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rapid 3D image acquisition and achieves spatial resolutions of 5-15 ÎŒm. For OCE, a mechanical load is applied to the tissue and the resultant deformation is measured using speckle tracking or phase sensitive detection. Early implementations of OCE involved applying a quasi-static compression to the tissue, though more recently dynamic loading has been achieved through the application of a sinusoidal modulation via a contact transducer or acoustic wave. Other imaging modalities with greater optical resolution have also been introduced for optical elastography to probe the microscale between cells and whole tissues. OCT relies on longer wavelengths, of 850 - 1050 nm, and therefore provides a lower optical resolution compared to common light microscopy, which uses visible wavelengths of 400-700 nm, and provides lateral spatial resolutions of <1 ÎŒm. Examples of higher resolution analysis include the use of confocal and light-sheet microscopy respectively for mechanical characterization of multicellular spheroids and for structural analysis of 3D organoids at a single-cell resolution. When using these imaging modalities, quasi-static compression may be induced in the tissue sample by a micro-indentation device, such as a microtweezer. The resultant deformation can be measured from the microscopy images using image-based nodal tracking algorithms, and mechanical properties can be discerned using finite element method (FEM) analyses.
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shear wave travels through the tissue. Local tissue velocity maps are obtained with a conventional speckle tracking technique and provide a full movie of the shear wave propagation through the tissue. There are two principal innovations implemented in SSI. First, by using many near-simultaneous pushes, SSI creates a source of shear waves which is moved through the medium at a supersonic speed. Second, the generated shear wave is visualized by using ultrafast imaging technique. Using inversion algorithms, the shear elasticity of medium is mapped quantitatively from the wave propagation movie. SSI is the first ultrasonic imaging technology able to reach more than 10,000 frames per second of deep-seated organs. SSI provides a set of quantitative and in vivo parameters describing the tissue mechanical properties: Young's modulus, viscosity, anisotropy.
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The principal difference between SWEI and ARFI is that SWEI is based on the use of shear waves propagating laterally from the beam axis and creating elasticity map by measuring shear wave propagation parameters whereas ARFI gets elasticity information from the axis of the pushing beam and uses multiple pushes to create a 2-D stiffness map. No shear waves are involved in ARFI and no axial elasticity assessment is involved in SWEI. SWEI is implemented in supersonic shear imaging (SSI).
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to assess the shear wave speed from which the Young's modulus is deduced under hypothesis of homogeneity, isotropy and pure elasticity (E=3ÏVÂČ). An important advantage of transient elastography compared to harmonic elastography techniques is the separation of shear waves and compression waves. The technique can be implemented in 1D and 2D which required the development of an ultrafast ultrasound scanner.
752:, 2.5% of 4,000 people born in 1991 and 1992 were found by ultrasound scanning at the age of 18 to have non-alcoholic fatty liver disease; five years later transient elastography found over 20% to have the fatty deposits on the liver of steatosis, indicating non-alcoholic fatty liver disease; half of those were classified as severe. The scans also found that 2.4% had the liver scarring of
36:
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586:. A specific implementation of 1D transient elastography called VCTE has been developed to assess average liver stiffness which correlates to liver fibrosis assessed by liver biopsy. This technique is implemented in a device which can also assess the controlled attenuation parameter (CAP) which is good surrogate marker of
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Optical elastography is an emerging technique that that utilizes optical microscopy to obtain tissue images. The most common form of optical elastography, optical coherence elastography (OCE), is based on optical coherence tomography (OCT), which combines interferometry with lateral beam scanning for
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from a focused ultrasound beam. The amount the tissue along the axis of the beam is pushed down is reflective of tissue stiffness; softer tissue is more easily pushed than stiffer tissue. ARFI shows a qualitative stiffness value along the axis of the pushing beam. By pushing in many different places,
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stiffness map is often desired. To do this requires that assumptions be made about the nature of the soft tissue being imaged and about tissue outside of the image. Additionally, under compression, objects can move into or out of the image or around in the image, causing problems with interpretation.
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There are numerous elastographic techniques, in development stages from early research to extensive clinical application. Each of these techniques works in a different way. What all methods have in common is that they create a distortion in the tissue, observe and process the tissue response to infer
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Magnetic resonance elastography (MRE) was introduced in the mid-1990s, and multiple clinical applications have been investigated. In MRE, a mechanical vibrator is used on the surface of the patient's body; this creates shear waves that travel into the patient's deeper tissues. An imaging acquisition
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Transient elastography was initially called time-resolved pulse elastography when it was introduced in the late 1990s. The technique relies on a transient mechanical vibration which is used to induce a shear wave into the tissue. The propagation of the shear wave is tracked using ultrasound in order
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One strength of MRE is the resulting 3-D elasticity map, which can cover an entire organ. Because MRI is not limited by air or bone, it can access some tissues ultrasound cannot, notably the brain. It also has the advantage of being more uniform across operators and less dependent on operator skill
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MR elastography has made significant advances over the past few years with acquisition times down to a minute or less and has been used in a variety of medical applications including cardiology research on living human hearts. MR elastography's short acquisition time also makes it competitive with
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to see how fast the wave gets to different lateral positions, the stiffness of the intervening tissue is inferred. Since the terms "elasticity imaging" and "elastography" are synonyms, the original term SWEI denoting the technology for elasticity mapping using shear waves is often replaced by SWE.
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imaging. SSI is used for breast examination with a number of high-resolution linear transducers. A large multi-center breast imaging study has demonstrated both reproducibility and significant improvement in the classification of breast lesions when shear wave elastography images are added to the
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Supersonic shear imaging (SSI) gives a quantitative, real-time two-dimensional map of tissue stiffness. SSI is based on SWEI: it uses acoustic radiation force to induce a 'push' inside the tissue of interest generating shear waves and the tissue's stiffness is computed from how fast the resulting
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Quasistatic elastography (sometimes called simply 'elastography' for historical reasons) is one of the earliest elastography techniques. In this technique, an external compression is applied to tissue, and the ultrasound images before and after the compression are compared. The areas of the image
1632:
Sandrin, Laurent; Fourquet, Bertrand; Hasquenoph, Jean-Michel; Yon, Sylvain; Fournier, Céline; Mal, Frédéric; Christidis, Christos; Ziol, Marianne; Poulet, Bruno; Kazemi, Farhad; Beaugrand, Michel; Palau, Robert (2003). "Transient elastography: a new non-invasive method for assessment of hepatic
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Berg, Wendie A.; Cosgrove, David O.; Doré, Caroline J; SchÀfer, Fritz K. W.; Svensson, William E.; Hooley, Regina J.; Ohlinger, Ralf; Mendelson, Ellen B.; Balu-Maestro, Catherine; Locatelli, Martina; Tourasse, Christophe; Cavanaugh, Barbara C.; Juhan, Valérie; Stavros, A. Thomas; Tardivon, Anne
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gave instructions on many forms of diagnosis using palpation, including palpation of the breasts, wounds, bowels, ulcers, uterus, skin, and tumours. In the modern
Western world, palpation became considered a respectable method of diagnosis in the 1930s. Since then, the practice of palpation has
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Sasso, Magali; Beaugrand, Michel; de
Ledinghen, Victor; Douvin, Catherine; Marcellin, Patrick; Poupon, Raoul; Sandrin, Laurent; Miette, VĂ©ronique (2010). "Controlled attenuation parameter (CAP): a novel VCTE guided ultrasonic attenuation measurement for the evaluation of hepatic steatosis:
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In the food industry, low-intensity ultrasonics has already been used since the 1980s to provide information about the concentration, structure, and physical state of components in foods such as vegetables, meats, and dairy products and also for quality control, for example to evaluate the
379:(i.e. a line), 2-D (a plane), 3-D (a volume), or 0-D (a single value), and it can be a video or a single image. In most cases, the result is displayed to the operator along with a conventional image of the tissue, which shows where in the tissue the different stiffness values occur.
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Because elastography does not have the same limitations as manual palpation, it is being investigated in some areas for which there is no history of diagnosis with manual palpation. For example, magnetic resonance elastography is capable of assessing the stiffness of the
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Acoustoelasticity in soft solids: Assessment of the nonlinear shear modulus with the acoustic radiation force, J.-L. Gennisson,a M. RĂ©nier, S. Catheline, C. BarriĂšre, J. Bercoff, M. Tanter, and M. Fink, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 122 6, December
694:. Elastography is particularly advantageous in this case because when fibrosis is diffuse (spread around in clumps rather than continuous scarring), a biopsy can easily miss sampling the diseased tissue, which results in a
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Elastography is used for the investigation of many disease conditions in many organs. It can be used for additional diagnostic information compared to a mere anatomical image, and it can be used to guide
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Shear wave propagation maps obtained using transient elastography VCTE technique in a normal liver (top) and a cirrhotic liver (bottom). The liver stiffness is significantly higher in the cirrhotic liver.
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Ziol, Marianne; Handra-Luca, Adriana; Kettaneh, Adrien; Christidis, Christos; Mal, Frédéric; Kazemi, Farhad; de
Ledinghen, Victor; Marcellin, Patrick; Dhumeaux, Daniel; Trinchet, Jean-Claude (2005).
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Supersonic Shear
Imaging: A New Technique for Soft Tissue Elasticity Mapping. Bercoff J. et al., IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control, Vol. 51, No. 4, April 2004.
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that are least deformed are the ones that are the stiffest, while the most deformed areas are the least stiff. Generally, what is displayed to the operator is an image of the relative distortions (
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the mechanical properties of the tissue, and then display the results to the operator, usually as an image. Each elastographic method is characterized by the way it does each of these things.
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is the practice of feeling the stiffness of a person's or animal's tissues with the health practitioner's hands. Manual palpation dates back at least to 1500 BC, with the
Egyptian
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Sarvazyan, A. P.; Skovoroda, A. R.; Emelianov, S. Y.; Fowlkes, J. B.; Pipe, J. G.; Adler, R. S.; Buxton, R. B.; Carson, P. L. (1995). "Biophysical Bases of
Elasticity Imaging".
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Acoustic radiation force impulse imaging (ARFI) uses ultrasound to create a qualitative 2-D map of tissue stiffness. It does so by creating a 'push' inside the tissue using the
46:
578:), and imaging the motion of that distortion as it passes deeper into the body using a 1D ultrasound beam. It then displays a quantitative line of tissue stiffness data (the
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Once the response has been observed, the stiffness can be calculated from it. Most elastography techniques find the stiffness of tissue based on one of two main principles:
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Sandrin, Laurent; Tanter, Michael; Gennisson, Jean-Luc; Catheline, Stefan; Fink, Mathias (2002). "Shear
Elasticity Probe for Soft Tissues with 1D Transient Elastography".
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or, increasingly, replace them entirely. Biopsies are invasive and painful, presenting a risk of hemorrhage or infection, whereas elastography is completely noninvasive.
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An ARFI image of a thyroid nodule in the right thyroid lobe. The shear wave speed inside the box is 6.24 m/s, which is reflective of a high stiffness. Histology revealed
182:
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Sandrin, Laurent; Catheline, Stefan; Tanter, Michael; Hennequin, Xavier; Fink, Mathias (1999). "Time resolved pulsed elastography with ultrafast ultrasonic imaging".
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Manual palpation has several important limitations: it is limited to tissues accessible to the physician's hand, it is distorted by any intervening tissue, and it is
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Muthupillai R, Lomas DJ, Rossman PJ, et al. Magnetic resonance elastography by direct visualization of propagating acoustic strain waves. Science 1995; 269: 1854-7..
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To image the mechanical properties of tissue, we need to see how it behaves when deformed. There are three main ways of inducing a distortion to observe. These are:
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Some techniques will simply display the distortion and/or response, or the wave speed to the operator, while others will compute the stiffness (specifically the
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Another limit of this technique is that like manual palpation, it has difficulty with organs or tissues that are not close to the surface or easily compressed.
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A Review of
Optical Coherence Elastography: Fundamentals, Techniques and Prospects. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics 2014; 20(2):7101217.
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a map of the tissue stiffness is built up. Virtual Touch imaging quantification (VTIQ) has been successfully used to identify malignant cervical lymph nodes.
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Naturally, elastography sees use for organs and diseases where manual palpation was already widespread. Elastography is used for detection and diagnosis of
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The primary way elastographic techniques are categorized is by what imaging modality (type) they use to observe the response. Elastographic techniques use
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973:, Palmeri ML, Nightingale RW, and Trahey GE, On the feasibility of remote palpation using acoustic radiation force. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2001; 110: 625-34
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Tactile imaging involves translating the results of a digital "touch" into an image. Many physical principles have been explored for the realization of
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Cosgrove, David O.; Berg, Wendie A.; Doré, Caroline J.; Skyba, Danny M.; Henry, Jean-Pierre; Gay, Joel; Cohen-Bacrie, Claude; BE1 Study Group (2012).
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Ophir, J.; CĂ©spides, I.; Ponnekanti, H.; Li, X. (April 1991). "Elastography: A quantitative method for imaging the elasticity of biological tissues".
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In the case of endogenous motion imaging, instead of inducing a disturbance, disturbances naturally created by physiological processes are observed.
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1670:"Non-invasive assessment of liver fibrosis by stiffness measurements: a prospective multicenter study in patients with chronic hepatitis C"
774:: resistive, inductive, capacitive, optoelectric, magnetic, piezoelectric, and electroacoustic principles, in a variety of configurations.
574:(i.e. a line) image of "tissue" stiffness. It functions by vibrating the skin with a motor to create a passing distortion in the tissue (a
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418:) and display that instead. Some techniques present results quantitatively, while others only present qualitative (relative) results.
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Sandrin, Laurent; Tanter, Michael; Catheline, Stefan; Fink, Mathias (2002). "Shear modulus imaging with 2D transient elastography".
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231:. The main idea is that whether the tissue is hard or soft will give diagnostic information about the presence or status of
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625:). The result of an MRE scan is a quantitative 3-D map of the tissue stiffness, as well as a conventional 3-D MRI image.
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582:). This technique is used mainly by the Fibroscan system, which is used for liver assessment, for example, to diagnose
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Lightsheet microscopy integrates single-cell optical visco-elastography and fluorescence cytometry of 3D live tissues
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sequence that measures the velocity of the waves is used, and this is used to infer the tissue's stiffness (the
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985:"Multimodal Ultrasound Including Virtual Touch Imaging Quantification for Differentiating Cervical Lymph Nodes"
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An anatomical MRI image of a brain (top) and an MRE elastogram of the same brain (bottom). The stiffness is in
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While not visible on conventional grayscale ultrasound (left), a strain elastography image (centre) of the
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preliminary study and validation in a cohort of patients with chronic liver disease from various causes".
1141:"Shear-wave Elastography Improves the Specificity of Breast US: The BE1 Multinational Study of 939 Masses"
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Tomizawa, Yuji; Wali, Khadija H.; Surti, Manav; Suhail, Yasir; Kshitiz; Hoshino, Kazunori (2024-05-07),
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become widespread, and it is considered an effective method of detecting tumours and other pathologies.
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Conventional ultrasonography (lower image) and elastography (supersonic shear imaging; upper image) of
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There are a great many ultrasound elastographic techniques. The most prominent are highlighted below.
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The observation of the tissue response can take many forms. In terms of the image obtained, it can be
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In shear-wave elasticity imaging (SWEI), similar to ARFI, a 'push' is induced deep in the tissue by
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Elastography is used to investigate disease in the liver. Liver stiffness is usually indicative of
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Tegin, J; Wikander, J (2005). "Tactile sensing in intelligent robotic manipulation â a review".
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1436:(1999). "A solution to diffraction biases in sonoelasticity: The acoustic impulse technique".
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1303:(1999). "A solution to diffraction biases in sonoelasticity: The acoustic impulse technique".
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1219:"Use of an ultrasonic technique to evaluate the rheological properties of cheese and dough"
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Any of several imaging modalities that map degrees of soft-tissue elasticity and stiffness
1491:(April 2002). "Shear elasticity probe for soft tissues with 1-D transient elastography".
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308:. Elastography, the measurement of tissue stiffness, seeks to address these challenges.
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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
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This approach demonstrated clinical benefit in breast, thyroid, liver, prostate, and
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Using distortions created by normal physiological processes, e.g. pulse or heartbeat.
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1854:"A Review of Optical Coherence Elastography: Fundamentals, Techniques and Prospects"
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RĂŒger, Holger; Psychogios, Georgios; Jering, Monika; Zenk, Johannes (October 2020).
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Shear wave elasticity imaging: a new ultrasonic technology of medical diagnostics.
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Supersonic shear imaging of the stiffness during contraction of the hand muscles
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1180:"Ultrasonics in food engineering. Part I: Introduction and experimental methods"
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to evaluate cortical fibrosis have been published showing promising results. In
500:. The disturbance created by this push travels sideways through the tissue as a
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191:, a malignant cancer. The cancer (red) is much stiffer than the healthy tissue.
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273:, women look for hard lumps, as cancer is usually stiffer than healthy tissue.
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254:(MRI) to make both the stiffness map and an anatomical image for comparison.
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detects a cancer (dark red area at lower left). The finding is confirmed by
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Sandrin, Laurent; Tanter, Mickaël; Gennisson, Jean-Luc; Catheline, Stefan;
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imaging using ultrasound to remotely create a 'push' inside the tissue, and
1940:
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Magnetic resonance elastography: Non-invasive mapping of tissue elasticity
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686:), which are in turn indicative of numerous disease conditions, including
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Kennedy, Brendan F.; Kennedy, Kelsey M.; Sampson, David D. (March 2014).
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Kennedy, Brendan F.; Wijesinghe, Philip; Sampson, David D. (April 2017).
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IEEE Transactions on
Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control
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IEEE Transactions on
Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control
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IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control
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imaging, and they can determine the mechanical properties and state of
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tumours will often be harder than the surrounding tissue, and diseased
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if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and
2030:"Magnetic Resonance Elastography - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
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interpretation of standard B-mode and Color mode ultrasound images.
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922:"Imaging the elastic properties of tissue: the 20 year perspective"
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1077:"Shear wave elastography for breast masses is highly reproducible"
814:"Medical ultrasound: imaging of soft tissue strain and elasticity"
730:
649:
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406:) travel faster through stiffer tissue than through softer tissue.
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Hansen, Kristoffer; Nielsen, Michael; Ewertsen, Caroline (2015).
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Sarvazyan A, Hall TJ, Urban MW, Fatemi M, Aglyamov SR, Garra BS.
2118:"Experts warn of fatty liver disease 'epidemic' in young people"
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Assessing tissue stiffness may boost breast imaging specificity.
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Sarvazyan AP, Rudenko OV, Swanson SD, Fowlkes JB, Emelianov SY.
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Overview of elastographyâan emerging branch of medical imaging
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372:(s). There are a handful of other methods that exist as well.
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cancers. Certain types of elastography are also suitable for
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Ganne-Carrié N; Ziol M; de Ledinghen V; et al. (2006).
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both giving instructions on diagnosis with palpation. In
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Pushing/deforming or vibrating the surface of the body (
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Parker, K J; Doyley, M M; Rubens, D J (February 2011).
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IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics
1815:"The emergence of optical elastography in biomedicine"
869:. Current Medical Imaging Reviews, 2011, 7(4):255-282.
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From the relative distortion image, however, making a
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In 2015, preliminary reports on elastography used on
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2056:"Ultrasonography of the Kidney: A Pictorial Review"
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1585:"Clinical applications of transient elastography"
1178:Povey, M. J. W.; McClements, D. J. (1988-01-01).
438:Manual compression (quasistatic) elastography of
737:on elastography in healthy and diseased brains.
467:Acoustic radiation force impulse imaging (ARFI)
629:than most methods of ultrasound elastography.
60:Please review the contents of the article and
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8:
1438:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
1305:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
570:Transient elastography gives a quantitative
1794:Manduca A, Oliphant TE, Dresner MA, et al.
1123:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
763:Other techniques include elastography with
269:has long been used to detect disease. In a
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1033:Ultrasound Med Biol. 1998; 24(9): 1419-35.
533:(B). The scale is in kPa of shear modulus.
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430:Quasistatic elastography / strain imaging
3036:Orthogonal polarization spectral imaging
1217:Lee, H.O.; Luan, H.; Daut, D.G. (1992).
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818:Journal of the Royal Society, Interface
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455:), which is often of clinical utility.
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1065:Diagnostic Imaging. 2009;31(12):15-17.
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1921:
1919:
1808:
1806:
1804:
1583:Jung, Kyu Sik; Kim, Seung Up (2012).
594:Magnetic resonance elastography (MRE)
364:(MRI) and pressure/stress sensors in
7:
2134:Kennedy BF, Kennedy KM, Sampson DD.
989:Ultrasound in Medicine & Biology
492:Shear-wave elasticity imaging (SWEI)
1061:Mendelson EB, Chen J, Karstaedt P.
2843:Sestamibi parathyroid scintigraphy
1757:. Vol. 21. pp. 223â240.
1732:10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2010.07.005
1720:Ultrasound in Medicine and Biology
1647:10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2003.07.001
1635:Ultrasound in Medicine and Biology
1001:10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2020.06.005
504:. By using an image modality like
246:The most prominent techniques use
25:
1798:. Med Image Anal 2001; 5: 237-54.
1589:Clinical and Molecular Hepatology
1432:Catheline, Stefan; Wu, Francois;
1299:Catheline, Stefan; Wu, Francois;
733:, and there is a growing body of
555:rheological qualities of cheese.
3098:
3097:
342:acoustic radiation force impulse
141:
126:
34:
2600:Cholangiopancreatography (MRCP)
2116:Sarah Boseley (12 April 2019).
2052:Content initially copied from:
927:Physics in Medicine and Biology
633:other elastography techniques.
616:Magnetic resonance elastography
402:Mechanical waves (specifically
399:) less than does softer tissue.
243:are stiffer than healthy ones.
2848:Radioactive iodine uptake test
517:Supersonic shear imaging (SSI)
62:add the appropriate references
1:
2828:Radionuclide ventriculography
2302:Lower gastrointestinal series
2294:Upper gastrointestinal series
1235:10.1016/s0260-8774(01)00073-5
812:Wells, P. N. T. (June 2011).
3019:Optical coherence tomography
2941:Myocardial perfusion imaging
2529:Dental panoramic radiography
1763:10.1007/978-1-4615-1943-0_23
1196:10.1016/0260-8774(88)90015-5
949:10.1088/0031-9155/57/16/5359
896:10.1016/0161-7346(91)90079-W
765:optical coherence tomography
1223:Journal of Food Engineering
1184:Journal of Food Engineering
395:), stiffer tissue deforms (
391:For a given applied force (
383:Processing and presentation
189:papillary thyroid carcinoma
47:reliable medical references
3140:
2823:Ventilation/perfusion scan
2298:Small-bowel follow-through
2073:10.3390/diagnostics6010002
1870:10.1109/JSTQE.2013.2291445
1270:10.1177/016173469902100402
613:
362:magnetic resonance imaging
252:magnetic resonance imaging
3093:
3064:Dynamic angiothermography
2808:
2732:Abdominal ultrasonography
2238:
2161:10.1108/01439910510573318
1993:10.1101/2024.04.20.590392
1929:"Optica Publishing Group"
1892:"Optica Publishing Group"
1601:10.3350/cmh.2012.18.2.163
1093:10.1007/s00330-011-2340-y
531:first dorsal interosseous
440:invasive ductal carcinoma
337:) with a probe or a tool,
180:
150:This article needs to be
53:or relies too heavily on
3054:Non-contact thermography
2833:Radionuclide angiography
2685:Doppler echocardiography
498:acoustic radiation force
485:acoustic radiation force
219:modalities that map the
2838:Radioisotope renography
1157:10.1148/radiol.11110640
422:Ultrasound elastography
271:breast self-examination
2873:Gastric emptying study
1831:10.1038/nphoton.2017.6
830:10.1098/rsif.2011.0054
663:
611:
563:
550:Transient elastography
534:
527:abductor digiti minimi
480:
447:
352:Observing the response
274:
2534:X-ray motion analysis
2417:X-ray microtomography
2336:Hysterosalpingography
2243:Pneumoencephalography
2034:www.sciencedirect.com
1941:10.1364/boe.10.002409
735:scientific literature
653:
601:
561:
524:
474:
437:
321:Inducing a distortion
265:
258:Historical background
215:is any of a class of
3059:Contact thermography
2769:Emergency ultrasound
2707:Transcranial Doppler
2458:Abdominal and pelvis
756:, which can lead to
742:transplanted kidneys
637:Optical elastography
3026:Confocal microscopy
2904:Indium-111 WBC scan
2727:Echoencephalography
2463:Virtual colonoscopy
1904:10.1364/oe.3.000199
1450:1999ASAJ..105.2941C
1317:1999ASAJ..105.2941C
940:2012PMB....57.5359P
750:Children of the 90s
684:fatty liver disease
477:papillary carcinoma
286:Edwin Smith Papyrus
3014:Optical tomography
2863:Dacryoscintigraphy
2858:Immunoscintigraphy
2497:Whole body imaging
2248:Dental radiography
1755:Acoustical Imaging
1258:Ultrasonic Imaging
1081:European Radiology
884:Ultrasonic Imaging
746:Bristol University
664:
612:
564:
535:
481:
448:
275:
221:elastic properties
3111:
3110:
3073:Target conditions
2996:
2995:
2992:
2991:
2912:
2911:
2853:Bone scintigraphy
2818:Scintimammography
2813:Cholescintigraphy
2658:contrast-enhanced
2552:
2551:
2512:
2511:
2502:Full-body CT scan
2402:General operation
2381:
2380:
2351:Angiocardiography
1772:978-1-4613-5797-1
1726:(11): 1825â1835.
1687:10.1002/hep.20506
1641:(12): 1705â1713.
1553:10.1002/hep.21420
1505:10.1109/58.996561
1458:10.1109/58.996561
1403:10.1109/58.996560
1360:10.1109/58.996561
995:(10): 2677â2682.
824:(64): 1521â1549.
210:
209:
171:
170:
135:
134:
111:
16:(Redirected from
3131:
3101:
3100:
2924:
2806:
2796:
2680:Echocardiography
2539:Hounsfield scale
2392:
2311:Cholecystography
2236:
2227:
2202:
2195:
2188:
2179:
2173:
2172:
2149:Industrial Robot
2144:
2138:
2132:
2126:
2125:
2113:
2107:
2103:
2093:
2075:
2050:
2044:
2043:
2041:
2040:
2026:
2020:
2019:
2018:
2017:
2004:
1978:
1969:
1968:
1966:
1965:
1952:
1925:
1914:
1913:
1911:
1910:
1888:
1882:
1881:
1849:
1843:
1842:
1819:Nature Photonics
1810:
1799:
1792:
1786:
1783:
1777:
1776:
1750:
1744:
1743:
1714:
1708:
1707:
1689:
1665:
1659:
1658:
1629:
1623:
1622:
1612:
1580:
1574:
1573:
1555:
1531:
1525:
1524:
1484:
1478:
1477:
1444:(5): 2941â2950.
1429:
1423:
1422:
1386:
1380:
1379:
1343:
1337:
1336:
1325:10.1121/1.426907
1311:(5): 2941â2950.
1296:
1290:
1289:
1253:
1247:
1246:
1229:(1/2): 127â150.
1214:
1208:
1207:
1175:
1169:
1168:
1135:
1129:
1128:
1122:
1114:
1104:
1087:(5): 1023â1032.
1072:
1066:
1059:
1053:
1049:
1043:
1040:
1034:
1027:
1021:
1020:
980:
974:
968:
962:
961:
951:
917:
908:
907:
879:
870:
863:
852:
851:
841:
809:
787:
206:
185:
173:
166:
163:
157:
145:
144:
137:
130:
129:
121:
118:
112:
110:
69:
38:
37:
30:
21:
3139:
3138:
3134:
3133:
3132:
3130:
3129:
3128:
3124:Medical imaging
3114:
3113:
3112:
3107:
3089:
3068:
3040:
2988:
2974:PET mammography
2945:
2908:
2894:Gallium-67 scan
2889:Octreotide scan
2877:
2785:
2636:
2548:
2508:
2431:
2412:High-resolution
2377:
2341:Skeletal survey
2307:Cholangiography
2220:
2211:
2209:Medical imaging
2206:
2176:
2146:
2145:
2141:
2133:
2129:
2115:
2114:
2110:
2053:
2051:
2047:
2038:
2036:
2028:
2027:
2023:
2015:
2013:
1980:
1979:
1972:
1963:
1961:
1927:
1926:
1917:
1908:
1906:
1890:
1889:
1885:
1851:
1850:
1846:
1812:
1811:
1802:
1793:
1789:
1784:
1780:
1773:
1752:
1751:
1747:
1716:
1715:
1711:
1667:
1666:
1662:
1631:
1630:
1626:
1582:
1581:
1577:
1533:
1532:
1528:
1486:
1485:
1481:
1431:
1430:
1426:
1388:
1387:
1383:
1345:
1344:
1340:
1298:
1297:
1293:
1255:
1254:
1250:
1216:
1215:
1211:
1177:
1176:
1172:
1137:
1136:
1132:
1115:
1074:
1073:
1069:
1060:
1056:
1050:
1046:
1041:
1037:
1028:
1024:
982:
981:
977:
969:
965:
919:
918:
911:
881:
880:
873:
864:
855:
811:
810:
799:
795:
784:
780:
772:tactile sensors
715:musculoskeletal
648:
639:
618:
596:
588:liver steatosis
580:Young's modulus
572:one-dimensional
552:
543:musculoskeletal
519:
494:
469:
432:
424:
412:Young's modulus
385:
366:tactile imaging
354:
323:
314:
260:
235:. For example,
217:medical imaging
202:
192:
167:
161:
158:
155:
146:
142:
131:
127:
122:
116:
113:
70:
59:
55:primary sources
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3137:
3135:
3127:
3126:
3116:
3115:
3109:
3108:
3106:
3105:
3094:
3091:
3090:
3088:
3087:
3082:
3076:
3074:
3070:
3069:
3067:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3050:
3048:
3042:
3041:
3039:
3038:
3033:
3031:Endomicroscopy
3028:
3023:
3022:
3021:
3010:
3008:
2998:
2997:
2994:
2993:
2990:
2989:
2987:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2960:
2958:
2947:
2946:
2944:
2943:
2937:
2935:
2921:
2914:
2913:
2910:
2909:
2907:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2885:
2883:
2879:
2878:
2876:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2845:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2809:
2803:
2793:
2787:
2786:
2784:
2783:
2782:
2781:
2776:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2745:
2744:
2739:
2729:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2703:
2702:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2677:
2676:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2646:
2644:
2638:
2637:
2635:
2634:
2629:
2628:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2591:
2590:
2580:
2575:
2574:
2573:
2562:
2560:
2554:
2553:
2550:
2549:
2547:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2520:
2518:
2514:
2513:
2510:
2509:
2507:
2506:
2505:
2504:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2483:
2482:
2477:
2467:
2466:
2465:
2455:
2454:
2453:
2448:
2439:
2437:
2433:
2432:
2430:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2398:
2396:
2389:
2383:
2382:
2379:
2378:
2376:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2359:
2358:
2353:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2304:
2291:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2271:
2270:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2239:
2233:
2224:
2213:
2212:
2207:
2205:
2204:
2197:
2190:
2182:
2175:
2174:
2139:
2127:
2108:
2045:
2021:
1970:
1933:opg.optica.org
1915:
1896:opg.optica.org
1883:
1864:(2): 272â288.
1844:
1825:(4): 215â221.
1800:
1787:
1778:
1771:
1745:
1709:
1660:
1624:
1575:
1526:
1499:(4): 436â446.
1479:
1424:
1397:(4): 426â435.
1381:
1354:(4): 436â446.
1338:
1291:
1264:(4): 259â272.
1248:
1209:
1190:(4): 217â245.
1170:
1151:(2): 435â449.
1130:
1067:
1054:
1044:
1035:
1022:
975:
971:Nightingale KR
963:
909:
890:(2): 111â134.
871:
853:
796:
794:
791:
790:
789:
779:
776:
767:(i.e. light).
698:misdiagnosis.
696:false negative
656:prostate gland
647:
644:
638:
635:
614:Main article:
595:
592:
551:
548:
518:
515:
493:
490:
468:
465:
431:
428:
423:
420:
408:
407:
400:
384:
381:
370:tactile sensor
353:
350:
349:
348:
345:
338:
322:
319:
313:
310:
290:ancient Greece
259:
256:
208:
207:
200:
194:
193:
186:
178:
177:
169:
168:
149:
147:
140:
133:
132:
125:
123:
76:"Elastography"
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3136:
3125:
3122:
3121:
3119:
3104:
3096:
3095:
3092:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3078:
3077:
3075:
3071:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3051:
3049:
3047:
3043:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3020:
3017:
3016:
3015:
3012:
3011:
3009:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2962:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2942:
2939:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2915:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2899:Ga-68-DOTATOC
2897:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2886:
2884:
2880:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2810:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2788:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2771:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2734:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2712:Intravascular
2710:
2708:
2705:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2682:
2681:
2678:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2650:
2648:
2647:
2645:
2643:
2639:
2633:
2632:Synthetic MRI
2630:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2612:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2589:
2586:
2585:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2572:
2569:
2568:
2567:
2564:
2563:
2561:
2559:
2555:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2521:
2519:
2515:
2503:
2500:
2499:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2481:
2478:
2476:
2473:
2472:
2471:
2468:
2464:
2461:
2460:
2459:
2456:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2443:
2441:
2440:
2438:
2434:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2422:Electron beam
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2399:
2397:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2384:
2374:
2373:Orbital x-ray
2371:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2348:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2269:
2268:Bronchography
2266:
2265:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2240:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2203:
2198:
2196:
2191:
2189:
2184:
2183:
2180:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2143:
2140:
2136:
2131:
2128:
2123:
2119:
2112:
2109:
2106:
2101:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2074:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2049:
2046:
2035:
2031:
2025:
2022:
2012:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1985:
1977:
1975:
1971:
1960:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1924:
1922:
1920:
1916:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1887:
1884:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1848:
1845:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1809:
1807:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1791:
1788:
1782:
1779:
1774:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1749:
1746:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1713:
1710:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1664:
1661:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1628:
1625:
1620:
1616:
1611:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1595:(2): 163â73.
1594:
1590:
1586:
1579:
1576:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1554:
1549:
1546:(6): 1511â7.
1545:
1541:
1537:
1530:
1527:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1489:Fink, Mathias
1483:
1480:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1434:Fink, Mathias
1428:
1425:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1385:
1382:
1377:
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1369:
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1357:
1353:
1349:
1342:
1339:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1301:Fink, Mathias
1295:
1292:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
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1263:
1259:
1252:
1249:
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1189:
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1162:
1158:
1154:
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1146:
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1126:
1120:
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1108:
1103:
1098:
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1036:
1032:
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1002:
998:
994:
990:
986:
979:
976:
972:
967:
964:
959:
955:
950:
945:
941:
937:
934:(2): R1âR29.
933:
929:
928:
923:
916:
914:
910:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
878:
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860:
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849:
845:
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827:
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786:
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777:
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747:
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693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
672:
670:
661:
657:
652:
645:
643:
636:
634:
630:
626:
624:
623:shear modulus
617:
609:
608:shear modulus
605:
600:
593:
591:
589:
585:
581:
577:
573:
568:
560:
556:
549:
547:
544:
539:
532:
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514:
511:
507:
503:
499:
491:
489:
486:
478:
473:
466:
464:
461:
456:
454:
445:
444:breast cancer
441:
436:
429:
427:
421:
419:
417:
416:shear modulus
413:
405:
401:
398:
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382:
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328:
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282:Ebers Papyrus
279:
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264:
257:
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230:
226:
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109:
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99:
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92:
88:
85:
81:
78: â
77:
73:
72:Find sources:
67:
63:
57:
56:
52:
48:
43:This article
41:
32:
31:
19:
3080:Acute stroke
3046:Thermography
2801:scintigraphy
2791:Radionuclide
2779:pre-hospital
2625:Tractography
2544:Radiodensity
2446:calcium scan
2407:Quantitative
2155:(1): 64â70.
2152:
2148:
2142:
2130:
2122:The Guardian
2121:
2111:
2063:
2059:
2048:
2037:. Retrieved
2033:
2024:
2014:, retrieved
1983:
1962:. Retrieved
1932:
1907:. Retrieved
1895:
1886:
1861:
1857:
1847:
1822:
1818:
1790:
1781:
1754:
1748:
1723:
1719:
1712:
1680:(1): 48â54.
1677:
1673:
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1627:
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1226:
1222:
1212:
1187:
1183:
1173:
1148:
1144:
1133:
1119:cite journal
1084:
1080:
1070:
1057:
1047:
1038:
1025:
992:
988:
978:
966:
931:
925:
887:
883:
821:
817:
785:
769:
762:
739:
727:
700:
673:
665:
646:Applications
640:
631:
627:
619:
569:
565:
553:
540:
536:
495:
482:
460:quantitative
459:
457:
449:
425:
409:
386:
374:
355:
333:) or organ (
324:
315:
312:How it works
306:quantitative
299:
276:
245:
213:Elastography
212:
211:
176:Elastography
159:
151:
114:
104:
97:
90:
83:
71:
51:verification
44:
2969:Cardiac PET
2742:renal tract
2717:Gynecologic
2649:Techniques
2620:restriction
2595:Angiography
2578:Neurography
2524:Fluoroscopy
2470:Angiography
2451:angiography
2395:Techniques:
2356:Aortography
2346:Angiography
2326:Cystography
2316:Mammography
2258:Myelography
2253:Sialography
2222:radiography
2105:(CC-BY 4.0)
2060:Diagnostics
1633:fibrosis".
414:or similar
404:shear waves
368:(TI) using
302:qualitative
294:Hippocrates
229:soft tissue
45:needs more
2882:Full body:
2668:endoscopic
2642:Ultrasound
2571:functional
2368:Lymphogram
2363:Venography
2331:Arthrogram
2039:2024-01-07
2016:2024-08-28
1964:2024-08-28
1909:2024-08-28
1674:Hepatology
1540:Hepatology
793:References
576:shear wave
506:ultrasound
502:shear wave
358:ultrasound
248:ultrasound
162:April 2018
117:April 2018
87:newspapers
3085:Pregnancy
2964:Brain PET
2932:gamma ray
2868:DMSA scan
2722:Obstetric
2615:diffusion
2610:Sequences
2588:perfusion
2480:Pulmonary
2427:Cone beam
2321:Pyelogram
2082:2075-4418
1878:1077-260X
1839:1749-4893
1243:0260-8774
1204:0260-8774
1145:Radiology
1017:220484342
758:cirrhosis
748:'s study
692:hepatitis
688:cirrhosis
680:steatosis
660:histology
584:cirrhosis
278:Palpation
267:Palpation
237:cancerous
225:stiffness
18:FibroScan
3118:Category
3103:Category
2955:positron
2475:Coronary
2169:17274884
2100:26838799
2066:(1): 2.
2011:38766194
2002:11100606
1959:31143496
1740:20870345
1704:23294239
1696:15690481
1655:14698338
1619:22893866
1570:21900022
1562:17133503
1521:26431531
1513:11989699
1474:26431531
1466:11989699
1419:24131440
1411:11989698
1376:26431531
1368:11989699
1333:10335643
1286:40873227
1278:10801211
1165:22282182
1139:(2012).
1111:22210408
1009:32651021
958:21119234
848:21680780
754:fibrosis
711:prostate
676:fibrosis
669:biopsies
529:(A) and
335:prostate
304:but not
3002:Optical
2984:PET-MRI
2764:Carotid
2759:Scrotal
2653:doppler
2583:Cardiac
2492:Thyroid
2436:Targets
2387:CT scan
2091:4808817
1950:6524572
1610:3415879
1446:Bibcode
1313:Bibcode
1102:3321140
936:Bibcode
904:1858217
839:3177611
723:tendons
719:muscles
707:thyroid
453:strains
397:strains
233:disease
204:D054459
152:updated
101:scholar
66:removed
2979:PET-CT
2754:Breast
2749:Rectal
2673:duplex
2605:Breast
2442:Heart
2167:
2098:
2088:
2080:
2009:
1999:
1957:
1947:
1876:
1837:
1769:
1738:
1702:
1694:
1653:
1617:
1607:
1568:
1560:
1519:
1511:
1472:
1464:
1417:
1409:
1374:
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1331:
1284:
1276:
1241:
1202:
1163:
1109:
1099:
1015:
1007:
956:
902:
846:
836:
709:, and
703:breast
393:stress
340:Using
241:livers
103:
96:
89:
82:
74:
3006:Laser
2928:SPECT
2737:renal
2566:Brain
2517:Other
2217:X-ray
2165:S2CID
1700:S2CID
1566:S2CID
1517:S2CID
1470:S2CID
1415:S2CID
1372:S2CID
1282:S2CID
1013:S2CID
778:Notes
731:brain
108:JSTOR
94:books
2774:FAST
2487:Head
2096:PMID
2078:ISSN
2007:PMID
1955:PMID
1874:ISSN
1835:ISSN
1767:ISBN
1736:PMID
1692:PMID
1651:PMID
1615:PMID
1558:PMID
1509:PMID
1462:PMID
1407:PMID
1364:PMID
1329:PMID
1274:PMID
1239:ISSN
1200:ISSN
1161:PMID
1125:link
1107:PMID
1052:2007
1005:PMID
954:PMID
900:PMID
844:PMID
721:and
690:and
442:, a
331:skin
284:and
223:and
198:MeSH
80:news
49:for
2951:PET
2919:ECT
2917:3D/
2799:2D/
2700:ICE
2695:TEE
2690:TTE
2558:MRI
2289:DXR
2285:DXA
2280:KUB
2275:AXR
2263:CXR
2157:doi
2086:PMC
2068:doi
1997:PMC
1989:doi
1945:PMC
1937:doi
1900:doi
1866:doi
1827:doi
1759:doi
1728:doi
1682:doi
1643:doi
1605:PMC
1597:doi
1548:doi
1501:doi
1454:doi
1442:105
1399:doi
1356:doi
1321:doi
1309:105
1266:doi
1231:doi
1192:doi
1153:doi
1149:262
1097:PMC
1089:doi
997:doi
944:doi
892:doi
834:PMC
826:doi
678:or
606:of
604:kPa
510:MRI
508:or
377:1-D
250:or
227:of
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2957:):
2934:):
2663:3D
2231:2D
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