26:
54:
62:
678:). Absorption of a photon by a fluorophore takes a few picoseconds. Before this energy is released (emission: 1–10 ns), the solvent molecules surrounding the fluorophore reorient (10–100 ps) due to the change in polarity in the excited singlet state; this process is called solvent relaxation. As a result of this relaxation, the energy of the excited state of the fluorophore is lowered (longer wavelength), hence fluorophores that have a large change in dipole moment have larger stokes shift changes in different solvents. The difference between the energy levels can be roughly determined with the Lipper-Mataga equation.
1055:. Most of these techniques rely on fluorescence microscopes, which use high intensity light sources, usually mercury or xenon lamps, LEDs, or lasers, to excite fluorescence in the samples under observation. Optical filters then separate excitation light from emitted fluorescence to be detected by eye or with a (CCD) camera or other light detector (e.g., photomultiplier tubes, spectrographs). Considerable research is underway to improve the capabilities of such microscopes, the fluorescent probes used, and the applications they are applied to. Of particular note are confocal microscopes, which use a pinhole to achieve
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naturally localise inside the mitochondria due to the inner mitochondrial membrane matrix-face's negative charge (as the fluorophores are cationic). The temperature of these fluorophores is inversely proportional to their fluorescence emission, and thus by measuring the fluorescent output, the temperature of actively-respiring mitochondria can be deduced. The fluorophores used are typically lipophilic cations derived from
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34:
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942:
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1307:
Christiansen, Eric M.; Yang, Samuel J.; Ando, D. Michael; Javaherian, Ashkan; Skibinski, Gaia; Lipnick, Scott; Mount, Elliot; O’Neil, Alison; Shah, Kevan; Lee, Alicia K.; Goyal, Piyush; Fedus, William; Poplin, Ryan; Esteva, Andre; Berndl, Marc; Rubin, Lee L.; Nelson, Philip; Finkbeiner, Steven (April
764:
Multiphoton excitation is a way of focusing the viewing plane of the microscope by taking advantage of the phenomenon where two simultaneous low energy photons are absorbed by a fluorescent moiety which normally absorbs one photon with double their individual energy: say two NIR photons (800 nm)
865:
inhibitor) to the mitochondria of human primary fibroblasts. This would suggest a sharp increase in mitochondrial temperature but is, in reality, explained by the hyperpolarisation of the mitochondrial inner membrane by oligomycin - leading to the breakdown of the positively-charged MTY fluorophore.
715:, which have much longer lifetimes due to the restricted states: lanthanides have lifetimes of 0.5 to 3 ms, while transition metal-ligand complexes have lifetimes of 10 ns to 10 μs. Note that fluorescent lifetime should not be confused with the photodestruction lifetime or the "shelf-life" of a dye.
856:
This temperature-measurement technique is, however, limited. These cationic fluorophores are heavily influenced by the charge of the inner mitochondrial membrane matrix-face, dependent on the cell type. For example, the thermosensitive fluorophore MTY (MitoTracker Yellow) shows a sudden and drastic
449:
The above techniques can be combined with computational methods to estimate staining levels without staining the cell. These approaches, generally, rely on training a deep-convolutional neural network to perform imaging remapping, converting the bright-field or phase image into a fluorescent image.
691:
in chemistry actually describes changes due to one of a variety of different environmental factors, such as pH or temperature, not just polarity; however, in biochemistry environment-sensitive fluorphore and solvatochromic fluorophore are used interchangeably: this convention is so widespread that
832:
Some fluorescent chemicals exhibit significant fluorescent quenching when exposed to increasing temperatures. This effect has been used to measure and examine the thermogenic properties of mitochondria. This involves placing mitochondria-targeting thermosensitive fluorophores inside cells, which
706:
Fluorescent moieties emit photons several nanoseconds after absorption following an exponential decay curve, which differs between dyes and depends on the surrounding solvent. When the dye is attached to a macromolecules the decay curve becomes multiexponential. Conjugated dyes generally have a
852:
The inverse relationship between fluorescence and temperature can be explained by the change in the number of atomic collisions in the fluorophore's environment, depending on the kinetic energy. Collisions promote radiationless decay and loss of extra energy as heat, so more collisions or more
194:
is an indicator of the efficiency of the dye (it is the ratio of emitted photons per absorbed photon), and the extinction coefficient is the amount of light that can be absorbed by a fluorophore. Both the quantum yield and extinction coefficient are specific for each fluorophore and multiplied
1018:
Also, many biological molecules have an intrinsic fluorescence that can sometimes be used without the need to attach a chemical tag. Sometimes this intrinsic fluorescence changes when the molecule is in a specific environment, so the distribution or binding of the molecule can be measured.
925:
of tissues, cells or subcellular structures is accomplished by labeling an antibody with a fluorophore and allowing the antibody to find its target antigen within the sample. Labeling multiple antibodies with different fluorophores allows visualization of multiple targets within a single
937:; each of four different chain terminating bases has its own specific fluorescent tag. As the labeled DNA molecules are separated, the fluorescent label is excited by a UV source, and the identity of the base terminating the molecule is identified by the wavelength of the emitted light.
136:, where the energy is passed non-radiatively to a particular neighbouring dye, allowing proximity or protein activation to be detected; another is the change in properties, such as intensity, of certain dyes depending on their environment allowing their use in structural studies.
554:
Fluorescence is not necessarily more convenient to use because it requires specialized detection equipment of its own. For non-quantitative or relative quantification applications it can be useful but it is poorly suited for making absolute measurement because of fluorescence
651:
Example of an environmentally sensitive dye: Badan exhibits a large change in dipole moment upon excitation (due to internal charge transfer between the tertiary amine and ketone). This results in a significant lowering of the energy from solvent
969:, when free to change its conformation in solution, has very little fluorescence. Ethidium bromide's fluorescence is greatly enhanced when it binds to DNA, so this compound is very useful in visualising the location of DNA fragments in
550:
is similar to "colour" but distinct, it is the pair of excitation and emission filters specific for a dye, e.g. agilent microarrays are dual channel, working on cy3 and cy5, these are colloquially referred to as green and red.
1697:
1030:
The number of fluorescence applications in the biomedical, biological and related sciences continuously expands. Methods of analysis in these fields are also growing, often with nomenclature in the form of acronyms such as:
2212:
656:
Environment-sensitive dyes change their properties (intensity, half-life, and excitation and emission spectra) depending on the polarity (hydrophobicity and charge) of their environments. Examples include:
450:
By decoupling the training corpus from the cells under investigation, these approaches provide an avenue for using stains that are otherwise incompatible with live cell imaging, such as anti-body staining.
473:
properties, i.e. emission of light from a substance. Fluorescence is a property where light is absorbed and remitted within a few nanoseconds (approx. 10ns) at a lower energy (=higher wavelength), while
841:
probes. This technique has contributed significantly to the general scientific consensus that mitochondria are physiologically maintained at close to 50 ˚C, more than 10˚C above the rest of the cell.
429:, and several mutants have been created to span the visible spectra and fluoresce longer and more stably. Other proteins are fluorescent but require a fluorophore cofactor, and hence can only be used
1357:
Kandel, Mikhail E.; He, Yuchen R.; Lee, Young Jae; Chen, Taylor Hsuan-Yu; Sullivan, Kathryn
Michele; Aydin, Onur; Saif, M. Taher A.; Kong, Hyunjoon; Sobh, Nahil; Popescu, Gabriel (7 December 2020).
987:
Immunology: An antibody has a fluorescent chemical group attached, and the sites (e.g., on a microscopic specimen) where the antibody has bound can be seen, and even quantified, by the fluorescence.
498:). Until recently, this was not applicable to life science research due to the size of the inorganic particles. However the boundary between the fluorescence and phosphorescence is not clean cut as
818:
will emit light which is also polarized. However, if a molecule is moving, it will tend to "scramble" the polarization of the light by radiating at a different direction from the incident light.
1638:
Chrétien, Dominique; Bénit, Paule; Ha, Hyung-Ho; Keipert, Susanne; El-Khoury, Riyad; Chang, Young-Tae; Jastroch, Martin; Jacobs, Howard T.; Rustin, Pierre; Rak, Malgorzata (January 2018).
618:
FRET (Förster resonance energy transfer) is a property in which the energy of the excited electron of one fluorphore, called the donor, is passed on to a nearby acceptor dye, either a
182:, but with a lower energy, i.e., at a longer wavelength (wavelength and energy are inversely proportional). The difference in the excitation and emission wavelengths is called the
1550:
Chrétien, Dominique; Bénit, Paule; Leroy, Christine; El-Khoury, Riyad; Park, Sunyou; Lee, Jung Yeol; Chang, Young-Tae; Lenaers, Guy; Rustin, Pierre; Rak, Malgorzata (2020-12-02).
663:
This change is most pronounced when electron-donating and electron-withdrawing groups are placed at opposite ends of an aromatic ring system, as this results in a large change in
1027:, formed in developing red blood cells instead of hemoglobin when iron is unavailable or lead is present, has a bright fluorescence and can be used to detect these problems.
622:
or another fluorophore, which has an excitation spectrum which overlaps with the emission spectrum of the donor dye resulting in a reduced fluorescence. This can be used to:
1052:
502:-ligand complexes, which combine a metal and several organic moieties, have long lifetimes, up to several microseconds (as they display mixed singlet-triplet states).
383:
that typically brighter than conventional stains. They are generally more expensive, toxic, do not permeate cell membranes, and cannot be manufactured by the cell.
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707:
lifetime between 1–10 ns, a small amount of longer lived exceptions exist, notably pyrene with a lifetime of 400ns in degassed solvents or 100ns in lipids and
25:
1774:
401:, which spontaneously fluoresces upon folding via specific serine-tyrosine-glycine residues. The benefit that GFP and other fluorescent proteins have over
1044:
542:
due to different intensities) but require special machinery (a tritium screen and a regular phosphor-imaging screen or a specific dual channel detector).
711:
with 200ns. On a different category of fluorphores are the fluorescent organometals (lanthanides and transition metal-ligand complexes) which have been
53:
701:
305:
Organic fluorophores fluoresce thanks to delocalized electrons which can jump a band and stabilize the energy absorbed, hence most fluorophores are
1229:
Lamture, JB; Wensel, TG (1995). "Intensely luminescent immunoreactive conjugates of proteins and dipicolinate-based polymeric Tb (III) chelates".
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1010:
Fluorescence can be applied to study colocalization of various proteins of interest. It then can be analyzed using a specialized software, like
1040:
1004:
409:, a protein that is created by ligating the fluorescent gene (e.g., GFP) to another gene and whose expression is driven by a housekeeping gene
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or another specific promoter. This approach allows fluorescent proteins to be used as reporters for any number of biological events, such as
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598:
133:
1198:
Au-Yeung, Ho Yu; Tong, Ka Yan (2021). "Chapter 16. Transition Metals and
Imaging Probes in Neurobiology and Neurodegenerative Diseases".
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is a property of materials to absorb light and emit the energy several milliseconds or more later (due to forbidden transitions to the
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Several fluorescent molecules can be used simultaneously given that they do not overlap, cf. FRET, whereas with radioactivity two
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Arai, Satoshi; Suzuki, Madoka; Park, Sung-Jin; Yoo, Jung Sun; Wang, Lu; Kang, Nam-Young; Ha, Hyung-Ho; Chang, Young-Tae (2015).
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Chalfie, M; Tu, Y; Euskirchen, G; Ward, WW; Prasher, DC (1994). "Green fluorescent protein as a marker for gene expression".
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1000:(MST) uses fluorescence as readout to quantify the directed movement of biomolecules in microscopic temperature gradients.
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Zinchuk, Grossenbacher-Zinchuk (2009). "Recent advances in quantitative colocalization analysis: Focus on neuroscience".
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detect if two labelled protein or nucleic acids come into contact or a doubly labelled single molecules is hydrolysed;
1007:, which measures distance at the angstrom level. This is especially important in complexes of multiple biomolecules.
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2200:
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1424:
Kandel, Mikhail E.; Kim, Eunjae; Lee, Young Jae; Tracy, Gregory; Chung, Hee Jung; Popescu, Gabriel (28 May 2021).
1359:"Phase imaging with computational specificity (PICS) for measuring dry mass changes in sub-cellular compartments"
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Fluorescence has been used to study the structure and conformations of DNA and proteins with techniques such as
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The basic property of fluorescence are extensively used, such as a marker of labelled components in cells (
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589:), but other additional properties, not found with radioactivity, make it even more extensively used.
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Lanthanides (chelated) are uniquely fluorescent metals, which emit thanks to transitions involving 4
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1426:"Multiscale Assay of Unlabeled Neurite Dynamics Using Phase Imaging with Computational Specificity"
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Several fluorescent protein exist in nature, but the most important one as a research tool is
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1552:"Pitfalls in Monitoring Mitochondrial Temperature Using Charged Thermosensitive Fluorophores"
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1593:"Mitochondria-targeted fluorescent thermometer monitors intracellular temperature gradient"
559:, whereas measuring radioactively labeled molecules is always direct and highly sensitive.
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482:, a property where light is generated by a chemical reaction of an enzyme on a substrate.
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forceful collisions will promote radiationless decay and reduce fluorescence emission.
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generally as a non-destructive way of tracking or analysing biological molecules. Some
1023:, for instance, is highly fluorescent when bound to a specific site on serum albumin.
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783:
733:
661:, Cascade Yellow, prodan, Dansyl, Dapoxyl, NBD, PyMPO, Pyrene and diethylaminocumarin.
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Fluorophores can be attached to proteins via specific functional groups, such as:
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or quantum dots is that they can be expressed exogenously in cells alone or as a
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in cells are naturally fluorescent, which is called intrinsic fluorescence or
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973:. Ethidium bromide can be toxic – a purportedly safer alternative is the dye
186:, and the time that an excited electron takes to emit the photon is called a
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When a fluorophore is excited, it generally has a larger dipole moment (μ
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Significantly changes the properties of a fluorescently-labeled molecule
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Fluorescence is safer to use and does not require radiological controls.
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These fluorophores are either small molecules, protein or quantum dots.
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2064:
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2040:
1853:
1608:
1310:"In Silico Labeling: Predicting Fluorescent Labels in Unlabeled Images"
607:
Cartoon of FRET between two protein interacting protein, labelled with
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The advantages of fluorescence over radioactive labels are as follows:
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339:
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suppliers describe them as environment-sensitive over solvatochromic.
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1903:
1187:
Animation for the principle of fluorescence and UV-visible absorbance
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and slow emissions, requiring excitation through fluorescent organic
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Example uses of fluorescent proteins for imaging in the life sciences
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together calculates the brightness of the fluorescent molecule.
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1640:"Mitochondria are physiologically maintained at close to 50 °C"
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which is partially forbidden, these are generally complexes of
128:. Several techniques exist to exploit additional properties of
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1833:
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930:
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309:. Several families exist and their excitations range from the
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1510:
Evanko, Daniel (2005). "A 'flaky' but useful fluorophore".
344:
A third class of small molecule fluorophore is that of the
433:; these are often found in plants and algae (phytofluors,
1698:"3.6: Variables that Influence Fluorescence Measurements"
814:
A perfectly immobile fluorescent moiety when exited with
1059:, which affords a quantitative, 3D view of the sample.
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745:
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before either dispersing the energy non-radiatively or
116:
or small molecules can be "labelled" with an extrinsic
1153:
Juan Carlos
Stockert, Alfonso Blázquez-Castro (2017).
516:
Prior to its widespread use in the past three decades
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orbits, which are forbidden, hence they have very low
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measure concentration by a competitive binding assay.
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1051:, PFRAP, smFRET, FIONA, FRIPS, SHREK, SHRIMP or
108:). Alternatively, specific or general proteins,
29:Distribution of fluorescent proteins in animals.
57:Biofluorescent emission spectra from amphibians
352:, which display molecular fluorescence from a
162:The principle behind fluorescence is that the
1768:
569:Interference with normal biological processes
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857:drop in fluorescence after the addition of
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1143:. Invitrogen.com. Retrieved on 2011-06-25.
949:. Ethidium bromide fluoresces orange when
124:which can be a small molecule, protein or
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1400:
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421:. A variant of GFP is naturally found in
158:illustrating the change of energy levels.
1156:Fluorescence Microscopy in Life Sciences
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1110:Principles of fluorescence spectroscopy
1099:
562:Disadvantages of fluorophores include:
494:, while fluorescence occurs in excited
1005:Fluorescence resonance energy transfer
134:fluorescence resonance energy transfer
1545:
1543:
1541:
354:metal-to-ligand charge transfer state
7:
1200:Metal Ions in Bio-Imaging Techniques
512:Radioactivity in biological research
2207:
1482:"The Micro Imager by Biospace Lab"
992:fluorescent-activated cell sorting
765:to excite a UV dye (400 nm).
712:
585:) or as an indicator in solution (
16:Scientific investigative technique
14:
2051:Post-transcriptional modification
599:Förster resonance energy transfer
538:and a low energy isotope such as
2206:
2195:
2194:
877:
782:
732:
725:Two-photon excitation microscopy
454:Bioluminescence and fluorescence
2056:Post-translational modification
629:detect changes in conformation;
1202:. Springer. pp. 437–456.
1159:. Bentham Science Publishers.
1084:Fluorescent glucose biosensors
848:Structure of MitoThermo Yellow
379:are fluorescent semiconductor
1:
2178:Post-translational regulation
674:) than in the ground state (μ
506:Comparison with radioactivity
247:and subsequent coupling with
2126:High-throughput technique ("
1736:10.1016/j.proghi.2009.03.001
1657:10.1371/journal.pbio.2003992
965:DNA detection: the compound
577:Additional useful properties
2004:Functional biology/medicine
1569:10.3390/chemosensors8040124
1107:Joseph R. Lakowicz (2006).
971:agarose gel electrophoresis
520:was the most common label.
2256:
1442:10.1021/acssensors.1c00100
1393:10.1038/s41467-020-20062-x
1326:10.1016/j.cell.2018.03.040
1113:. Springer. pp. 26–.
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637:Sensitivity to environment
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1208:10.1515/9783110685701-022
1141:Fluorescence Fundamentals
998:Microscale Thermophoresis
945:Ethidium bromide stained
837:, such as ThermoFisher's
587:Fluorescence spectroscopy
469:are 3 different types of
415:sub-cellular localization
395:(GFP) from the jellyfish
393:Green Fluorescent Protein
106:green fluorescent protein
935:chain termination method
929:Automated sequencing of
445:Computational techniques
1724:Prog Histochem Cytochem
1597:Chemical Communications
1286:10.1126/science.8303295
923:Fluorescence microscopy
822:Fluorescent thermometry
775:Fluorescence anisotropy
769:Fluorescence anisotropy
687:Additionally, The term
583:fluorescence microscopy
325:absorption coefficients
180:emitting it as a photon
47:fluorescence microscopy
1524:10.1038/nmeth0305-160b
1231:Bioconjugate Chemistry
1074:Fluorescent microscopy
961:
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719:Multiphoton excitation
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287:or non-specificately (
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1999:Developmental biology
1994:Computational biology
1363:Nature Communications
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915:Further information:
909:Further information:
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696:Fluorescence lifetime
689:environment-sensitive
650:
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291:) or non-covalently (
174:and briefly enter an
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2173:Post-transcriptional
1702:Chemistry LibreTexts
1079:Fluorescence imaging
956:and when exposed to
911:Nucleic acid methods
828:Phosphor thermometry
713:previously described
702:Fluorescent lifetime
387:Fluorescent proteins
243:via activation with
1968:Histone methylation
1385:2020NatCo..11.6256K
1278:1994Sci...263..802C
1243:10.1021/bc00031a010
1025:Zinc protoporphyrin
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419:expression patterns
265:or iodoacetamides);
170:which can absorb a
1609:10.1039/c5cc01088h
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1057:optical sectioning
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889:. You can help by
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164:fluorescent moiety
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2201:Molecular biology
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2140:Mass spectrometry
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1784:Molecular biology
1603:(38): 8044–8047.
1166:978-1-68108-519-7
1120:978-0-387-31278-1
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480:chemiluminescence
463:chemiluminescence
398:Aequorea victoria
156:Jablonski diagram
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1486:Biospacelab.com
1480:
1479:
1475:
1423:
1422:
1418:
1356:
1355:
1351:
1306:
1305:
1301:
1272:(5148): 802–5.
1263:
1262:
1258:
1228:
1227:
1223:
1197:
1196:
1192:
1185:
1181:
1171:
1169:
1167:
1152:
1151:
1147:
1139:
1135:
1125:
1123:
1121:
1106:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1065:
1012:CoLocalizer Pro
919:
917:Protein methods
913:
903:
897:
894:
887:needs expansion
872:
830:
824:
816:polarized light
808:
802:
799:
792:needs expansion
777:
771:
758:
752:
749:
742:needs expansion
727:
721:
704:
698:
686:
677:
673:
662:
645:
643:Solvatochromism
639:
611:and tetramethyl
601:
595:
579:
514:
508:
484:Phosphorescence
476:bioluminescence
467:phosphorescence
456:
447:
439:allophycocyanin
389:
374:
343:
318:
277:click chemistry
212:
206:
201:
148:
142:
82:small molecules
72:is used in the
23:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2253:
2251:
2243:
2242:
2237:
2227:
2226:
2220:
2219:
2217:
2216:
2204:
2191:
2188:
2187:
2184:
2183:
2181:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2159:
2157:
2151:
2150:
2148:
2147:
2142:
2137:
2135:DNA microarray
2132:
2122:
2121:
2108:
2107:
2106:
2101:
2093:
2083:
2077:
2075:
2071:
2070:
2068:
2067:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2038:
2032:
2030:
2023:
2019:
2018:
2015:
2014:
2012:
2011:
2006:
2001:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1980:
1978:
1974:
1973:
1971:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1959:
1958:
1953:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1923:
1922:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1901:
1900:
1899:
1894:
1883:
1882:
1881:
1880:
1875:
1867:
1865:
1861:
1860:
1858:
1857:
1847:
1837:
1826:
1824:
1815:
1811:
1810:
1808:
1807:
1802:
1797:
1791:
1788:
1787:
1782:
1780:
1779:
1772:
1765:
1757:
1750:
1749:
1730:(3): 125–172.
1714:
1689:
1630:
1583:
1537:
1518:(3): 160–161.
1512:Nature Methods
1502:
1473:
1416:
1349:
1299:
1256:
1221:
1190:
1179:
1165:
1145:
1133:
1119:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1092:
1091:
1086:
1081:
1076:
1071:
1064:
1061:
1039:, CALI, FLIE,
1016:
1015:
1008:
1001:
995:
988:
985:
982:DNA microarray
978:
939:
938:
927:
905:
904:
884:
882:
871:
868:
826:Main article:
823:
820:
810:
809:
789:
787:
773:Main article:
770:
767:
760:
759:
739:
737:
723:Main article:
720:
717:
700:Main article:
697:
694:
675:
671:
667:when excited.
638:
635:
634:
633:
630:
627:
597:Main article:
594:
591:
578:
575:
574:
573:
570:
567:
544:
543:
528:
507:
504:
496:singlet states
478:is biological
455:
452:
446:
443:
407:fusion protein
388:
385:
373:
370:
297:hydrophobicity
289:glutaraldehyde
285:
284:
279:with terminal
266:
252:
234:
231:Isothiocyanate
208:Main article:
205:
202:
200:
197:
144:Main article:
141:
138:
96:or endogenous
19:Main article:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2252:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2232:
2230:
2215:
2214:
2205:
2203:
2202:
2193:
2192:
2189:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2160:
2158:
2156:
2152:
2146:
2145:Lab-on-a-chip
2143:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2129:
2124:
2123:
2120:
2119:Radioactivity
2116:
2112:
2109:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2078:
2076:
2072:
2066:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2036:Cultured meat
2034:
2033:
2031:
2027:
2024:
2020:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1981:
1979:
1975:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1957:
1956:trp repressor
1954:
1952:
1951:lac repressor
1949:
1948:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1906:
1905:
1902:
1898:
1895:
1893:
1890:
1889:
1888:
1885:
1884:
1876:
1871:
1870:
1869:
1868:
1866:
1862:
1855:
1851:
1848:
1845:
1841:
1840:Transcription
1838:
1835:
1831:
1828:
1827:
1825:
1823:
1822:Central dogma
1819:
1816:
1812:
1806:
1803:
1801:
1798:
1796:
1793:
1792:
1789:
1785:
1778:
1773:
1771:
1766:
1764:
1759:
1758:
1755:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1718:
1715:
1703:
1699:
1693:
1690:
1685:
1681:
1676:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1634:
1631:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1587:
1584:
1579:
1575:
1570:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1546:
1544:
1542:
1538:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1506:
1503:
1492:on 2009-01-05
1491:
1487:
1483:
1477:
1474:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1452:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1420:
1417:
1412:
1408:
1403:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1353:
1350:
1345:
1341:
1336:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1303:
1300:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1260:
1257:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1225:
1222:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1194:
1191:
1188:
1183:
1180:
1168:
1162:
1158:
1157:
1149:
1146:
1142:
1137:
1134:
1122:
1116:
1112:
1111:
1103:
1100:
1094:
1090:
1087:
1085:
1082:
1080:
1077:
1075:
1072:
1070:
1067:
1066:
1062:
1060:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1028:
1026:
1022:
1013:
1009:
1006:
1002:
999:
996:
993:
989:
986:
983:
979:
976:
972:
968:
964:
963:
959:
955:
952:
951:intercalating
948:
943:
936:
932:
928:
924:
921:
920:
918:
912:
901:
898:December 2009
892:
888:
885:This section
883:
880:
876:
875:
869:
867:
864:
860:
854:
846:
842:
840:
836:
829:
821:
819:
817:
806:
803:December 2009
797:
793:
790:This section
788:
785:
781:
780:
776:
768:
766:
756:
753:December 2009
747:
743:
740:This section
738:
735:
731:
730:
726:
718:
716:
714:
710:
703:
695:
693:
690:
684:
679:
668:
666:
665:dipole moment
660:
649:
644:
636:
631:
628:
625:
624:
623:
621:
620:dark quencher
614:
610:
605:
600:
592:
590:
588:
584:
576:
571:
568:
565:
564:
563:
560:
558:
552:
549:
541:
537:
534:can be used (
533:
529:
526:
525:
524:
521:
519:
518:radioactivity
513:
505:
503:
501:
497:
493:
492:triplet state
489:
485:
481:
477:
472:
468:
464:
460:
453:
451:
444:
442:
440:
436:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
399:
394:
386:
384:
382:
381:nanoparticles
378:
371:
369:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
341:
340:Terbium (III)
337:
334:
330:
326:
322:
316:
312:
308:
303:
300:
298:
294:
290:
282:
278:
274:
270:
267:
264:
260:
256:
253:
250:
246:
242:
238:
235:
232:
228:
224:
220:
217:
216:
215:
211:
204:Reactive dyes
203:
198:
196:
193:
192:quantum yield
189:
185:
181:
177:
176:excited state
173:
169:
165:
157:
154:A simplified
152:
147:
139:
137:
135:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
110:nucleic acids
107:
103:
102:phycoerythrin
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
74:life sciences
71:
63:
55:
48:
44:
40:
35:
27:
22:
2211:
2199:
2111:Fluorescence
2110:
2099:Nucleic acid
2090:C57BL/6 mice
2081:Cell culture
1989:Biochemistry
1984:Cell biology
1727:
1723:
1717:
1706:. Retrieved
1704:. 2018-10-26
1701:
1692:
1647:
1644:PLOS Biology
1643:
1633:
1600:
1596:
1586:
1559:
1556:Chemosensors
1555:
1515:
1511:
1505:
1494:. Retrieved
1490:the original
1485:
1476:
1433:
1429:
1419:
1366:
1362:
1352:
1317:
1313:
1302:
1269:
1265:
1259:
1237:(1): 88–92.
1234:
1230:
1224:
1199:
1193:
1182:
1170:. Retrieved
1155:
1148:
1136:
1124:. Retrieved
1109:
1102:
1029:
1017:
895:
891:adding to it
886:
863:ATP synthase
855:
851:
838:
831:
813:
800:
796:adding to it
791:
763:
750:
746:adding to it
741:
705:
680:
669:
655:
617:
580:
561:
553:
545:
522:
515:
488:ground state
471:luminescence
459:Fluorescence
457:
448:
430:
403:organic dyes
396:
390:
377:Quantum dots
375:
372:Quantum dots
342:chelators).
336:dipicolinate
332:
320:
304:
301:
292:
286:
272:
258:
245:carbodiimide
240:
222:
213:
184:Stokes shift
161:
146:Fluorescence
140:Fluorescence
130:fluorophores
70:Fluorescence
68:
21:Fluorescence
2213:WikiProject
2022:Engineering
1977:Linked life
1892:Pribnow box
1850:Translation
1430:ACS Sensors
1369:(1): 6256.
1172:17 December
1089:Fluoroscopy
1069:Fluorophore
947:agarose gel
839:MitoTracker
835:Rhodamine-B
683:hydrophobic
652:relaxation.
609:fluorescein
315:ultraviolet
227:succinimide
210:fluorophore
126:quantum dot
118:fluorophore
98:chlorophyll
45:imaged via
39:hippocampus
2229:Categories
2163:Epigenetic
2074:Techniques
1936:Terminator
1919:trp operon
1914:lac operon
1909:gal operon
1708:2022-06-08
1562:(4): 124.
1496:2011-06-25
1376:2002.08361
1095:References
975:SYBR Green
859:oligomycin
641:See also:
510:See also:
132:, such as
94:tryptophan
2088:(such as
1946:Repressor
1666:1545-7885
1617:1359-7345
1578:2227-9040
1468:220936922
1216:233678495
1021:Bilirubin
613:rhodamine
557:quenching
358:Ruthenium
350:complexes
329:chelators
299:, etc.).
263:maleimide
199:Labelling
168:electrons
166:contains
88:(such as
2095:Methods
2029:Concepts
2009:Genetics
1963:Silencer
1941:Enhancer
1897:TATA box
1887:Promoter
1878:Heredity
1814:Overview
1805:Glossary
1744:19822255
1684:29370167
1625:25865069
1532:33954899
1460:33882232
1411:33288761
1344:29656897
1063:See also
709:coronene
572:Toxicity
546:Note: a
532:isotopes
437:such as
431:in vitro
427:Anthozoa
411:promoter
348:-ligand
311:infrared
239:groups (
237:carboxyl
221:groups (
188:lifetime
78:proteins
2168:Genetic
2115:Pigment
2104:Protein
2065:Wet lab
2061:Dry lab
2041:Mitosis
1873:Genetic
1864:Element
1854:protein
1795:History
1675:5784887
1451:8815662
1402:7721808
1381:Bibcode
1335:6309178
1308:2018).
1294:8303295
1274:Bibcode
1266:Science
1251:7711110
1126:25 June
1035:, FLI,
933:by the
870:Methods
548:channel
536:tritium
362:Rhenium
338:-based
313:to the
2128:-omics
2117:&
1926:Intron
1904:Operon
1742:
1682:
1672:
1664:
1623:
1615:
1576:
1530:
1466:
1458:
1448:
1409:
1399:
1342:
1332:
1292:
1249:
1214:
1163:
1117:
990:FACS (
960:light.
926:image.
659:Indole
423:corals
366:Osmium
281:alkyne
190:. The
172:photon
114:lipids
1800:Index
1528:S2CID
1464:S2CID
1371:arXiv
1212:S2CID
490:of a
269:azide
255:thiol
249:amine
219:amino
43:mouse
41:of a
2240:Dyes
1931:Exon
1740:PMID
1680:PMID
1662:ISSN
1621:PMID
1613:ISSN
1574:ISSN
1456:PMID
1407:PMID
1340:PMID
1314:Cell
1290:PMID
1247:PMID
1174:2017
1161:ISBN
1128:2011
1115:ISBN
1053:TIRF
1045:FRAP
1041:FRET
1037:FLIP
1033:FLIM
980:The
861:(an
593:FRET
465:and
417:and
333:e.g.
295:via
293:e.g.
275:via
273:e.g.
261:via
259:e.g.
241:e.g.
225:via
223:e.g.
90:NADH
37:The
1844:RNA
1834:DNA
1732:doi
1670:PMC
1652:doi
1605:doi
1564:doi
1520:doi
1446:PMC
1438:doi
1397:PMC
1389:doi
1330:PMC
1322:doi
1318:173
1282:doi
1270:263
1239:doi
1204:doi
1049:FCS
954:DNA
931:DNA
893:.
798:.
748:.
441:).
364:or
229:or
122:dye
104:or
80:or
2231::
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2113:,
2063:/
1738:.
1728:44
1726:.
1700:.
1678:.
1668:.
1660:.
1648:16
1646:.
1642:.
1619:.
1611:.
1601:51
1599:.
1595:.
1572:.
1558:.
1554:.
1540:^
1526:.
1514:.
1484:.
1462:.
1454:.
1444:.
1432:.
1428:.
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1395:.
1387:.
1379:.
1367:11
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1361:.
1338:.
1328:.
1316:.
1312:.
1288:.
1280:.
1268:.
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958:UV
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360:,
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
