PNAS..11012560D 2736:(31): 12560–12564. 2659:2013PNAS..11012560D 2653:(31): 12560–12564. 2575:2021Sci...372..610C 2403:2002Natur.415.1018H 2278:1998Natur.393..680C 2231:2004JThBi.228..431R 2130:Paul, G.S. (1988). 1871:The complete T. rex 1733:10.7717/peerj.11450 1502:Holtz, Thomas R Jr. 1437:(1547): 1451–1459. 1365:10.1098/rsos.150495 1357:2015RSOS....250495L 1318:2012CaJES..49..477R 495:stereoscopic vision 435:teeth and those of 341:as another example. 126:Thomas R. Holtz Jr. 3099:Journal of Zoology 2856:2014-05-02 at the 2839:2014-03-14 at the 2828:2014-03-14 at the 1912:as a scavenger)". 1682:10.7717/peerj.6573 1588:Biological Letters 1504:(19 March 2013) . 1203: 1139: 1040: 915: 865: 754: 741:Hunting strategies 649: 543: 299: 198:Scientific Reports 24: 3533:978-1-4729-1125-4 3454:on August 9, 2008 3388:978-0-671-61946-6 2986:Tyrannosaurus rex 2955:978-0-253-35087-9 2938:Tyrannosaurus rex 2641:Tyrannosaurus rex 2569:(6542): 610–613. 2451:978-0-253-35087-9 2397:(6875): 1018–21. 2368:978-1-85471-648-4 2272:(6686): 680–682. 2143:978-0-671-61946-6 2093:(1657): 667–673. 1997:978-0-253-35087-9 1889:978-0-671-74185-3 1638:on March 2, 2012. 1250:, foot bones and 1213:, paleontologist 661:marginocephalians 621:. Paleontologist 560:Kenneth Carpenter 487:natural selection 295:Australian Museum 252:s close relative 71:Tyrannosaurus rex 66:Tyrannosaurus rex 33:Tyrannosaurus rex 28:feeding behaviour 3904: 3871: 3870: 3860: 3850: 3818: 3809: 3808: 3806: 3800:. Archived from 3787: 3779:Tanke, Darren H. 3775: 3769: 3768: 3756: 3750: 3749: 3742: 3736: 3730: 3724: 3723: 3721: 3720: 3714: 3708:. Archived from 3675: 3666: 3660: 3659: 3649: 3621: 3615: 3612: 3606: 3605: 3561: 3555: 3544: 3538: 3537: 3519: 3513: 3512: 3502: 3470: 3464: 3463: 3461: 3459: 3443: 3437: 3436: 3434: 3432: 3407: 3401: 3400: 3373:Paul, Gregory S. 3369: 3363: 3362: 3334: 3325: 3324: 3322: 3321: 3309: 3303: 3302: 3300: 3299: 3284: 3278: 3277: 3275: 3274: 3262: 3256: 3255: 3229: 3203: 3194: 3188: 3187: 3185: 3184: 3168: 3162: 3161: 3129: 3123: 3122: 3094: 3088: 3087: 3077: 3067: 3035: 3026: 3025: 3015: 2979: 2973: 2966: 2960: 2959: 2933: 2927: 2919: 2913: 2912: 2884: 2878: 2870: 2864: 2849: 2843: 2821: 2815: 2814: 2804: 2792: 2786: 2780: 2774: 2773: 2763: 2753: 2721: 2715: 2709: 2703: 2697: 2691: 2690: 2680: 2670: 2634: 2625: 2624: 2617: 2611: 2610: 2553: 2547: 2546: 2544: 2543: 2534:. Archived from 2497: 2491: 2490: 2462: 2456: 2455: 2437: 2431: 2430: 2411:10.1038/4151018a 2388: 2379: 2373: 2372: 2354: 2345: 2344: 2342: 2341: 2332:. Archived from 2297: 2257: 2251: 2250: 2214: 2205: 2204: 2194: 2162: 2156: 2155: 2127: 2121: 2120: 2110: 2078: 2072: 2071: 2069: 2068: 2053: 2047: 2046: 2044: 2042: 2017: 2002: 2001: 1979: 1968: 1963: 1957: 1951: 1945: 1944: 1936: 1930: 1929: 1905: 1894: 1893: 1858: 1852: 1851: 1845: 1840: 1838: 1830: 1828: 1817: 1808: 1793: 1792: 1790: 1762: 1756: 1755: 1745: 1735: 1711: 1705: 1704: 1694: 1684: 1660: 1654: 1653: 1646: 1640: 1639: 1628: 1622: 1621: 1611: 1579: 1570: 1569: 1567: 1566: 1557:. Archived from 1546: 1537: 1536: 1530: 1522: 1520: 1518: 1498: 1487: 1486: 1484: 1483: 1471: 1465: 1464: 1454: 1422: 1416: 1415: 1413: 1412: 1393: 1387: 1386: 1376: 1336: 1330: 1329: 1301: 1295: 1294: 1292: 1291: 1276: 1176: 1129:Feeding behavior 943: 882: 835:secondary palate 792: 690: 558:were predators. 491:depth perception 479:binocular vision 456: 397:ecological niche 354: 251: 169: 3912: 3911: 3907: 3906: 3905: 3903: 3902: 3901: 3877: 3876: 3875: 3874: 3820: 3819: 3812: 3804: 3792:(15): 167–184. 3785: 3777: 3776: 3772: 3758: 3757: 3753: 3744: 3743: 3739: 3731: 3727: 3718: 3716: 3712: 3698:10.1666/06059.1 3673: 3668: 3667: 3663: 3623: 3622: 3618: 3613: 3609: 3563: 3562: 3558: 3545: 3541: 3534: 3521: 3520: 3516: 3472: 3471: 3467: 3457: 3455: 3445: 3444: 3440: 3430: 3428: 3426: 3409: 3408: 3404: 3389: 3371: 3370: 3366: 3336: 3335: 3328: 3319: 3317: 3311: 3310: 3306: 3297: 3295: 3286: 3285: 3281: 3272: 3270: 3264: 3263: 3259: 3201: 3196: 3195: 3191: 3182: 3180: 3170: 3169: 3165: 3134:Crocuta crocuta 3131: 3130: 3126: 3096: 3095: 3091: 3037: 3036: 3029: 2981: 2980: 2976: 2968:Dodson, Peter, 2967: 2963: 2956: 2935: 2934: 2930: 2920: 2916: 2886: 2885: 2881: 2871: 2867: 2858:Wayback Machine 2850: 2846: 2841:Wayback Machine 2830:Wayback Machine 2822: 2818: 2802: 2794: 2793: 2789: 2781: 2777: 2723: 2722: 2718: 2710: 2706: 2698: 2694: 2636: 2635: 2628: 2619: 2618: 2614: 2555: 2554: 2550: 2541: 2539: 2524:10.2307/4017288 2499: 2498: 2494: 2464: 2463: 2459: 2452: 2439: 2438: 2434: 2386: 2381: 2380: 2376: 2369: 2356: 2355: 2348: 2339: 2337: 2322:10.2307/4010364 2299: 2259: 2258: 2254: 2216: 2215: 2208: 2177:(1516): 731–3. 2164: 2163: 2159: 2144: 2129: 2128: 2124: 2080: 2079: 2075: 2066: 2064: 2055: 2054: 2050: 2040: 2038: 2036: 2019: 2018: 2005: 1998: 1981: 1980: 1971: 1964: 1960: 1952: 1948: 1938: 1937: 1933: 1907: 1906: 1897: 1890: 1862:Horner, John R. 1860: 1859: 1855: 1841: 1831: 1826: 1815: 1810: 1809: 1796: 1764: 1763: 1759: 1713: 1712: 1708: 1662: 1661: 1657: 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Retrieved 1285:ScienceDaily 1284: 1274: 1255: 1243: 1239: 1237: 1222: 1206: 1204: 1198: 1188: 1178: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1154: 1151:allosauroids 1146: 1142: 1140: 1121: 1113: 1105: 1104: 1100: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1078: 1073: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1052: 1043: 1041: 1035: 1029: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1002: 994: 990: 986: 982: 978: 974: 970: 966: 962: 958: 954: 950: 946: 938: 934: 930: 926: 925:, where the 922: 918: 916: 910: 906: 896: 892: 888: 884: 877: 873: 868: 866: 860:Denversaurus 858: 848: 844: 839: 830: 826: 822: 818: 814: 812: 807: 803: 799: 795: 787: 782: 778: 774: 772: 767: 762: 757: 755: 749: 734: 730: 726: 722: 717: 715: 709: 705: 701: 697: 685: 680: 669:dromaeosaurs 656: 652: 650: 644: 634: 630: 626: 623:Peter Dodson 618: 614: 610: 598: 594: 588: 583: 579: 575: 569: 563: 555: 550: 544: 539: 535: 524: 518: 511: 507: 501: 499: 474: 472: 467:ceratopsians 458: 451: 440: 432: 420: 416: 375:Velociraptor 373: 361: 357: 349: 344: 328: 324: 283: 278: 272: 267: 263: 259: 253: 246: 234: 232: 222: 218: 213: 211: 205: 201: 197: 195: 190: 186: 176: 171: 164: 160: 156: 154: 149: 145: 141: 133: 123: 118: 113: 108: 104: 100: 98: 93: 89:Erlikosaurus 87: 81: 77: 75: 70: 65: 59: 49: 37: 31: 25: 15: 3554:281: 40-41. 3227:10023/10617 2942:Triceratops 2316:(25): 391. 2298:Summary at 1920:: 157–164. 1769:Gorgosaurus 1252:metatarsals 1234:Cannibalism 1227:cannibalism 1215:Pete Larson 1168:Triceratops 1164:Triceratops 1031:Alamosaurus 1016:Triceratops 1012:Triceratops 995:Triceratops 991:Triceratops 987:Triceratops 983:Triceratops 975:Triceratops 971:Triceratops 963:Triceratops 951:Triceratops 947:Triceratops 931:Triceratops 923:Triceratops 911:Triceratops 889:Triceratops 874:Triceratops 800:Triceratops 677:steal kills 673:troodontids 665:ornithopods 631:Triceratops 627:Triceratops 615:Triceratops 611:Triceratops 599:Triceratops 590:Triceratops 571:Hadrosaurus 506:, to which 404:bone marrow 284:T. rex 275:Jack Horner 264:Gorgosaurus 255:Gorgosaurus 178:Deinosuchus 60:Like other 3881:Categories 3719:2014-03-13 3628:Allosaurus 3458:15 October 3320:2013-08-26 3298:2013-08-26 3273:2013-08-26 3183:2013-08-26 2813:: 135–144. 2542:2008-10-06 2518:(1): 3–4. 2340:2014-03-13 2067:2008-10-29 1866:Don Lessem 1726:: e11450. 1565:2014-03-13 1517:12 October 1482:2013-08-10 1411:2018-09-14 1290:2013-07-15 1266:References 1048:gregarious 607:neck frill 463:hadrosaurs 429:crocodiles 408:coprolites 339:thylacines 241:or a pure 229:Scavenging 83:Allosaurus 46:scavenging 3897:Carnivory 3887:Predation 3798:0871-5424 3236:0003-0147 2895:: 44–47. 2607:233872840 2591:0036-8075 1675:: e6573. 1102:vessels. 603:squamosal 547:vertebrae 381:Serengeti 330:Gastornis 243:scavenger 183:megalodon 42:predatory 3867:20976177 3827:PLOS ONE 3765:BBC News 3706:16290998 3656:13508004 3602:88238481 3509:18682367 3397:18350868 3375:(1988). 3244:27172591 3119:40031833 3084:21347420 3044:PLOS ONE 3022:21270037 2854:Archived 2837:Archived 2826:Archived 2798:(1998). 2770:23858435 2687:23858435 2599:33958472 2487:85694979 2419:11875567 2247:15135041 2201:12713747 2152:18350868 2117:18957367 1868:(1993). 1781:: 1–84. 1752:34141468 1701:30863686 1618:22378742 1461:15306316 1383:26716007 525:Shuvuuia 503:Shuvuuia 437:hyaenids 389:calories 372:such as 325:Diatryma 309:seriemas 297:, Sydney 239:predator 138:incisors 130:incisors 3858:2955550 3835:Bibcode 3686:Bibcode 3594:2400997 3574:Bibcode 3500:2605812 3347:Bibcode 3339:Lethaia 3252:3840870 3146:Bibcode 3075:3036655 3052:Bibcode 3013:3136829 2897:Bibcode 2761:3732924 2738:Bibcode 2678:3732924 2655:Bibcode 2571:Bibcode 2563:Science 2532:4017288 2427:4389633 2399:Bibcode 2330:4010364 2294:4343329 2274:Bibcode 2227:Bibcode 2192:1691292 2108:2660930 1743:8179241 1692:6404657 1609:3391458 1452:1691752 1374:4680622 1353:Bibcode 1314:Bibcode 1248:humerus 385:carrion 370:raptors 56:Feeding 3865: 3855: 3796: 3704: 3654: 3600: 3592: 3530: 3507: 3497: 3422: 3395: 3385: 3250: 3242: 3234: 3117: 3082: 3072: 3020: 3010: 2952: 2768: 2758: 2685: 2675: 2605: 2597: 2589: 2530: 2504:T. rex 2485: 2448: 2425: 2417: 2391:Nature 2365: 2328: 2304:T. rex 2292: 2266:Nature 2245: 2199: 2189: 2150: 2140: 2115: 2105: 2032: 1994: 1943:. 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Feeding behaviour of Tyrannosaurus

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