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upon gender equality in education and teaching women strategies to cope with their situations will help them grow confidence and want to spread their knowledge and passions with their female children. The issue with female infanticide is that women devalue their own gender. When mothers give away their female children, it only adds to the lesser image of women. Having women respect themselves and their own children for who they are will increase the population, and it will increase the value of women. It may take a long time to implement these changes in society, but societal revision is a slow process. Education, value in life, and passion for gender are all aspects of decreasing female infanticide. Having locations to rid of a female child, such as "The Girl Child
Protection Scheme", appears as a step toward change. This program only adds to the availability and opportunity for female infanticide. Instrumentalizing gender education and value of life will greatly inspire change in societies that participate in such process of termination.
829:
1114:"As soon as the little girls are born, they are plunged into the water in order to drown them or force is applied to their bodies in order to suffocate them or they are strangled with human hands. And something even more deplorable is that there are servants who place the girl in the chamber pot or in the basin used for the birth, which is still filled with water and blood and, shut away there, they die miserably. And what is even more monstrous is that if the mother is not cruel enough to take the life of her daughter, then her father-in-law, mother-in-law, or husband agitates her by their words to kill the girl."
918:
patriarchal society. In addition, the boys in the family are given preferential treatment, receiving food and medical care before the girls do. Having a child out of wedlock in
Pakistan is culturally taboo. When women give birth to their babies, they often kill them to escape the shame or persecution. However, the ratio of female babies being killed in these cases is much higher than the boys because boys are much more valued. Infanticide is illegal in Pakistan. However, people do not report these cases, making it impossible for police to investigate. According to
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bring in money to the household. Due to the sociocultural utility factor of female infanticide, for many cultures having a boy in the family is mandatory in order to carry out the legacy of the family line. There is also a religious factor in female infanticide. Many believe that men are the only ones that can provide, and sons are viewed as mandatory in order to kindle the funeral pyre of their late parents and to assist in the soul's salvation.
849:
daughter alive after a district collector named Unwin intervened. A review of scholarship has shown that the majority of female infanticides in India during the colonial period occurred for the most part in the North West, and that although not all groups carried out this practice, it was indeed widespread. In 1870, after an investigation by the colonial authorities the practice was made illegal, with the
953:
703:
1060:, that at a time when the number of casualties in war had fallen, a "secret genocide" was being carried out against women. According to DCAF the demographic shortfall of women who have died for gender related issues is in the same range as the 191 million estimated dead from all conflicts in the twentieth century. In 2012, the documentary
739:
1020:
Another way of decreasing female infanticide rates is by providing families with incentives to give birth to females. India's Girl Child
Protection Scheme is one such scheme that encourages female births by providing families with financial support if they give birth to female children and additional
930:
Eliminating females poses an issue, as this reduces the number of females that will be able to bear children. It also poses an issue with feelings of female worth, as families wanting to eradicate female babies teach the young girls in their society that they are inferior to the opposite sex, making
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The dowry system in India is one given reason for female infanticide; over a time period spanning centuries it has become embedded within Indian culture. Although the state has taken steps to abolish the dowry system, the practice persists, and for poorer families in rural regions female infanticide
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In many countries, female infanticide is associated with socio-economic struggles. A study done in India found three socio-economic reasons associated with female infanticide. The study found that economic utility indicates that boys are valued more than girls due to the fact that boys can work and
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Despite this practice being punishable according to
Islamic law, there have been cases of female infanticide in Pakistan due to a few reasons, for example, children being born out of wedlock and then killed to avoid the stigma of illegitimacy. Pakistan is still a male-dominated nation and remains a
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lessened the value of children. The
Confucian emphasis on the family led to increasing dowries which in turn led to a girl being far more expensive to raise than a boy, causing families to feel they could not afford as many daughters. The Confucian custom of keeping the male within the family meant
1024:
Implementing gender education within schools and the workplace will add to gender neutrality within society, increasing the value of women. Sympathizing with women's suffrage in countries limiting women's rights will add to the battle in which women fight for freedoms in their home state. Building
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As of 2017, Pakistani women earn less than their male counterparts, earning under a hundred rupees a month, and are often unable to receive an education that would allow them to have better working hours and pay. Some are also restricted to only working within the home, while men are allowed to do
1008:
Non-Government
Developmental Organizations (NGDOs) have gender awareness policies designed to prevent female discrimination all over the world. These NGDOs approach corporations in an attempt to educate those in the workforce on the pressing challenges women in society face. Other than increasing
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to highly developed societies, and that, rather than this practice being an exception, it has been commonplace. The practice has been documented among the
Indigenous peoples of Australia, Northern Alaska and South Asia, and Barbara Miller argues the practice to be "almost universal", even in the
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was openly acknowledged. A letter from a magistrate who was stationed in the North West of India during this period spoke of the fact that for several hundred years no daughter had ever been raised in the strongholds of the Rajahs of
Mynpoorie. In 1845, however the ruler at that time did keep a
710:
China has a history of female infanticide spanning 2,000 years. With the arrival of
Christian missionaries in the late sixteenth century, the missionaries discovered female infanticide was being practiced – newborns were seen thrown into rivers or onto rubbish piles. In the seventeenth century,
726:("to drown girls"), and drowning was the common method used to kill female children. Other methods used were suffocation and starvation. Leaving a child exposed to the elements was another method of killing an infant: the child would be placed in a basket which was then placed in a tree.
520:
774:; conversely, those who saved a young girl's life either through intervening or through presents of money or food would earn good karma, leading to a prosperous life, a long life and success for their sons. However the Buddhist belief in
660:
wrote that the practice was commonplace among the aboriginal tribes of
Australia. Female infanticide is also closely linked to a lack of education and high poverty rates, which explains why it is widely prevalent in locations such as
1473:
That assumption was shattered in June 1986, when India Today published an explosive cover story, "Born to Die," which estimated that six thousand female babies had been poisoned to death during the preceding decade in the district
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estimated that there were 100 million fewer women in Asia than would be expected, and that this number of "missing" women "tell us, quietly, a terrible story of inequality and neglect leading to the excess mortality of women".
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730:
nunneries created "baby towers" for people to leave a child; it is however unclear as to whether the child was being left for adoption or if it had already died and was being left for burial. In 1845 in the province of
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it more likely that they face oppression and have reduced access to jobs. The dowry system has an effect on the families and poverty line, as some families struggle to pay a dowry while earning below the minimum wage.
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support to those families whose children receive an education. This improves female literacy rates and increases female participation in the workforce, reducing female foeticide rates in underdeveloped countries.
864:". The United Nations has declared that India is the most deadly country for female children, and that in 2012, female children aged between 1 and 5 were 75 percent more likely to die as opposed to boys. The
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A white paper published by the Chinese government in 1980 stated that the practice of female infanticide was a "feudalistic evil". The state's official position on the practice is that it is a carryover from
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551:
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has estimated that of the 12 million females born yearly in India, 1 million will have died within their first year of life. During British rule, the practice of female infanticide in the Indian state of
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In China, the practice of female infanticide was not wholly condoned. Buddhism in particular was quite forceful in its condemnation of it. Buddhists wrote that the killing of young girls would bring bad
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490:
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that the money spent on a daughter's upbringing along with the dowry would be lost when she married, and as such girls were called "money-losing merchandise". Conversely the Confucian belief of
618:
is the deliberate killing of newborn female children. Female infanticide is prevalent in several nations around the world. It has been argued that the low status in which women are viewed in
188:
860:
activist Donna Fernandes, some practices are so deeply embedded within Indian culture it is "almost impossible to do away with them", and she has said that India is undergoing a type of "
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505:
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Many societies oppose female children because of the heavy cost of dowry they would have to incur for a female. By reducing the financial burden on families, the eradication of the
1062:
2045:
652:
153:
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with a larger proportion of males. According to the United Nations, this surplus of men in society coincides with increasing rates of child abuse, domestic violence, and
602:
1736:
1718:
1675:
766:. According to the information collected by Palatre, the practice was more widely spread in the southeastern provinces and in the Lower Yangzi River region.
1216:
556:
500:
481:
735:, a missionary wrote that these children survived for up to two days while exposed to the elements, and that those passing by would pay no attention.
1041:, presenting a grave threat to the security of women in the affected areas. This also increases the likelihood of women becoming victims of harmful
1818:
850:
472:
1045:, which further adversely affects their lives as well as population rates. Owing to these concerning issues, there is also a concerning boost in
223:
922:, in 2017, only one case was actually reported, but 345 babies were found dead in Pakistan's capital between January 2017 and Spring of 2018.
2200:
2070:
1466:
536:
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meant that the death of an infant was not final, as the child would be reborn; this belief eased the guilt felt over female infanticide.
2053:
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led Confucian intellectuals to support the idea that female infanticide was wrong and that the practice would upset the balance between
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2293:
2223:
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2143:
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1933:
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and gender selective abortion is attributed to the fear of being unable to raise a suitable dowry and then being socially ostracized.
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646:. Miller contends that female infanticide is commonplace in regions where women are not employed in agriculture and regions in which
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995:
755:
275:
1698:
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documented that the practice occurred in several of China's provinces and that the primary reason for the practice was poverty.
588:
391:
386:
23:
2369:
Kowaleski, Maryanne (2013). "Gendering Demographic Change in the Middle Ages". In Judith M. Bennett, Ruth Mazo Karras (ed.).
1595:
1042:
912:
666:
510:
1744:
1722:
183:
1520:
Sathar, Zeba; Crook, Nigel; Callum, Christine; Kazi, Shahnaz (1988). "Women's Status and Fertility Change in Pakistan".
576:
450:
381:
146:
1555:
1235:
2418:
823:
697:
662:
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116:
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could therefore potentially reduce the apparent preference of male children as well as female infanticide rates.
623:
435:
328:
106:
1174:
966:
810:. Jing-Bao Nie argues however that it would be "inconceivable" to believe there is no link between the state's
738:
678:
430:
75:
1628:
287:
253:
1123:"Infanticide through drowning and abandoning female babies is an evil custom left over from feudal times."
1952:
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571:
31:
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education regarding this issue, another noteworthy solution to female infanticide involves targeting the
1133:
900:
746:
The majority of China's provinces practiced female infanticide during the 19th century. In 1878, French
445:
297:
265:
2191:
Oberman, Michelle (2005). "A Brief History of Infanticide and the Law". In Margaret G. Spinelli (ed.).
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was, found that infanticide had occurred on every continent and was carried out by groups ranging from
1836:
2099:
Michael, Marc; King, Lawrence; Guo, Liang; McKee, Martin; Richardson, Erica; Stuckler, David (2013).
1943:
George, Sabu M. (1997). "Female Infanticide in Tamil Nadu, India: From Recognition Back to Denial?".
869:
865:
126:
1957:
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was released, and in one interview, an Indian woman claimed she had killed eight of her daughters.
280:
248:
218:
208:
121:
2101:"The Mystery of Missing Female Children in the Caucasus: An Analysis of Sex Ratios by Birth Order"
1767:"The consequences of son preference and sex-selective abortion in China and other Asian countries"
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attitude towards female infanticide was conflicted. By placing value on age over youth, Confucian
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2006:
1970:
1648:
1537:
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803:
791:
361:
270:
541:
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2085:
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1983:
1929:
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1603:
1462:
1244:
857:
467:
399:
376:
168:
163:
131:
2258:
2341:
2312:
2112:
1998:
1984:"A penny for the little Chinese: The French Holy Childhood Association in China, 1843- 1951"
1962:
1786:
1778:
1640:
1529:
1038:
807:
638:
440:
425:
302:
136:
111:
2403:
2155:
Child Survival: Anthropological Perspectives on the Treatment and Maltreatment of Children
751:
561:
515:
462:
420:
410:
333:
292:
233:
203:
173:
80:
1901:
1495:
2212:
1791:
1766:
1046:
878:
657:
630:
323:
260:
238:
198:
141:
2396:
1966:
2412:
2332:
Johnson, Michael P. (1981). "Smothered Slave Infants: Were Slave Mothers at Fault?".
2316:
2010:
1668:"India witnesses one of the highest female infanticide incidents in the world: study"
1137:
1090:
845:
841:
775:
643:
55:
45:
977:
795:
786:
719:
712:
371:
345:
338:
213:
2019:
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rates and an increase in mental health conditions among women in these locations.
1922:
1579:
Andrusko, Dave (May 2018). "Wide-scale female infanticide in Karachi, Pakistan".
1075:
896:
887:
882:
673:
634:
619:
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405:
366:
318:
243:
228:
50:
1851:
1085:
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85:
1607:
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in southern Tamil Nadu. The practice was mostly prevalent among the dominant
1034:
782:
193:
178:
90:
70:
2361:
2126:
1800:
702:
2324:
2286:
Women, Family and Society in Medieval Europe: Historical Essays, 1978-1991
2257:. Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces. Archived from
1852:"Harmful Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children"
633:
Laila Williamson, in a summary of data she had collated on how widespread
2002:
1178:
1080:
727:
60:
1924:
Tired of Weeping: Mother Love, Child Death, and Poverty in Guinea-Bissau
1782:
718:
In 19th-century China, female infanticide was widespread. Readings from
2353:
1974:
1541:
763:
732:
415:
1652:
1629:"Human Capital, Productivity, and Labor Allocation in Rural Pakistan"
1136:
was passed in 1961 it had the consequence of young brides then being
1033:
As a result of large high female infanticide rates in countries, the
759:
758:(Annals of the Holy Childhood) also found evidence of infanticide in
747:
456:
2345:
2117:
2100:
1533:
2193:
Infanticide Psychosocial and Legal Perspectives on Mothers Who Kill
1644:
2136:
Hardness of Heart/Hardness of Life: The Stain of Human Infanticide
1014:
1010:
827:
771:
737:
701:
647:
622:
societies creates a bias against females. The modern practice of
1819:"Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 19 December 2011"
844:
rule in India the British discovered that female infanticide in
158:
2082:
Drowning Girls in China: Female Infanticide in China since 1650
946:
885:
was reported. More recently in June 1986, it was reported by
2105:
International Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health
2303:
Jeffery, R (1984). "Female infanticide and amniocentesis".
2371:
The Oxford Handbook of Women and Gender in Medieval Europe
1903:
Indian infanticide: its origin, progress, and suppression
1699:"PREVENTIVE MEASURES FOR ELIMINATION OF FEMALE FOETICIDE"
1266:
1264:
1054:
Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces
2153:
Miller, Barbara D. (1987). Nancy Scheper-Hughes (ed.).
1928:(2nd Revised ed.). University of Wisconsin Press.
1428:
1426:
2033:"Female infanticide in India mocks claims of progress"
2031:
Krishnan, Murali (20 March 2012). Shamil Shams (ed.).
2046:"It's a girl: The three deadliest words in the world"
1866:
1864:
2063:
The Great Encounter of China and the West, 1500–1800
1365:
1363:
653:
The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex
2214:
Forsaken Females: The Global Brutalization of Women
1913:
The Descent of Man: And Selection in Relation to Se
1556:"Pakistan: Gender Discrimination - a Stark Reality"
1063:
It's a Girl: The Three Deadliest Words in the World
154:
Post-assault treatment of victims of sexual assault
2211:
1921:
1234:
2195:(1st ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing.
895:that female infanticide was still in practice in
1627:Fafchamps, Marcel; Quisumbing, Agnes R. (1999).
1737:"Chief Minister's Girl Child Protection Scheme"
1719:"Chief Minister's Girl Child Protection Scheme"
754:collected documents from 13 provinces, and the
2174:Behind the Silence: Chinese Voices on Abortion
1596:"How Dowries Are Fuelling a Femicide Epidemic"
1381:
596:
16:Deliberate killing of newborn female children
8:
2284:Herlihy, David (1995). Anthony Molho (ed.).
2235:"Killing of infants on the rise in Pakistan"
1191:
2065:(3rd ed.). Rowman & Littlefield.
1160:
976:. Please do not remove this message until
742:Chinese anti infanticide tract circa 1800.
603:
589:
18:
2116:
1956:
1790:
1583:: 10 – via Academic Search Premier.
1236:"More Than 100 Million Women Are Missing"
996:Learn how and when to remove this message
806:times, and is not a result of the states
2248:"Slaughtering Eve The Hidden Gendercide"
1432:
1354:
1342:
1330:
1318:
1306:
1294:
1282:
1270:
1217:"Preventing gender-biased sex selection"
972:Relevant discussion may be found on the
626:is also used to regulate gender ratios.
2210:Parrot, Andrea; Cummings, Nina (2006).
1882:
1459:May You Be the Mother of a Hundred Sons
1393:
1153:
1107:
935:the majority of crop work and herding.
851:Female Infanticide Prevention Act, 1870
832:A map of India's child sex ratio, 2011.
528:
480:
353:
310:
98:
37:
30:
1870:
1444:
1417:
1405:
1203:
1812:
1810:
1713:
1711:
1515:
1513:
537:Prosecution of gender-targeted crimes
7:
1771:Canadian Medical Association Journal
722:texts show a prevalence of the term
1369:
1056:(DCAF) wrote in their 2005 report,
14:
1915:(Volume 2 ed.). John Murray.
1522:Population and Development Review
1177:. Infanticide.org. Archived from
2020:"Case Study: Female Infanticide"
1666:DTE Staff (September 19, 2018).
1175:"A Brief History of Infanticide"
951:
2334:The Journal of Southern History
2138:. University Press Of America.
2044:Mashru, Ram (18 January 2012).
2404:Female infanticide by Websters
1633:The Journal of Human Resources
913:Female infanticide in Pakistan
1:
2305:Social Science & Medicine
1967:10.1016/S0968-8080(97)90093-8
1920:Einarsdóttir, Jónína (2004).
1837:"What is female infanticide?"
1486:PHULL, IMRAN (25 June 2018).
1043:sexually transmitted diseases
482:International legal framework
2317:10.1016/0277-9536(84)90372-1
2246:Winkler, Theodor H. (2005).
2233:Sayah, Reza (20 July 2011).
2218:. Rowman & Littlefield.
2176:. Rowman & Littlefield.
2084:. Rowman & Littlefield.
1982:Harrison, Henrietta (2008).
1594:Singh, Manvir (2023-06-12).
1039:bride trafficking/kidnapping
756:Annales de la Sainte-Enfance
577:Violence against LGBT people
451:Online gender-based violence
147:Violence against prostitutes
2373:. Oxford University Press.
1945:Reproductive Health Matters
1581:National Right to Life News
1457:Elisabeth Bumiller (2011).
1233:Sen, Amartya (1990-12-20).
978:conditions to do so are met
920:National Right to Live News
824:Female infanticide in India
698:Female infanticide in China
2435:
2255:Women in an Insecure World
1991:American Historical Review
1900:Cave-Browne, John (1857).
1560:www.asafeworldforwomen.org
1382:Parrot & Cummings 2006
1058:Women in an Insecure World
1035:population is often skewed
1029:Consequences and reactions
910:
821:
695:
650:are the norm. In 1871, in
117:Sexual violence statistics
2134:Milner, Larry S. (2000).
2018:Jones, Adam (1999–2000).
1765:Hesketh, Therese (2011).
1741:Social Welfare Department
624:gender-selective abortion
436:Intimate partner violence
329:Female genital mutilation
107:Causes of sexual violence
2080:Mungello, D. E. (2008).
2061:Mungello, D. E. (2009).
1911:Darwin, Charles (1871).
903:of the region, Kallars.
840:In 1789, during British
814:and female infanticide.
812:family planning policies
679:New York Review of Books
1906:. W. H. Allen & Co.
288:Secondary victimisation
112:Child sexual initiation
99:Sexual assault and rape
2172:Nie, Jing-Bao (2005).
1488:"Curse of Infanticide"
943:Solutions and programs
833:
743:
707:
572:Violence against women
32:Violence against women
1134:Dowry Prohibition Act
831:
741:
705:
446:Marry-your-rapist law
441:Marriage by abduction
298:Virgin cleansing myth
2389:"Female Infanticide"
2056:on 12 December 2013.
2003:10.1086/ahr.113.1.72
1678:on December 14, 2019
1461:. Ballantine Books.
431:Forced sterilisation
127:Cybersex trafficking
1783:10.1503/cmaj.101368
1447:, pp. 124–132.
1357:, pp. 136–137.
1241:The New York Review
965:of this section is
687:Regional occurrence
669:, and West Africa.
122:Forced prostitution
2419:Female infanticide
1498:on 2 February 2019
1096:Sex ratio in India
1047:maternal mortality
834:
744:
708:
616:Female infanticide
362:Narcissistic abuse
2311:(11): 1207–1212.
2202:978-1-58562-097-5
2072:978-0-7425-5797-0
1835:ThePixelProject.
1777:(12): 1374–1377.
1468:978-0-449-90614-9
1408:, pp. 97–98.
1192:Einarsdóttir 2004
1173:Milner, Larry S.
1006:
1005:
998:
891:in a cover story
866:children's rights
613:
612:
468:Toxic masculinity
400:Droit du seigneur
377:Domestic violence
132:Human trafficking
2426:
2400:
2395:. Archived from
2384:
2365:
2328:
2299:
2272:
2270:
2269:
2263:
2252:
2242:
2229:
2217:
2206:
2187:
2168:
2149:
2130:
2120:
2095:
2076:
2057:
2052:. Archived from
2040:
2027:
2014:
1988:
1978:
1960:
1939:
1927:
1916:
1907:
1886:
1880:
1874:
1868:
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1847:
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1826:
1825:
1823:
1814:
1805:
1804:
1794:
1762:
1756:
1755:
1753:
1752:
1743:. Archived from
1733:
1727:
1726:
1725:on 22 July 2017.
1721:. Archived from
1715:
1706:
1705:
1703:
1694:
1688:
1687:
1685:
1683:
1674:. Archived from
1663:
1657:
1656:
1624:
1618:
1617:
1615:
1614:
1591:
1585:
1584:
1576:
1570:
1569:
1567:
1566:
1552:
1546:
1545:
1517:
1508:
1507:
1505:
1503:
1494:. Archived from
1483:
1477:
1476:
1454:
1448:
1442:
1436:
1430:
1421:
1415:
1409:
1403:
1397:
1391:
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1379:
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1352:
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1207:
1201:
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1124:
1121:
1115:
1112:
1001:
994:
990:
987:
981:
955:
954:
947:
808:one-child policy
639:hunter gatherers
605:
598:
591:
426:Forced pregnancy
19:
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2427:
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2409:
2408:
2387:
2381:
2368:
2346:10.2307/2207400
2331:
2302:
2296:
2283:
2280:
2278:Further reading
2275:
2267:
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2250:
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2232:
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2203:
2190:
2184:
2171:
2165:
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2133:
2118:10.1363/3909713
2098:
2092:
2079:
2073:
2060:
2050:The Independent
2043:
2030:
2017:
1986:
1981:
1958:10.1.1.621.2553
1951:(10): 124–132.
1942:
1936:
1919:
1910:
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1534:10.2307/1972196
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1456:
1455:
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1431:
1424:
1416:
1412:
1404:
1400:
1396:, pp. 5–6.
1392:
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1198:
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1186:
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1167:
1161:Jones 1999–2000
1159:
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1145:
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1131:
1127:
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1118:
1113:
1109:
1104:
1072:
1031:
1002:
991:
985:
982:
971:
956:
952:
945:
928:
926:Socio-economics
915:
909:
862:female genocide
826:
820:
752:Gabriel Palatre
700:
694:
689:
676:writing in the
609:
562:Sex and the law
542:Women's shelter
463:Sexual bullying
421:Forced marriage
411:Forced abortion
334:Gishiri cutting
303:Widow cleansing
293:Sexual violence
17:
12:
11:
5:
2432:
2430:
2422:
2421:
2411:
2410:
2407:
2406:
2401:
2399:on 2014-11-08.
2385:
2380:978-0199582174
2379:
2366:
2340:(4): 493–520.
2329:
2300:
2295:978-1571810243
2294:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2273:
2243:
2230:
2225:978-0742545793
2224:
2207:
2201:
2188:
2183:978-0742523715
2182:
2169:
2164:978-1556080289
2163:
2150:
2145:978-0761815785
2144:
2131:
2111:(2): 097–102.
2096:
2091:978-0742555310
2090:
2077:
2071:
2058:
2041:
2037:Deutsche Welle
2028:
2024:Gendercide.org
2015:
1979:
1940:
1935:978-0299201340
1934:
1917:
1908:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1888:
1887:
1875:
1860:
1842:
1827:
1806:
1757:
1728:
1707:
1689:
1658:
1645:10.2307/146350
1639:(2): 369–406.
1619:
1600:The New Yorker
1586:
1571:
1547:
1528:(3): 415–432.
1509:
1478:
1467:
1449:
1437:
1422:
1410:
1398:
1386:
1384:, p. 160.
1374:
1359:
1347:
1335:
1323:
1311:
1299:
1287:
1285:, p. 137.
1275:
1273:, p. 134.
1260:
1225:
1208:
1206:, p. 365.
1196:
1194:, p. 142.
1184:
1181:on 2006-08-15.
1165:
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1004:
1003:
959:
957:
950:
944:
941:
927:
924:
911:Main article:
908:
905:
858:women's rights
822:Main article:
819:
816:
696:Main article:
693:
690:
688:
685:
658:Charles Darwin
631:anthropologist
611:
610:
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585:
582:
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529:Related topics
526:
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261:Sexual assault
258:
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249:Unacknowledged
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76:Pregnant women
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40:
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10:
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2306:
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2297:
2291:
2287:
2282:
2281:
2277:
2264:on 2019-10-07
2260:
2256:
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2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1985:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1941:
1937:
1931:
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1776:
1772:
1768:
1761:
1758:
1747:on 2017-07-22
1746:
1742:
1738:
1732:
1729:
1724:
1720:
1714:
1712:
1708:
1700:
1693:
1690:
1677:
1673:
1672:Down to Earth
1669:
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1453:
1450:
1446:
1441:
1438:
1434:
1433:Krishnan 2012
1429:
1427:
1423:
1420:, p. 99.
1419:
1414:
1411:
1407:
1402:
1399:
1395:
1390:
1387:
1383:
1378:
1375:
1372:, p. 50.
1371:
1366:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1355:Mungello 2009
1351:
1348:
1345:, p. 13.
1344:
1343:Mungello 2008
1339:
1336:
1333:, p. 77.
1332:
1331:Harrison 2008
1327:
1324:
1321:, p. 10.
1320:
1319:Mungello 2008
1315:
1312:
1308:
1307:Mungello 2008
1303:
1300:
1297:, p. 17.
1296:
1295:Mungello 2008
1291:
1288:
1284:
1283:Mungello 2009
1279:
1276:
1272:
1271:Mungello 2009
1267:
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1188:
1185:
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1154:
1147:
1139:
1135:
1132:Although the
1129:
1126:
1120:
1117:
1111:
1108:
1101:
1097:
1094:
1092:
1091:Missing women
1089:
1087:
1084:
1082:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1073:
1069:
1067:
1065:
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1044:
1040:
1036:
1028:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1016:
1012:
1011:dowry system.
1000:
997:
989:
979:
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968:
964:
958:
949:
948:
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871:
867:
863:
859:
856:According to
854:
852:
847:
846:Uttar Pradesh
843:
838:
830:
825:
817:
815:
813:
809:
805:
799:
797:
793:
788:
784:
779:
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776:reincarnation
773:
767:
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761:
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736:
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644:Western world
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517:
514:
512:
511:Belém do Pará
509:
507:
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486:
483:
479:
474:
471:
469:
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461:
459:
458:
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452:
449:
447:
444:
442:
439:
437:
434:
432:
429:
427:
424:
422:
419:
417:
416:Force-feeding
414:
412:
409:
407:
404:
402:
401:
397:
393:
392:and pregnancy
390:
388:
385:
383:
380:
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316:
315:
314:
311:Disfigurement
309:
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161:
160:
157:
155:
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143:
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137:Fetish slaves
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118:
115:
113:
110:
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89:
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84:
82:
79:
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72:
69:
67:
64:
62:
59:
57:
56:Honor killing
54:
52:
49:
47:
46:Bride burning
44:
43:
42:
41:
36:
33:
29:
25:
21:
20:
2397:the original
2392:
2370:
2337:
2333:
2308:
2304:
2288:. Berghahn.
2285:
2266:. Retrieved
2259:the original
2254:
2238:
2213:
2192:
2173:
2157:. Springer.
2154:
2135:
2108:
2104:
2081:
2062:
2054:the original
2049:
2036:
2023:
1997:(1): 72–92.
1994:
1990:
1948:
1944:
1923:
1912:
1902:
1893:Bibliography
1885:, p. 7.
1883:Winkler 2005
1878:
1845:
1830:
1774:
1770:
1760:
1749:. Retrieved
1745:the original
1740:
1731:
1723:the original
1692:
1682:November 20,
1680:. Retrieved
1676:the original
1671:
1661:
1636:
1632:
1622:
1611:. Retrieved
1599:
1589:
1580:
1574:
1563:. Retrieved
1559:
1550:
1525:
1521:
1500:. Retrieved
1496:the original
1491:
1481:
1472:
1458:
1452:
1440:
1413:
1401:
1394:Oberman 2005
1389:
1377:
1350:
1338:
1326:
1314:
1309:, p. 9.
1302:
1290:
1278:
1252:. Retrieved
1240:
1228:
1211:
1199:
1187:
1179:the original
1168:
1156:
1128:
1119:
1110:
1061:
1057:
1051:
1032:
1023:
1019:
1015:dowry system
1007:
992:
983:
961:
937:
933:
929:
919:
916:
892:
886:
855:
839:
835:
800:
796:yin and yang
787:filial piety
780:
768:
745:
723:
717:
713:Matteo Ricci
709:
706:Matteo Ricci
677:
671:
651:
628:
615:
614:
473:Witch trials
455:
398:
372:Dating abuse
354:Other issues
346:Foot binding
339:Infibulation
169:By Deception
164:Acquaintance
65:
1871:Mashru 2012
1817:UN (2011).
1445:George 1997
1418:Miller 1987
1406:Miller 1987
1204:Darwin 1871
1076:Dowry death
986:August 2020
897:Usilampatti
893:Born to Die
888:India Today
750:missionary
674:Amartya Sen
635:infanticide
620:patriarchal
567:Victimology
547:25 November
406:Eve teasing
367:Gaslighting
319:Acid attack
66:Infanticide
51:Dowry death
2268:2013-10-14
1751:2019-12-01
1613:2024-06-12
1565:2018-02-12
1492:The Nation
1254:2021-01-19
1148:References
1086:Gendercide
963:neutrality
877:among the
875:Tamil Nadu
557:By country
552:6 February
387:management
276:In Service
234:Statistics
224:Prevention
174:Corrective
86:Sororicide
2011:163110059
1953:CiteSeerX
1608:0028-792X
1249:0028-7504
1102:Footnotes
974:talk page
783:Confucian
672:In 1990,
629:In 1978,
239:Statutory
219:Pregnancy
199:Genocidal
91:Uxoricide
71:Matricide
2413:Category
2362:11632401
2127:23895886
1850:UNHCHR.
1801:21402684
1370:Nie 2005
1081:Femicide
1070:See also
967:disputed
907:Pakistan
881:and the
842:colonial
728:Buddhist
667:Pakistan
521:Istanbul
61:Femicide
24:a series
22:Part of
2354:2207400
2325:6395348
1975:3775470
1792:3168620
1697:Siwal.
1542:1972196
879:Kallars
764:Sichuan
733:Jiangxi
648:dowries
382:outline
254:Wartime
214:Marital
204:History
189:Factors
184:Effects
38:Killing
2377:
2360:
2352:
2323:
2292:
2222:
2199:
2180:
2161:
2142:
2125:
2088:
2069:
2009:
1973:
1955:
1932:
1799:
1789:
1653:146350
1651:
1606:
1540:
1502:9 July
1465:
1247:
1138:killed
868:group
804:feudal
760:Shanxi
748:Jesuit
516:Maputo
457:Raptio
266:Campus
244:Threat
229:Prison
2393:V-Day
2350:JSTOR
2262:(PDF)
2251:(PDF)
2007:S2CID
1987:(PDF)
1971:JSTOR
1855:(PDF)
1822:(PDF)
1702:(PDF)
1649:JSTOR
1538:JSTOR
1220:(PDF)
901:caste
883:Todas
818:India
772:karma
724:nì nǚ
692:China
663:India
506:DEVAW
496:CEDAW
491:DEDAW
271:Child
2375:ISBN
2358:PMID
2321:PMID
2290:ISBN
2220:ISBN
2197:ISBN
2178:ISBN
2159:ISBN
2140:ISBN
2123:PMID
2086:ISBN
2067:ISBN
1930:ISBN
1797:PMID
1684:2019
1604:ISSN
1504:2020
1463:ISBN
1245:ISSN
1052:The
960:The
781:The
762:and
720:Qing
501:VDPA
281:Mass
209:Laws
194:Gang
179:Date
159:Rape
81:Sati
2342:doi
2313:doi
2239:CNN
2113:doi
1999:doi
1995:113
1963:doi
1787:PMC
1779:doi
1775:183
1641:doi
1530:doi
1474:...
870:CRY
792:Ren
2415::
2391:.
2356:.
2348:.
2338:47
2336:.
2319:.
2309:19
2307:.
2253:.
2237:.
2121:.
2109:39
2107:.
2103:.
2048:.
2035:.
2022:.
2005:.
1993:.
1989:.
1969:.
1961:.
1947:.
1863:^
1809:^
1795:.
1785:.
1773:.
1769:.
1739:.
1710:^
1670:.
1647:.
1637:34
1635:.
1631:.
1602:.
1598:.
1558:.
1536:.
1526:14
1524:.
1512:^
1490:.
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