Infocom - Knowledge (XXG)

699:. Berez stated that "there is no noticeable correlation between graphics machines and our penetration. There is a high correlation between the price of the machine and our sales ... people who are putting more money into their machines tend to buy more of our software". Since their games were text-based, patrons of bookstores were drawn to the Infocom games as they were already interested in reading. Unlike most computer software, Infocom titles were distributed under a no-returns policy, which allowed them to make money from a single game for a longer period of time. 1141: 818:. Gamers could thus reveal only the hints that they needed to have to play the game. To prevent the mere questions (printed in normal ink) from giving away too much information about the game, a certain number of misleading fake questions were included in every InvisiClues book. Answers to these questions would start by giving misleading or impossible to carry out answers, before the final answer revealed that the question was a fake (and usually admonishing the player that revealing random clues from the book would 961:, provide artwork. Within Infocom the game designers tended to oppose graphics, while marketing and business employees supported using them for the company to remain competitive. The partnership negotiations failed, in part because of the difficulty of adding graphics to the Z-machine, and Infocom instead began a series of advertisements mocking graphical games as "graffiti" compared to the human imagination. The marketing campaign was very successful, and Infocom's success led to other companies like 753:. Some games were unsolvable without the extra content provided with the boxed game. And because of the cleverness and uniqueness of the feelies, users rarely felt like they were an intrusion or inconvenience, as was the case with most of the other copy-protection schemes of the time. Feelies also provided the player with a physical aspect to the gameplay of their text adventures, giving another dimension of strategy to what would other-wise just be a text parser. 925:. This is one of the key reasons for the continued success of old titles such as Zork." Dornbrook estimated that year that of the 1.8 million home computers in America, one half million homes had Infocom games ("all, if you count the pirated games"). Computer companies sent prototypes of new systems to encourage Infocom to port Z-machine to them; the virtual machine supported more than 20 different systems, including 733: 66: 888:, so it was not promoted by any of the database consultants that small businesses typically hired to create and maintain their DB applications. Reviewers were also consistently disappointed that Infocom—noted for the natural language syntax of their games—did not include a natural language query ability, which had been the most anticipated feature for this database application. In a final disappointment, 989:, who was a fan of Infocom games and felt their two companies were in similar situations. Berez stated that although the two companies' headquarters and product lines would remain separate, "One of the effects of the merger will be for both of us to broaden our horizons". He said that "We're looking at graphics a lot", while Activision was reportedly interested in using Infocom's parser. 563: 703:

integrated into the storyline, and rarely did gamers feel like they were being made to jump through one arbitrary hoop after another, as was the case in many of the competitors' games. The puzzles were generally logical but also required close attention to the clues and hints given in the story, causing many gamers to keep copious notes as they went along.

1977:, but only in violation of the copyright. Activision did at one point release the original trilogy for free-of-charge download as a promotion but prohibited redistribution and have since discontinued this. There are currently at least four Infocom sampler and demos available from the IF Archive as Z-machine story files which require a Z-machine 1958:, the mainframe precursor to the commercial Zork trilogy, is believed to be free for non-commercial use. but prohibited for commercial use. It was this copy that the popular Fortran mainframe version was based on. The C version was based on the Fortran version. and is available from The Interactive Fiction Archive as original 813:

that only became visible when rubbed with a special marker that was provided with each book. Usually, two or more answers were given for each question that a gamer might have. The first answer would provide a subtle hint, the second a less subtle hint, and so forth until the last one gave an explicit

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which allowed the user to type complex instructions to the game. Unlike earlier works of interactive fiction which only understood commands of the form 'verb noun', Infocom's parser could understand a wider variety of sentences. For instance one might type "open the large door, then go west", or "go

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where users direct the action by entering short strings of words to give commands when prompted. Generally the program will respond by describing the results of the action, often the contents of a room if the player has moved within the virtual world. The user reads this information, decides what to

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Remnants of the unreleased sequel to Infocom's text adventure version of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy have been made available to the public by Waxy.org. Playable prototypes, design docs, source code and a string of e-mails between Infocom designers and management provide a fascinating look

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especially benefited; its sales rose for years after its initial release in 1980. To Infocom's surprise it sold almost 100,000 copies of the game in 1983, and the figure rose by more than 50% in 1984. Activision preferred to market Infocom's games the way they marketed their other titles: replacing

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series, every couple of pages the book would give the reader the chance to make a choice, such as which direction they wanted to go or how they wanted to respond to another character. The reader would then choose one of the given answers and turn to the appropriate page. These books, however, never

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Next, Infocom titles featured strong storytelling and rich descriptions, eschewing the inherent restrictions of graphic displays and allowing users to use their own imaginations for the lavish and exotic locations the games described. Infocom's puzzles were unique in that they were usually tightly

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at the game's turbulent, if aborted, development process. Among the assets included: design documents, e-mail archives, employee phone numbers, sales figures, internal meeting notes, corporate newsletters, and the source code and game files for every released and unreleased game Infocom made."

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reported, and they preferred Infocom adventures to arcade games. The company stated that year that 75% of players were over 25 years old and that 80% were men; more women played its games than other companies', especially the mysteries. Most players enjoyed reading books; in 1987 president

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In its first few years of operation, text adventures proved to be a huge revenue stream for the company. Whereas most computer games of the era would achieve initial success and then suffer a significant drop-off in sales, Infocom titles continued to sell for years and years. Employee

948:; this, in addition to a slump in computer game sales, left the company in a very precarious financial position. By the time Infocom removed the copy-protection and reduced the price to less than $ 100, it was too late, and the market had moved on to other database solutions. 772:

series, the company quickly branched out into a wide variety of story lines: fantasy, science-fiction, mystery, horror, historical adventure, children's stories, and others that defied easy categorization. In an attempt to reach out to female customers, Infocom also produced

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After a systems engineer at DEC obtained the source code for the MDL version by working out how to work around the implementors' directory protection and then brute-forcing their encryption, the implementors conceded that he deserved it if he was willing to go to that much

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could see what programs were being run. As a result, a small community of people discovered the new "Zork" adventure game and spread word of it under that name. This community interacted with the developers as they created the game, playtesting additions and submitting

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for all of Infocom's games (including unreleased ones), it also contained the software manuals, design documents and other essential content alongside Infocom's business documentation. Scott later published all of the source files in their original Z-engine format to

1054:. Rising costs and falling profits, exacerbated by the lack of new products in 1988 and technical issues with its DOS products, caused Activision to close Infocom in 1989, after which some of the remaining Infocom designers such as Steve Meretzky moved to the company 779:, which cast the gamer in the role of the heroine of a swashbuckling adventure on the high seas, and which required the heroine to use more feminine tactics to win the game, since hacking-and-slashing was not a very ladylike way to behave. Infocom also came out with 929:

for which Infocom games were among the only commercial products. The company produced the only third-party games available for the Macintosh at launch, and Berlyn promised that all 13 of its games would be available for the Atari ST within one month of its release.

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Activision itself was struggling in the marketplace following Davis' promotion to CEO. Activision had rebranded itself as Mediagenic and tried to produce business productivity software, but became significantly in debt. In 1991, Mediagenic was purchased by

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Davis required they use Activision's packaging plant instead of their own in-house one, raising the cost of each package from $ 0.45 to over $ 0.90. In addition, the Activision plant made numerous mistakes in packaging, whereas the Infocom one almost never

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created problems in the working relationship with Infocom. Davis believed that his company had paid too much for Infocom and initiated a lawsuit against them to recoup some of the cost, along with changing the way Infocom was run. For example:

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In the Solid Gold line of re-releases, InvisiClues were integrated into the game. By typing "HINT" twice the player would open up a screen of possible topics where they could then reveal one hint at a time for each puzzle, just like the books.

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game, which involves collecting magic spells to use in accomplishing the quest. One of these is a summoning spell, which the player needs to use to summon certain characters at different parts of the game. At one point the game mentions the

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Infocom was actually one of the very few companies to release game software for the C128's native mode, contrary to most software houses' practice of only catering for the combined C64/128 market (as the C128 was compatible with the

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older titles with newer ones. While this made sense for the graphically intensive games that made up the rest of Activision's catalog, since Infocom games were text based, it didn't make sense – the newer games didn't have improved

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had been programmed with its own virtual machine for maximum portability, it was not ported to any of the other platforms that Infocom supported for their games, so that feature had become essentially irrelevant. And because

867:, in January 1983; within a year it had earned $ 53 million, compared to Infocom's $ 6 million. In 1982 Infocom started putting resources into a new division to produce business products. In 1985 they released a 1127:

Eventually, Activision abandoned the "Infocom" name. The brand name was registered by Oliver Klaeffling of Germany in 2007, then was abandoned the following year. The Infocom trademark was then held by Pete Hottelet's

877:, aimed at capturing the then booming database market for small business. Though this application was hailed upon its release for ease of use, it sold only 10,000 copies; not enough to cover the development expenses. 662:

said, in part because "in offices all over America (more than anyone realizes) executives and managers are playing games on their computers". An estimated 25% had a computer game "hidden somewhere in their drawers",

1030:, bombed. This was, in part, due to Infocom's long-standing rule of maximum portability; a game that could display graphics on a number of different systems couldn't take advantage of the strengths of any of them. 785:

in 1986, which featured "tame", "suggestive", and "lewd" playing modes. It included among its "feelies" a "scratch-and-sniff" card with six odors that corresponded to cues given to the player during the game.

687:. Whereas most game developers sold their games mainly in software stores, Infocom also distributed their games via bookstores. Infocom's products appealed more to those with expensive computers, such as the 624:

said of their situation, "It was phenomenal – we had a basement that just printed money." By 1983 Infocom was perhaps the dominant computer-game company; for example, all ten of its games were on the

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and other titles. Activision began to sell bundles of the Infocom games that year, packaged as themed collections (usually by genre, such as the Science Fiction collection); in 1991, they published

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said Infocom's "games were noted for having more depth than any other adventure games, before or since." Three components proved key to Infocom's success: marketing strategy, rich storytelling and

2054:, received the so-called "Infocom Drive", a large archive of the entire contents of Infocom's main server made during the last few days before the company was relocated to California; besides 880:

The program failed for a number of reasons. Although it was packaged in a slick hard plastic carrying case and was a very good database for personal and home use, it was originally priced at

4683: 528:, and lack of enthusiasm for additional episodes and games. The developer decided to self-publish their games from that moment forward, buying out Personal Software's remaining inventory of 543:

from 1983 through 1985. By 1986, the game had sold 380,000 copies, with 680,000 sales for the trilogy overall, comprising one-third of Infocom's two million game sales. Reviewers hailed

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Davis required the struggling developer to produce eight titles a year. Infocom had traditionally produced about four games per year with more staff than they had post-merger.

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and more logical puzzles. They did not announce their game while it was in development, but a lack of security on the MIT systems meant that anyone who could access the

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By 1988, rumors spread of disputes between Activision and Infocom. Infocom employees reportedly believed that Activision gave poorer-quality games to Infocom, such as

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Sometimes, though, Infocom threw in puzzles just for the humor of it—if the user never ran into these, they could still finish the game. But discovering these early

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game was complete, and Berez was elected the company's president. The studio began seeking a professional publisher with store and distributor connections. After

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to the IBM PC platform by that time, so portability was no longer a significant differentiator. Infocom had sunk much of the money from games sales into

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do, and enters another short series of words. Examples include "go west", "take flashlight", or "give the letter to the woman then ask her for a book".

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in store inventories for years. Because of this, older titles continued to sell, and their sales rose when the company released newer games.

431: 289: 39: 3543: 3165: 2911: 3799: 3761: 3348: 1018:. This marketing approach cut off potential revenue for numerous Infocom titles that had consistently brought in money for several years. 4636: 2991: 1270: 2438: 524:, one of the first professional software publishing companies. However, Infocom grew wary of the publisher's lack of advertising for 4431: 2759: 2711: 1654: 993: 721:" who were responsible for creating the land of Zork. If the player tries to summon the Implementers, the game produces a vision of 3382: 2943:

Peckham, Matt; Eadicicco, Lisa; Fitzpatrick, Alex; Vella, Matt; Patrick Pullen, John; Raab, Josh; Grossman, Lev (August 23, 2016).

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their enjoyment of the game). The InvisiClues books were regularly ranked in near the top of best seller lists for computer books.

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Lebling and Blank each authored several more games, and additional game writers (or "Implementers") were hired, notably including

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on June 22, 1979, with founding members Tim Anderson, Joel Berez, Marc Blank, Mike Broos, Scott Cutler, Stu Galley, Dave Lebling,

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Despite their success with computer games, Vezza and other company founders hoped to produce successful business programs like

884:$ 495 per copy and used copy-protected disks. Another serious miscalculation was that the program did not include any kind of 2478: 636:

to acquire Infocom for $ 28 million, far more than the board of directors's valuation of $ 10–12 million. In 1993,

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wrote in 1984 that "the company always sells games for computers you don't normally think of as game machines, such as the

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By 1982 the market was moving to graphic adventures. Infocom was interested in producing them, that year proposing to

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The cost of acquisition was amortized by deducting it from Infocom's operating revenue during the next several years.

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Infocom's games' sales benefited significantly from the portability offered by running on top of a virtual machine.

809:: books with hints, maps, clues, and solutions for puzzles in the games. The answers to the puzzles were printed in 4273: 3427: 3410: 2264: 1436: 1311: 679: 323: 215: 2165:

Briceno, Hector; Wesley Chao; Andrew Glenn; Stanley Hu; Ashwin Krishnamurthy; Bruce Tsuchida (December 15, 2000).

4459: 4301: 2856: 2332: 2307: 1547: 1539: 863:, also founded by people from MIT and located in the same building as Infocom. Lotus released its first product, 844: 718: 712: 621: 453: 104: 2280:

They Create Worlds: The Story of the People and Companies That Shaped the Video Game Industry, Vol. I: 1971-1982

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While relations were cordial between the two companies at first, Activision's ousting of Levy with new CEO

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acquired the company on June 13, 1986, for $ 7.5 million. The merger was pushed by Activision's CEO

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in first place and two others in the top ten. In late 1984, management declined an offer by publisher

4550: 4385: 4371: 4294: 3855: 3735:"Is this going to be an Infocom branded game? :: Thaumistry: In Charm's Way General Discussions" 2555: 2526: 1467: 1395: 1347: 1055: 1051: 881: 551:. Historians noted the game as a foundation for the adventure game genre, as well as influencing the 2670: 1140: 1106:, a single CD-ROM which contained the works of both collections. This release, however, was missing 795: 2983: 1686: 1659: 1647: 1145: 926: 868: 674:

stated, " audience tends to be composed of heavy readers. We sell to the minority that does read".

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Efforts have been made to make the Infocom games source code available for preservation. In 2008,

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Third, the inclusion of "feelies"—imaginative props and extras tied to the game's theme—provided

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to play. Interpreters are available for most computer platforms, the most widely used being the

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only once per architecture, rather than once per game. Each game file included a sophisticated

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Leather Goddesses of Phobos 2: Gas Pump Girls Meet the Pulsating Inconvenience from Planet X!

1050:. Activision moved Infocom development to California in 1989, and the company was now just a 905:

used this virtual machine for its processing, it suffered from slow, lackluster performance.

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at their computers, surprised at this "bug" in the game and working feverishly to fix it.

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was satisfying for some fans of the games. For example, one popular Easter egg was in the

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for iOS devices. In-app purchases provide access for 27 of the titles. It also lacks

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With the Z-machine, Infocom was able to release most of their games for most popular

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This article is about the software company. For the web hosting service company, see

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Davis pushed Infocom to release more graphical games, but the one they did release,

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Originally, hints for the game were provided as a "pay-per-hint" service created by

4629: 4484: 4115: 3190: 2246: 2191: 1952:, the copyrights to the Infocom games are believed to be still held by Activision. 1691: 1679: 1675: 1581: 1223: 1096:

was not included in either bundle, but could be ordered via a coupon included with

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top 40 list of best-selling computer games for the week of December 12, 1983, with

488: 461: 375: 126: 65: 3322: 2461: 1090:. These compilations featured nearly every game produced by Infocom before 1988. ( 3922: 2170: 4590: 4392: 4213: 4133: 3986: 3908: 2381: 2356: 2055: 2047: 1970: 1962: 1475: 1411: 1301: 1250: 918: 864: 806: 732: 475: 449: 371: 367: 46: 4545: 4525: 4479: 4474: 4424: 4343: 4206: 4153: 2429:"Dave Lebling on the Genesis of the Adventure Game – and the Creation of Zork" 1638: 1606: 1598: 1512: 1456: 1360: 1355: 1340: 1293: 1285: 1063: 1026: 982: 962: 726: 671: 540: 457: 293: 252: 221: 168: 112: 3841: 3473: 2684: 2655: 2596: 2569: 2540: 2511: 2474: 2365: 1118:'s estates had expired. Under Kotick's leadership, Activision also developed 4616: 4464: 4140: 3997: 3961: 2502: 2283: 1990: 1986: 1966: 1524: 1262: 1059: 835: 658: 511: 335: 319: 4005:

Infocom history, authors, etc.; often updated with any news from Activision

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did sell particularly well, and quickly disappeared from the bookshelves.

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Infocom also released a small number of "interactive fiction paperbacks" (

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is representative of the sort of interaction a player has with Infocom's

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as the best adventure game to date, with later critics regarding it as

483: 474:, the developers aspired to improve on the formula with a more robust 17: 3822: 3784: 2558:; Garr, Doug (March 1985). "Random Access: Best Sellers/Recreation". 2060: 1170: 893: 692: 567: 479: 410: 387: 343: 3658:"The Master Storytellers did (Info-)Comics (and nobody took notice)" 2103:"Inside the Industry: Infocom's West Coast Move Stirs Controversy", 3876:. October 12, 2007. Archived from the original on October 12, 2007. 2198:

with more examples of complex commands possible with Infocom games.

1982: 1139: 731: 696: 406: 34:. For the field of information and communications technology, see 4063: 3874:"Liberated Games Forums: FAQs => General Liberated Games FAQ" 2732: 1954: 1159: 440: 390: 298: 209: 4012: 1845:(1996; contained 33 Infocom games plus six winners of the 1995 802:, to discuss game hints and preview and showcase new products. 764:

world was the centerpiece of their product line throughout the

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Infocom games were written using a programming language called

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Infocom was founded on June 22, 1979, by staff and students of

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The pay-per-hint service eventually led to the development of

197: 4002: 2810:(Published in print, with additional preface, as part of the 322:(Zork Implementation Language), itself derived directly from 3266:"The 7th International Computer Game Developers Conference" 2529:(February 1985). "Random Access: Best Sellers/Recreation". 1792:(1991; contained 20 of Infocom's interactive fiction games) 1166:

The original Zork Trilogy (Marc Blank & Dave Lebling):

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s failure, Infocom laid off half of its 100 employees, and

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brand. Activision abandoned the Infocom trademark in 2002.

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The Greatest Games: The 93 Best Computer Games of All Time

2167:"Down From the Top of Its Game: The Story of Infocom, Inc" 1005:

Infocom had a successful marketing approach that kept its

2650:. Vol. 3, no. 6. November 1983. pp. 8–11. 1144:

Retail boxes of several Infocom games, on display at the

2615:"Great Scott: Infocom's All-Time Sales Numbers Revealed" 2050:, a video game preservationist contributing towards the 514:

passed on the project due to competition with their own

3687:"Activision: Reorganized, Redefined and on the Rebound" 1837:(1995; Adventure, Comedy, Fantasy, Mystery, and Sci-Fi) 1066:, to continue creating games in the Infocom tradition. 520:(1979), Infocom negotiated a publishing agreement with 3923:"'Infocom Drive' Turns Up Long-Lost Hitchhiker Sequel" 3838:"Infocom Interactive Fiction (Peter Scheyen Archive)" 3800:"Infocom Interactive Fiction (Peter Scheyen Archive)" 3762:"Infocom Interactive Fiction (Peter Scheyen Archive)" 3408:"The Next Generation 1996 Lexicon A to Z: Infocom". 4564: 4538: 4503: 4452: 4445: 4409: 4230: 4223: 4196: 4169: 4125: 4090: 4055: 4046: 2500:Mace, Scott (April 2, 1984). "Games with windows". 940:s execution speed, however. Businesses were moving 246: 204: 186: 175: 163: 148: 97: 82: 72: 4684:Defunct video game companies of the United States 3886:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 3376: 3374: 3208: 3206: 3204: 3202: 3200: 1973:. Many Infocom titles can be downloaded via the 579:titles. Here it is depicted running on a modern 571:was Infocom's first product. This screenshot of 4709:Defunct software companies of the United States 3342: 3340: 3338: 3336: 3289: 3287: 3185: 3183: 1935:(2012; In-App purchases for most of the titles) 275:. They also produced a business application, a 4573:Classic Text Adventure Masterpieces of Infocom 4330:Nord and Bert Couldn't Make Head or Tail of It 2122: 2120: 2118: 2116: 1842:Classic Text Adventure Masterpieces of Infocom 1800:(1992; contained 11 interactive fiction games) 1500:Nord and Bert Couldn't Make Head or Tail of It 1103:Classic Text Adventure Masterpieces of Infocom 557:massively multiplayer online role-playing game 4024: 3009:"The 30 Best Video Games of All Time, Ranked" 2979:1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die 2160: 2158: 2156: 2154: 2152: 2150: 1114:because the licenses from Douglas Adams' and 8: 3088:Moore, Bo; Schuback, Adam (March 21, 2019). 2318:. Vol. 4, no. 1. pp. 6–7, 11. 58: 45:"Feelies" redirects here. For the band, see 4704:Video game companies disestablished in 1989 4669:Companies based in Cambridge, Massachusetts 3630:"Rumored Activision/Infocom Rift Unfounded" 2400: 2398: 2396: 2327: 2325: 4449: 4227: 4052: 4031: 4017: 4009: 3414:. No. 15. March 1996. pp. 34–35. 3090:"The 100 Greatest Video Games of All Time" 2888:"The 100 Greatest Video Games of All Time" 2337:"The History of Zork – Second in a series" 838:), which were based on the games (such as 64: 57: 4694:Software companies based in Massachusetts 3602:Tommervik, Margot Comstock (March 1983). 3463: 2407:"The History of Zork – Third in a series" 2360:. No. 77. May 2010. pp. 36–39. 2312:"The History of Zork – First in a series" 2241: 2239: 2083:. It can be accessed from the main menu. 1614:BattleTech: The Crescent Hawk's Inception 1234:Mini Zork I: The Great Underground Empire 933:The virtual machine significantly slowed 430:Infocom began as a collaboration between 4699:Video game companies established in 1979 4679:Defunct companies based in Massachusetts 4351:Sherlock: The Riddle of the Crown Jewels 3680: 3678: 2564:. Vol. 8, no. 12. p. 43. 2535:. Vol. 8, no. 11. p. 35. 2413:. Vol. 4, no. 3. pp. 4–5. 2343:. Vol. 4, no. 2. pp. 3–5. 1849:, which was not affiliated with Infocom) 1721:Gamma Force in Pit of a Thousand Screams 1520:Sherlock: The Riddle of the Crown Jewels 561: 4664:1989 disestablishments in Massachusetts 2679:. Vol. 1, no. 1. p. 98. 2627:from the original on September 24, 2008 2591:. Vol. 1, no. 1. p. 51. 2379:Williams, Wayne. "The Next Dimension". 2092: 1626:BattleTech: The Crescent Hawk's Revenge 1412:Wishbringer: The Magick Stone of Dreams 923:Texas Instruments Professional Computer 49:. For the fictional form of media, see 3901:GET LAMP Raw Interviews Pretty Much Up 3879: 3719:That "new" "official" Infocom web site 3191:"Four Minds Forever Voyaging (Part I)" 3040:"The 500 Best Video Games of All Time" 2427:; Parish, Jeremy (December 25, 2015). 955:that Antonio Antiochia, author of its 3383:"Interactive Text in an Animated Age" 3019:from the original on October 29, 2017 2945:"The 50 Best Video Games of All Time" 2822:from the original on January 26, 2021 2098: 2096: 1629:(1991, developed by Westwood Studios) 1124:, published under its Infocom label. 969:also releasing their own text games. 640:described this era as the "Cambridge 549:one of the greatest games of all time 432:Massachusetts Institute of Technology 290:Massachusetts Institute of Technology 40:Conference on Computer Communications 7: 4659:1979 establishments in Massachusetts 4281:The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy 3638:. No. 46. April 1988. p. 9 3168:from the original on January 8, 2022 2957:from the original on August 30, 2016 2796:Hollingworth, David (June 6, 2002). 2760:"GameSpy's Top 50 Games of All Time" 2728:"The Top 40 Games of the Millennium" 2585:"Top Software / A List of Favorites" 2029:The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy 2006:The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy 1946:The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy 1384:The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy 1171:Zork I: The Great Underground Empire 1108:The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy 739:The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy 603:The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy 494:Infocom was officially founded as a 374:(one disc worked on both machines), 228:The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy 3135:from the original on August 9, 2022 3038:Polygon Staff (November 27, 2017). 2920:. November 15, 2012. Archived from 2127:Wilson, Johnny L. (November 1991). 1727:ZorkQuest: Assault on Egreth Castle 1487:(1987, Infocom & Douglas Adams) 1251:Beyond Zork: The Coconut of Quendor 1207:(1983, Marc Blank and Dave Lebling) 506:. By the end of the year, the core 4637:Zork: The Undiscovered Underground 3052:from the original on March 3, 2018 2698:Gutman, Dan; Addams, Shay (1985). 2481:from the original on April 7, 2022 2441:from the original on July 30, 2022 1891:Zork Classics: Interactive Fiction 1271:Zork: The Undiscovered Underground 756:Although Infocom started out with 271:, that produced numerous works of 25: 4432:Quarterstaff: The Tomb of Setmoth 3685:Sengstack, Jeff (June 24, 1996). 3552:. August 24, 2006. Archived from 3452:Transformative Works and Cultures 3239:Maher, Jimmy (October 23, 2013). 3154:Heron, Michael (August 3, 2016). 3071:"The Top 300 Games of All Time". 2857:"Top 100 Video Games of All Time" 2839:"The Top 200 Games of All Time". 2736:. January 5, 2000. Archived from 2669:Grevstad, Eric (September 1983). 2583:Ciraolo, Michael (October 1985). 1969:story file and as various native 1737:ZorkQuest II: The Crystal of Doom 1655:Quarterstaff: The Tomb of Setmoth 1582:Zork Nemesis: The Forbidden Lands 1263:Zork Zero: The Revenge of Megaboz 452:, with an initial team including 3921:Kohler, Chris (April 18, 2008). 3489:"Atari Promises Software For ST" 3487:Chin, Kathy (January 28, 1985). 3446:Peters, Ian M. (June 15, 2014). 2798:"Top 50 video games of all time" 1797:The Lost Treasures of Infocom II 1715:Lane Mastodon vs. the Blubbermen 1642:(1985, Marc Blank, Mike Berlyn, 1328:Suspended: A Cryogenic Nightmare 1087:The Lost Treasures of Infocom II 4674:Defunct Activision subsidiaries 4239:Arthur: The Quest for Excalibur 4003:Infocom-The Master Storytellers 3544:"A Short History Of Activision" 3381:Ferrell, Keith (January 1988). 3213:Maher, Jimmy (March 20, 2013). 1847:Interactive Fiction Competition 1834:Interactive Fiction Collections 1532:Arthur: The Quest for Excalibur 450:Laboratory for Computer Science 152:Closed on May 5, 1989 3955:Kerr, Chris (April 16, 2019). 3321:Solomon, Abby (October 1983). 3121:Barton, Matt (June 28, 2007). 2863:. June 1, 2015. Archived from 2460:Solomon, Abby (October 1983). 2069:made a cameo appearance as an 1179:Zork II: The Wizard of Frobozz 330:able to run on a standardized 1: 4611:The Lost Treasures of Infocom 4187:Leather Goddesses of Phobos 2 3347:Dyer, Richard (May 6, 1984). 3294:Mace, Scott (April 2, 1984). 3007:Owen, Phil (March 13, 2017). 2845:. No. 200. January 2010. 2252:Classic Game Postmortem: Zork 2218:Dyer, Richard (May 6, 1984). 2129:"A History of Computer Games" 2019:In 2012, Activision released 1789:The Lost Treasures of Infocom 1081:The Lost Treasures of Infocom 3818:"Zork for Android – History" 3575:Muse, Dan (September 1986). 3435:. December 1996. p. 26. 2525:Ditlea, Steve; Onosco, Tim; 2109:, p. 10, September 1989 1387:(1984, Steve Meretzky & 1375:(1984, Michael Berlyn & 1187:Zork III: The Dungeon Master 656:Infocom games were popular, 535:Following its 1980 release, 4180:Leather Goddesses of Phobos 3516:"Hobby & Industry News" 3323:"Games Businesspeople Play" 3156:"Hunt The Syntax, Part One" 3077:. No. 300. April 2018. 2886:Moore, Bo (June 16, 2014). 2554:Onosco, Tim; Kohl, Louise; 2462:"Games Businesspeople Play" 2405:Galley, Stu (Summer 1985). 2014:Leather Goddesses of Phobos 1444:Leather Goddesses of Phobos 1093:Leather Goddesses of Phobos 782:Leather Goddesses of Phobos 240:Leather Goddesses of Phobos 4725: 2912:"All-TIME 100 Video Games" 2265:Game Developers Conference 1915:The Zork Adventure Trilogy 1897:The Zork Legacy Collection 44: 38:. For the conference, see 29: 3992:January 17, 2021, at the 3856:"Readme from the release" 2278:Smith, Alexander (2019). 2255:(conference presentation) 2021:Lost Treasures of Infocom 1933:Lost Treasures of Infocom 1739:(1988, Elizabeth Langosy) 1437:"Hollywood" Dave Anderson 845:Choose Your Own Adventure 448:began in 1977 at the MIT 63: 27:American software company 3524:. No. 28. p. 4 3514:Oxner, Bill (May 1986). 646:Great Underground Empire 269:Cambridge, Massachusetts 180:Cambridge, Massachusetts 4316:A Mind Forever Voyaging 3987:Infocom company profile 3272:. July 1993. p. 34 3245:The Digital Antiquarian 3219:The Digital Antiquarian 2976:Tony Mott, ed. (2013). 2080:Call of Duty: Black Ops 1404:A Mind Forever Voyaging 892:was available only for 613:A Mind Forever Voyaging 471:Colossal Cave Adventure 326:, that compiled into a 234:A Mind Forever Voyaging 86:June 22, 1979 4623:Zork: Grand Inquisitor 4358:James Clavell's Shōgun 2768:. 2001. Archived from 2613:(September 20, 2008). 2354:"The Making of Zork". 1944:With the exception of 1717:(1988, Steve Meretzky) 1569:(1992, Steve Meretzky) 1540:James Clavell's Shogun 1471:(1986, Brian Moriarty) 1447:(1986, Steve Meretzky) 1415:(1985, Brian Moriarty) 1407:(1985, Steve Meretzky) 1351:(1983, Michael Berlyn) 1331:(1983, Michael Berlyn) 1305:(1987, Steve Meretzky) 1297:(1983, Steve Meretzky) 1266:(1988, Steve Meretzky) 1148: 1130:Omni Consumer Products 1084:, followed in 1992 by 1044:Tom Snyder Productions 751:copyright infringement 742: 584: 340:computer architectures 3635:Computer Gaming World 3577:"Capturing a Buffalo" 3521:Computer Gaming World 3465:10.3983/twc.2014.0509 3349:"Masters of the Game" 3270:Computer Gaming World 3241:"Masters of the Game" 3215:"The Top of its Game" 3123:"The History Of Zork" 2807:Sydney Morning Herald 2220:"Masters of the Game" 2173:on September 29, 2020 2133:Computer Gaming World 2106:Computer Gaming World 1927:Zork Grand Inquisitor 1770:The Enchanter Trilogy 1594:Zork Grand Inquisitor 1143: 735: 638:Computer Gaming World 581:Z-machine interpreter 565: 415:TRS-80 Color Computer 360:Atari 8-bit computers 4551:Legend Entertainment 3844:on November 1, 2011. 3806:on February 2, 2016. 3768:on February 2, 2016. 3296:"Games with windows" 2900:on December 2, 2016. 2867:on December 10, 2017 2671:"Zork I (Adventure)" 1853:Zork Special Edition 1702:(1989, developed by 1690:(1989, developed by 1687:Tombs & Treasure 1617:(1988, developed by 1597:(1997, developed by 1577:(1993, Doug Barnett) 1543:(1989, Dave Lebling) 1503:(1987, Jeff O'Neill) 1495:(1987, Dave Lebling) 1399:(1984, Dave Lebling) 1323:(1982, Dave Lebling) 1227:(1985, Dave Lebling) 1056:Legend Entertainment 909:Changing marketplace 634:Simon & Schuster 436:text-based adventure 3826:. January 23, 2015. 3788:. January 23, 2015. 3697:on January 28, 1998 2984:Universe Publishing 2706:Publications, Inc. 1561:Graphic adventures 1152:Interactive fiction 1146:Digital Game Museum 973:Activision takeover 830:Interactive fiction 760:, and although the 577:interactive fiction 517:Microsoft Adventure 502:, Chris Reeve, and 426:Foundation and Zork 277:relational database 273:interactive fiction 60: 32:InfoCom Corporation 4309:The Lurking Horror 3911:(December 3, 2012) 3780:"Zork for Android" 3739:steamcommunity.com 2648:Commodore Magazine 2411:The New Zork Times 2387:Imagine Publishing 2341:The New Zork Times 2316:The New Zork Times 2073:in Activision and 1901:The Zork Anthology 1828:, plus Planetfall) 1805:The Zork Anthology 1723:(1988, Amy Briggs) 1551:(1989, Marc Blank) 1492:The Lurking Horror 1479:(1987, Marc Blank) 1315:(1982, Marc Blank) 1149: 1136:Titles and authors 927:orphaned computers 886:scripting language 800:The New Zork Times 743: 677:A 1996 article in 585: 500:J. C. R. Licklider 482:computer over the 364:IBM PC compatibles 310:Infocom games are 132:J. C. R. Licklider 36:Infocommunications 4646: 4645: 4534: 4533: 4441: 4440: 4171:Leather Goddesses 4165: 4164: 3662:The Good Old Days 3095:Popular Mechanics 2893:Popular Mechanics 2389:. pp. 30–41. 2293:978-0-429-75261-2 1899:(2002; contained 1855:(1997; contained 1808:(1994; contained 1772:(1986; contained 1754:(1986; contained 1731:Elizabeth Langosy 1666:& Amy Briggs) 1585:(1996, developed 1535:(1989, Bob Bates) 1098:Lost Treasures II 861:Lotus Development 522:Personal Software 444:. Development of 258: 257: 16:(Redirected from 4716: 4565:Related articles 4556:Westwood Studios 4450: 4337:Plundered Hearts 4288:Hollywood Hijinx 4228: 4056:Original trilogy 4053: 4033: 4026: 4019: 4010: 3974: 3973: 3971: 3969: 3952: 3946: 3945: 3937: 3935: 3918: 3912: 3898: 3892: 3891: 3885: 3877: 3870: 3864: 3863: 3852: 3846: 3845: 3840:. Archived from 3834: 3828: 3827: 3814: 3808: 3807: 3802:. Archived from 3796: 3790: 3789: 3776: 3770: 3769: 3764:. Archived from 3756: 3750: 3749: 3747: 3745: 3731: 3725: 3724: 3723:. The Gameshelf. 3713: 3707: 3706: 3704: 3702: 3693:. Archived from 3682: 3673: 3672: 3670: 3668: 3654: 3648: 3647: 3645: 3643: 3626: 3620: 3619: 3617: 3615: 3610:. pp. 30–32 3599: 3593: 3592: 3590: 3588: 3583:. pp. 14–15 3572: 3566: 3565: 3563: 3561: 3556:on April 4, 2013 3540: 3534: 3533: 3531: 3529: 3511: 3505: 3504: 3502: 3500: 3484: 3478: 3477: 3467: 3443: 3437: 3436: 3422: 3416: 3415: 3405: 3399: 3398: 3396: 3394: 3378: 3369: 3368: 3366: 3364: 3355:. Archived from 3344: 3331: 3330: 3318: 3312: 3311: 3309: 3307: 3291: 3282: 3281: 3279: 3277: 3262: 3256: 3255: 3253: 3251: 3236: 3230: 3229: 3227: 3225: 3210: 3195: 3194: 3187: 3178: 3177: 3175: 3173: 3151: 3145: 3144: 3142: 3140: 3118: 3112: 3111: 3109: 3107: 3098:. Archived from 3085: 3079: 3078: 3068: 3062: 3061: 3059: 3057: 3035: 3029: 3028: 3026: 3024: 3004: 2998: 2997: 2973: 2967: 2966: 2964: 2962: 2940: 2934: 2933: 2931: 2929: 2924:on March 7, 2016 2908: 2902: 2901: 2896:. Archived from 2883: 2877: 2876: 2874: 2872: 2853: 2847: 2846: 2836: 2829: 2827: 2802: 2801: 2791: 2782: 2781: 2779: 2777: 2756: 2750: 2749: 2747: 2745: 2740:on June 17, 2000 2724: 2718: 2717: 2695: 2689: 2688: 2676:Family Computing 2666: 2660: 2659: 2643: 2637: 2636: 2634: 2632: 2607: 2601: 2600: 2580: 2574: 2573: 2551: 2545: 2544: 2522: 2516: 2515: 2497: 2491: 2490: 2488: 2486: 2457: 2451: 2450: 2448: 2446: 2421: 2415: 2414: 2402: 2391: 2390: 2376: 2370: 2369: 2351: 2345: 2344: 2329: 2320: 2319: 2304: 2298: 2297: 2275: 2269: 2268: 2262: 2260: 2243: 2234: 2233: 2232:on June 7, 1997. 2228:. Archived from 2225:The Boston Globe 2215: 2209: 2205: 2199: 2189: 2183: 2182: 2180: 2178: 2169:. Archived from 2162: 2145: 2144: 2142: 2140: 2124: 2111: 2110: 2100: 2052:Internet Archive 1752:The Zork Trilogy 1704:Westwood Studios 1619:Westwood Studios 1508:Plundered Hearts 1432:Hollywood Hijinx 1052:publishing label 953:Penguin Software 939: 776:Plundered Hearts 496:software company 380:Commodore Plus/4 354:simultaneously: 265:software company 263:was an American 159: 157: 93: 91: 68: 61: 21: 4724: 4723: 4719: 4718: 4717: 4715: 4714: 4713: 4649: 4648: 4647: 4642: 4597:Legends of Zork 4560: 4530: 4499: 4437: 4405: 4219: 4192: 4161: 4121: 4086: 4042: 4037: 3994:Wayback Machine 3983: 3978: 3977: 3967: 3965: 3954: 3953: 3949: 3933: 3931: 3920: 3919: 3915: 3899: 3895: 3878: 3872: 3871: 3867: 3860:oregonstate.edu 3854: 3853: 3849: 3836: 3835: 3831: 3816: 3815: 3811: 3798: 3797: 3793: 3778: 3777: 3773: 3760: 3757: 3753: 3743: 3741: 3733: 3732: 3728: 3715: 3714: 3710: 3700: 3698: 3684: 3683: 3676: 3666: 3664: 3656: 3655: 3651: 3641: 3639: 3628: 3627: 3623: 3613: 3611: 3601: 3600: 3596: 3586: 3584: 3574: 3573: 3569: 3559: 3557: 3542: 3541: 3537: 3527: 3525: 3513: 3512: 3508: 3498: 3496: 3486: 3485: 3481: 3445: 3444: 3440: 3431:. No. 24. 3428:Next Generation 3424: 3423: 3419: 3411:Next Generation 3407: 3406: 3402: 3392: 3390: 3380: 3379: 3372: 3362: 3360: 3359:on July 5, 2009 3346: 3345: 3334: 3320: 3319: 3315: 3305: 3303: 3293: 3292: 3285: 3275: 3273: 3264: 3263: 3259: 3249: 3247: 3238: 3237: 3233: 3223: 3221: 3212: 3211: 3198: 3189: 3188: 3181: 3171: 3169: 3153: 3152: 3148: 3138: 3136: 3120: 3119: 3115: 3105: 3103: 3102:on May 27, 2019 3087: 3086: 3082: 3070: 3069: 3065: 3055: 3053: 3037: 3036: 3032: 3022: 3020: 3006: 3005: 3001: 2994: 2975: 2974: 2970: 2960: 2958: 2942: 2941: 2937: 2927: 2925: 2910: 2909: 2905: 2885: 2884: 2880: 2870: 2868: 2855: 2854: 2850: 2838: 2837: 2833: 2825: 2823: 2795: 2794: 2785: 2775: 2773: 2772:on June 4, 2004 2758: 2757: 2753: 2743: 2741: 2726: 2725: 2721: 2714: 2697: 2696: 2692: 2668: 2667: 2663: 2645: 2644: 2640: 2630: 2628: 2609: 2608: 2604: 2582: 2581: 2577: 2553: 2552: 2548: 2524: 2523: 2519: 2499: 2498: 2494: 2484: 2482: 2459: 2458: 2454: 2444: 2442: 2423: 2422: 2418: 2404: 2403: 2394: 2385:. No. 10. 2378: 2377: 2373: 2353: 2352: 2348: 2335:(Spring 1985). 2331: 2330: 2323: 2310:(Winter 1985). 2306: 2305: 2301: 2294: 2277: 2276: 2272: 2258: 2256: 2245: 2244: 2237: 2217: 2216: 2212: 2206: 2202: 2190: 2186: 2176: 2174: 2164: 2163: 2148: 2138: 2136: 2126: 2125: 2114: 2102: 2101: 2094: 2089: 1942: 1748: 1558: 1278:and Marc Blank) 1154: 1138: 1046:' unsuccessful 1040: 975: 967:Electronic Arts 937: 911: 857: 832: 792: 747:copy protection 736:"Feelies" from 697:Commodore Amiga 689:Apple Macintosh 680:Next Generation 654: 590: 428: 423: 332:virtual machine 312:text adventures 308: 237: 231: 225: 219: 213: 189: 171:on 13 June 1986 155: 153: 144: 89: 87: 54: 51:Brave New World 43: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4722: 4720: 4712: 4711: 4706: 4701: 4696: 4691: 4686: 4681: 4676: 4671: 4666: 4661: 4651: 4650: 4644: 4643: 4641: 4640: 4633: 4626: 4619: 4614: 4607: 4604:Return to Zork 4600: 4593: 4588: 4583: 4576: 4568: 4566: 4562: 4561: 4559: 4558: 4553: 4548: 4542: 4540: 4536: 4535: 4532: 4531: 4529: 4528: 4523: 4518: 4513: 4507: 4505: 4501: 4500: 4498: 4497: 4495:Brian Moriarty 4492: 4490:Steve Meretzky 4487: 4482: 4477: 4472: 4470:Michael Berlyn 4467: 4462: 4456: 4454: 4447: 4443: 4442: 4439: 4438: 4436: 4435: 4428: 4421: 4413: 4411: 4407: 4406: 4404: 4403: 4396: 4389: 4382: 4375: 4368: 4361: 4354: 4347: 4340: 4333: 4326: 4319: 4312: 4305: 4298: 4291: 4284: 4277: 4270: 4263: 4256: 4249: 4242: 4234: 4232: 4231:Text adventure 4225: 4221: 4220: 4218: 4217: 4210: 4202: 4200: 4194: 4193: 4191: 4190: 4183: 4175: 4173: 4167: 4166: 4163: 4162: 4160: 4159: 4151: 4144: 4137: 4129: 4127: 4123: 4122: 4120: 4119: 4112: 4105: 4097: 4095: 4088: 4087: 4085: 4084: 4083: 4082: 4077: 4072: 4059: 4057: 4050: 4044: 4043: 4038: 4036: 4035: 4028: 4021: 4013: 4007: 4006: 4000: 3982: 3981:External links 3979: 3976: 3975: 3947: 3913: 3893: 3865: 3847: 3829: 3809: 3791: 3771: 3751: 3726: 3708: 3674: 3649: 3621: 3594: 3567: 3535: 3506: 3479: 3438: 3425:"Crib Sheet". 3417: 3400: 3370: 3332: 3313: 3283: 3257: 3231: 3196: 3179: 3161:Game Developer 3146: 3128:Game Developer 3113: 3080: 3063: 3030: 2999: 2993:978-1844037667 2992: 2968: 2935: 2903: 2878: 2848: 2831: 2818:supplement.). 2783: 2751: 2719: 2712: 2690: 2661: 2638: 2611:Carless, Simon 2602: 2575: 2546: 2517: 2506:. p. 56. 2492: 2452: 2416: 2392: 2371: 2346: 2321: 2299: 2292: 2270: 2249:(March 2014). 2235: 2210: 2200: 2184: 2146: 2112: 2091: 2090: 2088: 2085: 1993:interpreters. 1941: 1938: 1937: 1936: 1930: 1919:Return to Zork 1912: 1905:Return to Zork 1894: 1888: 1877:Return to Zork 1850: 1838: 1829: 1801: 1793: 1785: 1767: 1747: 1744: 1743: 1742: 1741: 1740: 1734: 1724: 1718: 1709: 1708: 1707: 1699:Circuit's Edge 1695: 1683: 1671:Mines of Titan 1667: 1651: 1632: 1631: 1630: 1622: 1604: 1603: 1602: 1590: 1578: 1574:Return to Zork 1570: 1557: 1554: 1553: 1552: 1544: 1536: 1528: 1516: 1504: 1496: 1488: 1480: 1472: 1464: 1448: 1440: 1428: 1416: 1408: 1400: 1392: 1380: 1368: 1352: 1344: 1332: 1324: 1316: 1308: 1307: 1306: 1298: 1281: 1280: 1279: 1276:Michael Berlyn 1267: 1259: 1256:Brian Moriarty 1247: 1230: 1229: 1228: 1220: 1217:Steve Meretzky 1208: 1193: 1192: 1191: 1183: 1175: 1153: 1150: 1137: 1134: 1121:Return to Zork 1039: 1036: 1035: 1034: 1031: 1022: 1019: 1003: 974: 971: 910: 907: 856: 851: 831: 828: 796:Mike Dornbrook 791: 788: 653: 650: 594:Steve Meretzky 589: 586: 468:. Inspired by 427: 424: 422: 419: 352:home computers 347:to festeron". 307: 304: 256: 255: 250: 244: 243: 206: 202: 201: 190: 187: 184: 183: 177: 173: 172: 165: 161: 160: 150: 146: 145: 143: 142: 137: 134: 129: 124: 121: 118: 115: 110: 107: 101: 99: 95: 94: 84: 80: 79: 74: 70: 69: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4721: 4710: 4707: 4705: 4702: 4700: 4697: 4695: 4692: 4690: 4687: 4685: 4682: 4680: 4677: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4660: 4657: 4656: 4654: 4639: 4638: 4634: 4632: 4631: 4627: 4625: 4624: 4620: 4618: 4615: 4613: 4612: 4608: 4606: 4605: 4601: 4599: 4598: 4594: 4592: 4589: 4587: 4584: 4582: 4581: 4577: 4575: 4574: 4570: 4569: 4567: 4563: 4557: 4554: 4552: 4549: 4547: 4544: 4543: 4541: 4537: 4527: 4524: 4522: 4519: 4517: 4516:Bruce Daniels 4514: 4512: 4511:Douglas Adams 4509: 4508: 4506: 4502: 4496: 4493: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4478: 4476: 4473: 4471: 4468: 4466: 4463: 4461: 4458: 4457: 4455: 4451: 4448: 4444: 4434: 4433: 4429: 4427: 4426: 4422: 4420: 4419: 4415: 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2383: 2375: 2372: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2358: 2350: 2347: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2333:Anderson, Tim 2328: 2326: 2322: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2308:Anderson, Tim 2303: 2300: 2295: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2274: 2271: 2266: 2254: 2253: 2248: 2247:Lebling, Dave 2242: 2240: 2236: 2231: 2227: 2226: 2221: 2214: 2211: 2204: 2201: 2197: 2195: 2188: 2185: 2172: 2168: 2161: 2159: 2157: 2155: 2153: 2151: 2147: 2134: 2130: 2123: 2121: 2119: 2117: 2113: 2108: 2107: 2099: 2097: 2093: 2086: 2084: 2082: 2081: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2062: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2044: 2042: 2041:Nord and Bert 2038: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2017: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1994: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1961: 1957: 1956: 1951: 1947: 1939: 1934: 1931: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1913: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1895: 1892: 1889: 1886: 1882: 1881:Zork: Nemesis 1878: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1851: 1848: 1844: 1843: 1839: 1836: 1835: 1830: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1806: 1802: 1799: 1798: 1794: 1791: 1790: 1786: 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