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of aquatic invertebrates. The mechanism of fluoride toxicity in aquatic organisms is believed to involve the action of fluoride ions as enzymatic poisons. In soft waters with low ionic content, invertebrates and fishes may develop adverse effects from fluoride concentration as low as 0.5 mg/L.
424:
discomfort at doses at least 15 to 20 times lower (0.2–0.3 mg/kg or 10 to 15 mg for a 50 kg person) than lethal doses. Although it is helpful topically for dental health in low dosage, chronic ingestion of fluoride in large amounts interferes with bone formation. In this way, the most
656:
Within the recommended dose, no effects are expected, but chronic ingestion in excess of 12 mg/day are expected to cause adverse effects, and an intake that high is possible when fluoride levels are around 4 mg/L. Those with impaired kidney function are more susceptible to adverse effects.
560:
Around one-third of the world's population drinks water from groundwater resources. Of this, about 10 percent, approximately 300 million people, obtains water from groundwater resources that are heavily contaminated with arsenic or fluoride. These trace elements derive mainly from leaching of
551:
Children may experience gastrointestinal distress upon ingesting excessive amounts of flavored toothpaste. Between 1990 and 1994, over 628 people, mostly children were treated after ingesting too much fluoride-containing toothpaste. "While the outcomes were generally not serious," gastrointestinal
441:
recommends a maximum of 0.7 milligrams of fluoride per liter of water – updating and replacing the previous recommended range of 0.7 to 1.2 milligrams issued in 1962. The new recommended level is intended to reduce the occurrence of dental fluorosis while maintaining water fluoridation.
765:; this is mostly mild and usually only an aesthetic concern. Compared to unfluoridated water, fluoridation to 1 mg/L is estimated to cause fluorosis in one of every 6 people (range 4–21), and to cause fluorosis of aesthetic concern in one of every 22 people (range 13.6–∞).
825:
have been used to ascertain rates of excretion in order to set upper limits in exposure to fluoride compounds and associated detrimental health effects. Ingested fluoride initially acts locally on the intestinal mucosa, where it forms hydrofluoric acid in the stomach.
855:
The safety and benefits of fluoride are well documented and have been reviewed comprehensively by several scientific and public health organizations...community water fluoridation is a safe and effective way to promote good oral health and prevent
2274:
621:. In some areas, particularly the Asian subcontinent, skeletal fluorosis is endemic. It is known to cause irritable-bowel symptoms and joint pain. Early stages are not clinically obvious, and may be misdiagnosed as (seronegative)
785:. Thyroid effects in humans were associated with fluoride levels 0.05–0.13 mg/kg/day when iodine intake was adequate and 0.01–0.03 mg/kg/day when iodine intake was inadequate. Its mechanisms and effects on the
3765:
727:
hours. (Note: "MAC hour" is the multiple of the minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) of the anesthetic used times the number of hours the drug is administered, a measure of the dosage of inhaled anesthetics.)
809:
Negative effects are less in hard waters and seawaters, as the bioavailability of fluoride ions is reduced with increasing water hardness
Seawater contains fluoride at a concentration of 1.3 mg/L.
1285:
Klasaer AE, Scalzo AJ, Blume C, Johnson P, Thompson MW (December 1996). "Marked hypocalcemia and ventricular fibrillation in two pediatric patients exposed to a fluoride-containing wheel cleaner".
552:
symptoms appear to be the most common problem reported. However given the low concentration of fluoride in dental products, this is potentially due to the consumption of other major components.
1616:
The NTP monograph concluded that higher levels of fluoride exposure, such as drinking water containing more than 1.5 milligrams of fluoride per liter, are associated with lower IQ in children.
1065:
471:
rocks. The effects are particularly evident in the bone deformities of children. Similar or larger problems are anticipated in other countries including China, Uzbekistan, and
Ethiopia.
420:(NaF), the lethal dose for most adult humans is estimated at 5 to 10 g (which is equivalent to 32 to 64 mg elemental fluoride/kg body weight). Ingestion of fluoride can produce
585:
437:
recommends a level of fluoride from 0.5 to 1.0 mg/L (milligrams per liter), depending on climate. Fluorosis becomes possible above this recommended dosage. As of 2015, the
843:
1439:
588:
found higher levels of fluoride exposure, such as drinking water containing more than 1.5 milligrams of fluoride per liter (which is the recommended safe limit set by the
438:
1087:
87:
2363:
1522:
3350:
1242:
Wu ML, Deng JF, Fan JS (November 2010). "Survival after hypocalcemia, hypomagnesemia, hypokalemia and cardiac arrest following mild hydrofluoric acid burn".
606:
Whilst fluoridated water is associated with decreased levels of fractures in a population, toxic levels of fluoride have been associated with a weakening of
3222:
2012:
White AE, Stevens WC, Eger EI II, Mazze RI, Hitt BA (1979). "Enflurane and methoxyflurane metabolism at anesthetic and at subanesthetic concentrations".
610:
and an increase in hip and wrist fractures. The U.S. National
Research Council concludes that fractures with fluoride levels 1–4 mg/L, suggesting a
2676:
1377:
1061:
1221:
487:. Currently, in advanced countries, most cases of fluoride exposure are due to the ingestion of dental fluoride products. Other sources include
2189:
1399:
Jay D. Shulman; Linda M. Wells (1997). "Acute
Fluoride Toxicity from Ingesting Home-use Dental Products in Children, Birth to 6 Years of Age".
2103:
Yang H, Xing R, Liu S, Yu H, Li P (February 1, 2016). "γ-Aminobutyric acid ameliorates fluoride-induced hypothyroidism in male
Kunming mice".
467:
In India an estimated 60 million people have been poisoned by well water contaminated by excessive fluoride, which is dissolved from the
1708:
1332:
1100:
1001:
927:
902:
877:
2356:
1501:
522:), and metal cleaners. Malfunction of water fluoridation equipment has happened several times, including a notable incident in Alaska.
49:
2793:
1031:
350:
284:
223:
63:
1434:
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in the body. Although fluoride is safe for dental health at low concentrations, sustained consumption of large amounts of soluble
3312:
3107:
1446:. C. A. Johnson, A. Bretzler (eds.), Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag), Duebendorf, Switzerland.
148:
3541:
2349:
2079:
952:
614:, but states that there is "suggestive but inadequate for drawing firm conclusions about the risk or safety of exposures at ".
313:
251:
120:
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2925:
2920:
1731:
724:
1106:
3714:
3192:
2930:
2618:
1973:"Biotransformation of volatile anesthetics with special emphasis on the role of metabolism in the toxicity of anesthetics"
1037:
561:
minerals. Maps are available for locations of potential problematic wells via the
Groundwater Assessment Platform (GAP).
127:
3336:
2748:
3343:
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2915:
739:
will maintain serum fluoride for longer period of time, leading to increased risk of fluoride induced nephrotoxicity.
3739:
3034:
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732:
611:
425:
widespread examples of fluoride poisoning arise from consumption of ground water that is abnormally fluoride-rich.
205:
194:
134:
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1604:
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434:
95:
540:
479:
Historically, most cases of acute fluoride toxicity have followed accidental ingestion of sodium fluoride based
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116:
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793:
762:
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106:
91:
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Consumption of fluoride at levels beyond those used in fluoridated water for a long period of time causes
421:
325:
255:
201:
55:
3300:
3546:
3421:
2900:
2803:
2783:
2057:"Fluoride plus aluminum: useful tools in laboratory investigations, but messengers of false information"
1516:
817:
Like most soluble materials, fluoride compounds are readily absorbed by the stomach and intestines, and
1538:
1185:
3719:
3431:
3391:
3381:
3376:
3145:
2758:
2743:
2559:
2182:
2147:
1469:
681:
622:
1748:
Gupta R, Kumar AN, Bandhu S, Gupta S (2007). "Skeletal fluorosis mimicking seronegative arthritis".
581:
in children, but the evidence is of insufficient quality to allow any firm conclusions to be drawn.
3589:
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1994:
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1302:
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1205:
1146:
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923:
922:. Geneva: International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization. p. 100.
898:
873:
712:
677:
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500:
382:
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having over 1.5 mg/L of naturally occurring fluoride, which is above recommended levels.
3658:
3616:
2811:
2773:
2768:
2703:
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1984:
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455:
946:
Bradford D. Gessner; Michael Beller; John P. Middaugh; Gary M. Whitford (13 January 1994).
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3396:
2990:
2778:
2698:
2496:
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1735:
1542:
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796:(GABA) can be used to treat fluoride toxicity of the thyroid and return normal function.
2151:
2056:
1473:
1164:
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3653:
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McDonagh, Marian S.; Whiting, Penny F.; Wilson, Paul M.; et al. (7 October 2000).
1581:
1556:
1412:
720:
650:
577:
Some research has suggested that high levels of fluoride exposure may adversely affect
519:
492:
2159:
2138:
Camargo, Julio A. (January 2003). "Fluoride toxicity to aquatic organisms: a review".
1298:
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3734:
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1436:
Geogenic
Contamination Handbook – Addressing Arsenic and Fluoride in Drinking Water
689:
484:
480:
266:
1728:
17:
2294:
2216:"Urinary fluoride excretion by children 4–6 years old in a south Texas community"
1255:
3599:
3536:
3161:
3125:
3086:
3072:
2999:
2971:
2430:
1320:
966:
947:
805:
669:
460:
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1809:
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1018:
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3115:
3077:
3014:
2978:
2943:
2605:
2283:
2116:
1761:
822:
693:
391:
1834:"Deuterated methoxyflurane anesthesia and renal function in Fischer 344 rats"
1648:
1557:"Developmental fluoride neurotoxicity: a systematic review and meta-analysis"
1456:
Rodríguez-Lado L, Sun G, Berg M, Zhang Q, Xue H, Zheng Q, Johnson CA (2013).
707:
Fluoride induced nephrotoxicity is dose dependent, typically requiring serum
3237:
3177:
3130:
3039:
3026:
2983:
2966:
2890:
2541:
2506:
2374:
2324:
1481:
994:
When the Rivers Run Dry: Journeys Into the Heart of the World's Water Crisis
818:
262:
27:
Condition in which there are elevated levels of the fluoride ion in the body
2241:
2167:
2124:
2075:
1769:
1666:
1590:
1489:
1373:
1263:
1150:
1141:
1124:
569:
Excess fluoride consumption has been studied as a factor in the following:
324:
by adding information on neglected viewpoints, or discuss the issue on the
1998:
1949:
1908:
1859:
1818:
1420:
1306:
1209:
1201:
975:
753:
The only generally accepted adverse effect of fluoride at levels used for
3678:
3571:
3479:
3463:
3135:
3120:
3053:
3043:
2961:
2635:
2572:
2379:
2033:
1350:"Understanding organofluorine chemistry. An introduction to the C–F bond"
708:
665:
646:
642:
508:
410:
403:
2266:
1890:
1572:
3579:
3256:
3165:
2882:
2527:
1989:
1972:
774:
468:
105:
if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and
3328:
1026:. WHO technical report series 846. Geneva: World Health Organization.
3495:
3471:
3455:
3446:
3252:
3048:
3009:
2458:
2397:
2278:
1365:
782:
778:
697:
638:
511:
2183:"Desalination Guidelines Development for Drinking Water: Background"
1017:
WHO Expert
Committee on Oral Health Status and Fluoride Use (1994).
1700:
3266:
3262:
2421:
1692:
Fluoride in
Drinking Water: A Scientific Review of EPA's Standards
1184:
Augenstein WL, Spoerke DG, Kulig KW, et al. (November 1991).
716:
701:
661:
535:
Twenty percent of modern pharmaceuticals contain fluorine. These
515:
413:
1086:
National Health and
Medical Research Council (Australia) (2007).
3255:
is generally non-toxic metal, but in large doses it can lead to
1125:"A systematic review of the efficacy and safety of fluoridation"
607:
3332:
2345:
872:. Baltimore (MD): Williams & Wilkins. pp. III–185–93.
514:(for example, in cattle grazing after an 1845–1846 eruption of
507:
used to promote the flow of a molten metal on a solid surface,
1089:
A systematic review of the efficacy and safety of fluoridation
897:. Foster City (CA): Biomedical Publications. pp. 636–40.
781:
is deficient, and fluoride is associated with lower levels of
406:
296:
235:
177:
70:
29:
3766:
Toxic effects of substances chiefly nonmedicinal as to source
696:, which interferes with the counter current mechanism in the
660:
The kidney injury is characterised by failure to concentrate
804:
Fluoride accumulates in the bone tissues of fish and in the
761:, which can alter the appearance of children's teeth during
1535:
844:"CDC Scientific Statement on Community Water Fluoridation"
402:
is a condition in which there are elevated levels of the
2214:
Baez, J.; Baez, Martha X.; Marthaler, Thomas M. (2000).
416:
is dangerous. Referring to a common salt of fluoride,
321:
102:
1791:
Cousins MJ, Skowronski G, Plummer JL (November 1983).
1325:
Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements
1186:"Fluoride ingestion in children: a review of 87 cases"
1922:
Cousins MJ, Greenstein LR, Hitt BA, Mazze RI (1976).
948:"Acute fluoride poisoning from a public water system"
204:. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are
2256:
1458:"Groundwater arsenic contamination throughout China"
3707:
3570:
3507:
3445:
3364:
3210:
3154:
3102:
3025:
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2877:
2870:
2829:
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2734:
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2604:
2595:
2558:
2540:
2520:
2477:
2429:
2420:
2411:
2315:
2260:
1605:"Fluoride Exposure: Neurodevelopment and Cognition"
688:of the kidney. Fluoride also stimulates intrarenal
381:
373:
368:
711:levels exceeding 50 micromoles per liter (about 1
676:and hyperosmolarity. Inorganic fluoride inhibits
439:United States Health and Human Services Department
1924:"Metabolism and renal effect of enflurane in man"
895:Disposition of toxic drugs and chemicals in man
719:dysfunction, which is likely when the dose of
539:are not sources of fluoride poisoning, as the
101:Please review the contents of the article and
3344:
2357:
1555:Choi AL, Sun G, Zhang Y, Grandjean P (2012).
592:), are associated with lower IQ in children.
584:In 2024, a U.S. government study released by
8:
2055:Strunecká A, Strunecký O, Patocka J (2002).
1695:. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
1521:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
920:Environmental health criteria 227 (Fluoride)
941:
939:
64:Learn how and when to remove these messages
3351:
3337:
3329:
3247:
2874:
2731:
2722:
2601:
2426:
2417:
2364:
2350:
2342:
2257:
1832:Baden JM, Rice SA, Mazze RI (March 1982).
1684:
1682:
1680:
1678:
1676:
870:Clinical toxicology of commercial products
792:Testing on mice shows that the medication
365:
265:. Please do not remove this message until
2231:
1988:
1939:
1898:
1849:
1808:
1656:
1633:"Systematic review of water fluoridation"
1580:
1563:(Systematic review & Meta-analysis).
1140:
965:
868:Gosselin, RE; Smith RP; Hodge HC (1984).
351:Learn how and when to remove this message
285:Learn how and when to remove this message
224:Learn how and when to remove this message
1327:. Oxford University Press. p. 178.
987:
985:
649:from fluorine-containing drugs, such as
454:
261:Relevant discussion may be found on the
200:Relevant discussion may be found on the
1626:
1624:
835:
520:1783–1784 flood basalt eruption of Laki
1514:
2220:Revista Panamericana de Salud Pública
1717:from the original on October 18, 2014
1536:Groundwater Assessment Platform (GAP)
773:Fluoride's suppressive effect on the
7:
3295:
1380:from the original on 28 January 2021
641:injury due to toxic levels of serum
3449: (Core six elements)
3307:
731:Elimination of fluoride depends on
637:Fluoride induced nephrotoxicity is
543:is too strong to release fluoride.
459:Geographical areas associated with
2195:from the original on March 4, 2016
1689:National Research Council (2006).
1413:10.1111/j.1752-7325.1997.tb02966.x
1401:Journal of Public Health Dentistry
1174:. eMedicine. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
715:) to cause clinically significant
25:
692:, leading to increased medullary
45:This article has multiple issues.
3306:
3294:
3283:
3282:
2026:10.1213/00000539-197905000-00011
1941:10.1097/00000542-197601000-00009
1851:10.1097/00000542-198203000-00009
301:
240:
182:
167:
75:
34:
2233:10.1590/s1020-49892000000400005
2085:from the original on 2017-08-08
1504:from the original on 2020-10-01
1224:from the original on 2010-10-02
1068:from the original on 2017-01-29
1043:from the original on 2015-02-17
953:New England Journal of Medicine
433:For optimal dental health, the
53:or discuss these issues on the
3437:Biological aspects of fluorine
1729:CDC's statement on this report
700:required for concentration of
103:add the appropriate references
1:
3715:Composition of the human body
2160:10.1016/S0045-6535(02)00498-8
1348:O'Hagan, David (March 2008).
1299:10.1016/S0196-0644(96)70097-5
645:, commonly due to release of
1875:"Methoxyflurane nephropathy"
1793:"Anaesthesia and the kidney"
1287:Annals of Emergency Medicine
1256:10.3109/15563650.2010.533676
1062:"Archive-It – News Releases"
800:Effects on aquatic organisms
3725:Mineral (Essential element)
967:10.1056/NEJM199401133300203
267:conditions to do so are met
88:reliable medical references
3787:
3740:Uranium in the environment
3035:Arthropod bites and stings
2654:Nitrogen dioxide poisoning
1810:10.1177/0310057X8301100402
746:
733:glomerular filtration rate
612:dose-response relationship
599:
556:Fluoride in drinking water
3595:Acute beryllium poisoning
3278:
3250:
3246:
2794:Tricyclic antidepressants
2393:
2117:10.1016/j.lfs.2015.12.041
1762:10.1080/03009740600759845
1561:Environ. Health Perspect.
1020:Fluorides and oral health
503:, industrial exposure to
435:World Health Organization
316:toward certain viewpoints
94:or relies too heavily on
1649:10.1136/bmj.321.7265.855
1354:Chemical Society Reviews
686:distal convoluted tubule
537:organofluorine compounds
531:Organofluorine compounds
3233:List of types of poison
2789:Serotonergic substances
1879:Environ Health Perspect
1482:10.1126/science.1237484
996:. Toronto: Key Porter.
794:gamma-Aminobutyric acid
3607:Chlorine gas poisoning
2521:Other non-toxic metals
1873:Mazze RI (June 1976).
1797:Anaesth Intensive Care
1142:10.1038/sj.ebd.6400578
737:chronic kidney disease
735:. Thus, patients with
680:activity required for
627:ankylosing spondylitis
547:Fluoride in toothpaste
495:-cleaning agents like
464:
3580:Argyria (Silver)
3422:Molybdenum in biology
2901:Ichthyoallyeinotoxism
1202:10.1542/peds.88.5.907
1163:Nochimson G. (2008).
992:Pearce, Fred (2006).
458:
3720:Lithium (medication)
3432:Arsenic biochemistry
3392:Manganese in biology
3382:Potassium in biology
3377:Magnesium in biology
777:is more severe when
682:antidiuretic hormone
623:rheumatoid arthritis
541:carbon–fluorine bond
193:factual accuracy is
3590:Beryllium poisoning
3417:Selenium in biology
3359:Elements in biology
3271:foodborne illnesses
3228:Lists of poisonings
2911:Shellfish poisoning
2619:Aluminium phosphide
2181:Joseph A. Cotruvo.
2152:2003Chmsp..50..251C
1971:Van Dyke R (1973).
1891:10.1289/ehp.7615111
1750:Scand. J. Rheumatol
1573:10.1289/ehp.1104912
1474:2013Sci...341..866R
1244:Clinical Toxicology
893:Baselt, RC (2008).
821:through the urine.
497:ammonium bifluoride
322:improve the article
254:of this article is
117:"Fluoride toxicity"
3761:Element toxicology
3684:Thallium poisoning
3387:Calcium in biology
3223:EPA list of hazard
3005:Alpha-Bungarotoxin
2749:Anticholinesterase
2316:External resources
1990:10.1007/BF03025562
1734:2017-02-12 at the
1541:2021-04-21 at the
1442:2019-03-25 at the
1170:2013-10-15 at the
1165:Toxicity, Fluoride
846:. January 23, 2024
755:water fluoridation
619:skeletal fluorosis
602:Skeletal fluorosis
465:
429:Recommended levels
388:Emergency medicine
377:Fluoride poisoning
18:Fluoride poisoning
3748:
3747:
3694:Toxic heavy metal
3679:Selenium toxicity
3664:Mercury poisoning
3632:Fluoride toxicity
3627:Cadmium poisoning
3612:Chromium toxicity
3585:Arsenic poisoning
3427:Iodine in biology
3407:Copper in biology
3402:Cobalt in biology
3372:Sodium in biology
3326:
3325:
3322:
3321:
3206:
3205:
3188:Poisonous animals
2866:
2865:
2831:Vitamin poisoning
2825:
2824:
2712:
2711:
2591:
2590:
2536:
2535:
2339:
2338:
1977:Can Anaesth Soc J
1710:978-0-309-10128-8
1643:(7265): 855–859.
1607:. August 21, 2024
1468:(6148): 866–868.
1334:978-0-19-960563-7
1123:Yeung CA (2008).
1102:978-1-86496-415-8
1003:978-1-55263-741-8
929:978-92-4-157227-9
904:978-0-9626523-7-0
879:978-0-683-03632-9
763:tooth development
678:adenylate cyclase
668:, and subsequent
501:hydrofluoric acid
400:Fluoride toxicity
397:
396:
369:Fluoride toxicity
363:Medical condition
361:
360:
353:
343:
342:
295:
294:
287:
234:
233:
226:
176:
175:
152:
68:
16:(Redirected from
3778:
3659:Lithium toxicity
3617:Cobalt poisoning
3353:
3346:
3339:
3330:
3310:
3309:
3298:
3297:
3286:
3285:
3259:, which is rare.
3248:
3183:Venomous animals
2875:
2732:
2723:
2624:Organophosphates
2602:
2479:Dietary minerals
2427:
2418:
2366:
2359:
2352:
2343:
2258:
2246:
2245:
2235:
2211:
2205:
2204:
2202:
2200:
2194:
2187:
2178:
2172:
2171:
2135:
2129:
2128:
2100:
2094:
2093:
2091:
2090:
2084:
2061:
2052:
2046:
2045:
2009:
2003:
2002:
1992:
1968:
1962:
1961:
1943:
1919:
1913:
1912:
1902:
1870:
1864:
1863:
1853:
1829:
1823:
1822:
1812:
1788:
1782:
1781:
1745:
1739:
1726:
1724:
1722:
1686:
1671:
1670:
1660:
1628:
1619:
1618:
1613:
1612:
1601:
1595:
1594:
1584:
1552:
1546:
1533:
1527:
1526:
1520:
1512:
1510:
1509:
1453:
1447:
1431:
1425:
1424:
1396:
1390:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1366:10.1039/b711844a
1345:
1339:
1338:
1317:
1311:
1310:
1282:
1276:
1275:
1239:
1233:
1232:
1230:
1229:
1181:
1175:
1161:
1155:
1154:
1144:
1120:
1118:
1117:
1111:
1105:. Archived from
1094:
1083:
1077:
1076:
1074:
1073:
1058:
1052:
1051:
1049:
1048:
1042:
1025:
1014:
1008:
1007:
989:
980:
979:
969:
943:
934:
933:
915:
909:
908:
890:
884:
883:
865:
859:
858:
852:
851:
840:
789:remain unclear.
787:endocrine system
759:dental fluorosis
749:Dental fluorosis
579:neurodevelopment
422:gastrointestinal
366:
356:
349:
338:
335:
329:
305:
304:
297:
290:
283:
279:
276:
270:
244:
243:
236:
229:
222:
218:
215:
209:
206:reliably sourced
186:
185:
178:
171:
170:
162:
159:
153:
151:
110:
79:
78:
71:
60:
38:
37:
30:
21:
3786:
3785:
3781:
3780:
3779:
3777:
3776:
3775:
3751:
3750:
3749:
3744:
3730:Oxygen toxicity
3703:
3622:Copper toxicity
3566:
3503:
3441:
3412:Zinc in biology
3397:Iron in biology
3360:
3357:
3327:
3318:
3274:
3260:
3242:
3202:
3150:
3098:
3021:
2937:
2862:
2857:
2821:
2798:
2764:Benzodiazepines
2708:
2694:Carbon monoxide
2682:Ethylene glycol
2658:
2630:
2587:
2554:
2532:
2516:
2473:
2407:
2389:
2370:
2340:
2335:
2334:
2311:
2310:
2269:
2255:
2250:
2249:
2213:
2212:
2208:
2198:
2196:
2192:
2185:
2180:
2179:
2175:
2137:
2136:
2132:
2102:
2101:
2097:
2088:
2086:
2082:
2059:
2054:
2053:
2049:
2011:
2010:
2006:
1970:
1969:
1965:
1921:
1920:
1916:
1872:
1871:
1867:
1831:
1830:
1826:
1790:
1789:
1785:
1747:
1746:
1742:
1736:Wayback Machine
1720:
1718:
1711:
1688:
1687:
1674:
1630:
1629:
1622:
1610:
1608:
1603:
1602:
1598:
1554:
1553:
1549:
1543:Wayback Machine
1534:
1530:
1513:
1507:
1505:
1455:
1454:
1450:
1444:Wayback Machine
1432:
1428:
1398:
1397:
1393:
1383:
1381:
1347:
1346:
1342:
1335:
1319:
1318:
1314:
1284:
1283:
1279:
1241:
1240:
1236:
1227:
1225:
1183:
1182:
1178:
1172:Wayback Machine
1162:
1158:
1129:Evid-Based Dent
1122:
1115:
1113:
1109:
1103:
1092:
1085:
1084:
1080:
1071:
1069:
1060:
1059:
1055:
1046:
1044:
1040:
1034:
1023:
1016:
1015:
1011:
1004:
991:
990:
983:
945:
944:
937:
930:
917:
916:
912:
905:
892:
891:
887:
880:
867:
866:
862:
849:
847:
842:
841:
837:
832:
815:
802:
771:
751:
745:
635:
604:
598:
575:
567:
558:
549:
533:
528:
477:
453:
448:
431:
418:sodium fluoride
364:
357:
346:
345:
344:
339:
333:
330:
319:
306:
302:
291:
280:
274:
271:
260:
245:
241:
230:
219:
213:
210:
199:
191:This article's
187:
183:
172:
168:
163:
157:
154:
111:
100:
96:primary sources
80:
76:
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3784:
3782:
3774:
3773:
3768:
3763:
3753:
3752:
3746:
3745:
3743:
3742:
3737:
3732:
3727:
3722:
3717:
3711:
3709:
3705:
3704:
3702:
3701:
3696:
3691:
3686:
3681:
3676:
3674:Nickel allergy
3671:
3669:Metal toxicity
3666:
3661:
3656:
3654:Lead poisoning
3651:
3650:
3649:
3642:Iron poisoning
3639:
3634:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3609:
3604:
3603:
3602:
3597:
3587:
3582:
3576:
3574:
3568:
3567:
3565:
3564:
3559:
3554:
3549:
3544:
3539:
3534:
3529:
3524:
3519:
3513:
3511:
3505:
3504:
3502:
3501:
3493:
3485:
3477:
3469:
3461:
3452:
3450:
3443:
3442:
3440:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3368:
3366:
3362:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3355:
3348:
3341:
3333:
3324:
3323:
3320:
3319:
3317:
3316:
3304:
3292:
3279:
3276:
3275:
3251:
3244:
3243:
3241:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3214:
3212:
3208:
3207:
3204:
3203:
3201:
3200:
3198:Mycotoxicology
3195:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3174:
3173:
3158:
3156:
3155:Related topics
3152:
3151:
3149:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3112:
3110:
3100:
3099:
3097:
3096:
3094:Tick paralysis
3091:
3090:
3089:
3084:
3070:
3069:
3068:
3061:Scorpion venom
3058:
3057:
3056:
3051:
3037:
3031:
3029:
3023:
3022:
3020:
3019:
3018:
3017:
3012:
3007:
2993:
2988:
2987:
2986:
2976:
2975:
2974:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2948:
2946:
2939:
2938:
2936:
2935:
2934:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2918:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2893:
2887:
2885:
2872:
2868:
2867:
2864:
2863:
2861:
2860:
2855:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2835:
2833:
2827:
2826:
2823:
2822:
2820:
2819:
2814:
2808:
2806:
2804:Cardiovascular
2800:
2799:
2797:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2740:
2738:
2729:
2727:Drug overdoses
2720:
2718:Pharmaceutical
2714:
2713:
2710:
2709:
2707:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2690:
2689:
2684:
2679:
2666:
2664:
2660:
2659:
2657:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2640:
2638:
2632:
2631:
2629:
2628:
2627:
2626:
2621:
2610:
2608:
2599:
2593:
2592:
2589:
2588:
2586:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2564:
2562:
2556:
2555:
2553:
2552:
2546:
2544:
2538:
2537:
2534:
2533:
2531:
2530:
2524:
2522:
2518:
2517:
2515:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2483:
2481:
2475:
2474:
2472:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2435:
2433:
2424:
2415:
2409:
2408:
2406:
2405:
2400:
2394:
2391:
2390:
2388:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2371:
2369:
2368:
2361:
2354:
2346:
2337:
2336:
2333:
2332:
2320:
2319:
2317:
2313:
2312:
2309:
2308:
2297:
2286:
2270:
2265:
2264:
2262:
2261:Classification
2254:
2253:External links
2251:
2248:
2247:
2226:(4): 242–248.
2206:
2173:
2146:(3): 251–264.
2130:
2095:
2047:
2020:(3): 221–224.
2004:
1963:
1928:Anesthesiology
1914:
1865:
1844:(3): 203–206.
1838:Anesthesiology
1824:
1803:(4): 292–320.
1783:
1740:
1709:
1701:10.17226/11571
1672:
1620:
1596:
1567:(10): 1362–8.
1547:
1528:
1448:
1433:Eawag (2015).
1426:
1407:(3): 150–158.
1391:
1360:(2): 308–319.
1340:
1333:
1312:
1277:
1234:
1176:
1156:
1101:
1078:
1053:
1032:
1009:
1002:
981:
935:
928:
910:
903:
885:
878:
860:
834:
833:
831:
828:
814:
811:
801:
798:
770:
767:
747:Main article:
744:
741:
721:methoxyflurane
684:effect on the
651:methoxyflurane
634:
631:
600:Main article:
597:
594:
574:
571:
566:
563:
557:
554:
548:
545:
532:
529:
527:
524:
476:
473:
452:
449:
447:
444:
430:
427:
395:
394:
385:
379:
378:
375:
371:
370:
362:
359:
358:
341:
340:
309:
307:
300:
293:
292:
248:
246:
239:
232:
231:
190:
188:
181:
174:
173:
166:
164:
83:
81:
74:
69:
43:
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3783:
3772:
3769:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3758:
3756:
3741:
3738:
3736:
3735:Soil salinity
3733:
3731:
3728:
3726:
3723:
3721:
3718:
3716:
3713:
3712:
3710:
3706:
3700:
3699:Zinc toxicity
3697:
3695:
3692:
3690:
3689:Tin poisoning
3687:
3685:
3682:
3680:
3677:
3675:
3672:
3670:
3667:
3665:
3662:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3648:
3647:Iron overload
3645:
3644:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3637:Halotolerance
3635:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3615:
3613:
3610:
3608:
3605:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
3592:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3577:
3575:
3573:
3569:
3563:
3560:
3558:
3555:
3553:
3550:
3548:
3545:
3543:
3540:
3538:
3535:
3533:
3530:
3528:
3525:
3523:
3520:
3518:
3515:
3514:
3512:
3510:
3506:
3500:
3498:
3494:
3492:
3490:
3486:
3484:
3482:
3478:
3476:
3474:
3470:
3468:
3466:
3462:
3460:
3458:
3454:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3444:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3369:
3367:
3363:
3354:
3349:
3347:
3342:
3340:
3335:
3334:
3331:
3315:
3314:
3305:
3303:
3302:
3293:
3291:
3290:
3281:
3280:
3277:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3258:
3254:
3249:
3245:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3215:
3213:
3211:Miscellaneous
3209:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3193:Deadly fungus
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3172:
3169:
3168:
3167:
3163:
3160:
3159:
3157:
3153:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3113:
3111:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3095:
3092:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3079:
3076:
3075:
3074:
3071:
3067:
3066:Charybdotoxin
3064:
3063:
3062:
3059:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3046:
3045:
3041:
3038:
3036:
3033:
3032:
3030:
3028:
3024:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3002:
3001:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2985:
2982:
2981:
2980:
2977:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2960:
2958:
2957:Batrachotoxin
2955:
2954:
2953:
2950:
2949:
2947:
2945:
2940:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2913:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2888:
2886:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2873:
2869:
2859:
2854:Megavitamin-B
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2836:
2834:
2832:
2828:
2818:
2815:
2813:
2810:
2809:
2807:
2805:
2801:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2741:
2739:
2737:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2715:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2678:
2675:
2674:
2673:
2672:
2668:
2667:
2665:
2661:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2641:
2639:
2637:
2633:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2616:
2615:
2612:
2611:
2609:
2607:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2594:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2568:Sulfuric acid
2566:
2565:
2563:
2561:
2557:
2551:
2548:
2547:
2545:
2543:
2539:
2529:
2526:
2525:
2523:
2519:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2484:
2482:
2480:
2476:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2436:
2434:
2432:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2410:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2396:
2395:
2392:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2360:
2355:
2353:
2348:
2347:
2344:
2331:
2327:
2326:
2322:
2321:
2318:
2314:
2307:
2303:
2302:
2298:
2296:
2292:
2291:
2287:
2285:
2281:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2271:
2268:
2263:
2259:
2252:
2243:
2239:
2234:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2210:
2207:
2191:
2184:
2177:
2174:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2134:
2131:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
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113:Find sources:
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84:This article
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52:
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32:
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3631:
3509:Deficiencies
3496:
3488:
3480:
3472:
3464:
3456:
3311:
3299:
3287:
3082:Latrodectism
3073:spider venom
2896:Haff disease
2817:Dipyridamole
2759:Barbiturates
2669:
2582:
2431:Toxic metals
2323:
2299:
2288:
2273:
2223:
2219:
2209:
2197:. Retrieved
2176:
2143:
2139:
2133:
2108:
2104:
2098:
2087:. Retrieved
2067:
2063:
2050:
2017:
2014:Anesth Analg
2013:
2007:
1983:(1): 21–33.
1980:
1976:
1966:
1934:(1): 44–53.
1931:
1927:
1917:
1882:
1878:
1868:
1841:
1837:
1827:
1800:
1796:
1786:
1756:(2): 154–5.
1753:
1749:
1743:
1719:. Retrieved
1691:
1640:
1636:
1615:
1609:. Retrieved
1599:
1564:
1560:
1550:
1531:
1517:cite journal
1506:. Retrieved
1465:
1461:
1451:
1435:
1429:
1404:
1400:
1394:
1382:. Retrieved
1357:
1353:
1343:
1324:
1315:
1293:(6): 713–8.
1290:
1286:
1280:
1250:(9): 953–5.
1247:
1243:
1237:
1226:. Retrieved
1193:
1189:
1179:
1159:
1135:(2): 39–43.
1132:
1128:
1114:. Retrieved
1107:the original
1088:
1081:
1070:. Retrieved
1056:
1045:. Retrieved
1019:
1012:
993:
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957:
951:
919:
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888:
869:
863:
854:
848:. Retrieved
838:
816:
803:
791:
772:
752:
730:
723:exceeds 2.5
706:
690:vasodilation
659:
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485:rodenticides
481:insecticides
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124:
112:
92:verification
85:
61:
54:
48:
47:Please help
44:
3600:Berylliosis
3313:WikiProject
3126:Fish toxins
3087:Loxoscelism
3000:Snake venom
2972:Physalaemin
2944:vertebrates
2784:Paracetamol
2199:January 26,
2140:Chemosphere
2064:Physiol Res
1885:: 111–119.
1727:. See also
823:Urine tests
806:exoskeleton
670:dehydration
461:groundwater
374:Other names
86:needs more
3755:Categories
3547:Molybdenum
3261:including
3218:Antibiotic
3146:Strychnine
3116:Cinchonism
3078:Latrotoxin
3027:Arthropods
3015:Batroxobin
2926:Neurotoxic
2921:Diarrhetic
2871:Biological
2614:Pesticides
2606:Phosphorus
2542:Metalloids
2301:DiseasesDB
2089:2008-12-31
1611:2024-09-01
1508:2020-09-13
1228:2009-04-17
1190:Pediatrics
1116:2009-10-13
1072:2017-09-09
1047:2013-09-01
850:2024-05-20
830:References
694:blood flow
526:Occurrence
392:toxicology
334:March 2015
314:unbalanced
275:March 2015
252:neutrality
214:March 2015
128:newspapers
50:improve it
3771:Fluorides
3542:Manganese
3537:Potassium
3491:hosphorus
3238:Pollution
3178:Cnidocyte
3131:Lathyrism
3044:Bee venom
3040:Bee sting
2984:Coturnism
2967:Bufotenin
2952:Amphibian
2931:Paralytic
2906:Scombroid
2891:Ciguatera
2849:Vitamin E
2844:Vitamin D
2839:Vitamin A
2560:Nonmetals
2507:Manganese
2439:Beryllium
2413:Inorganic
2375:Poisoning
2330:emerg/181
2325:eMedicine
1721:March 27,
1498:206548777
1121:Summary:
813:Mechanism
383:Specialty
326:talk page
263:talk page
202:talk page
158:June 2014
56:talk page
3572:Toxicity
3557:Selenium
3517:Chromium
3365:Elements
3289:Category
3141:Mushroom
3121:Ergotism
3106: /
3080: /
3054:Melittin
3042: /
2998: /
2962:Bombesin
2881: /
2858:syndrome
2687:Methanol
2649:Nicotine
2636:Nitrogen
2583:Fluoride
2578:Chlorine
2573:Selenium
2487:Chromium
2464:Thallium
2385:Overdose
2380:Toxicity
2242:10846927
2190:Archived
2168:12656244
2125:26724496
2105:Life Sci
2080:Archived
2076:12511178
2042:36094568
1958:22903804
1778:39441582
1770:17476625
1732:Archived
1715:Archived
1667:11021861
1591:22820538
1539:Archived
1502:Archived
1490:23970694
1440:Archived
1384:21 March
1378:Archived
1374:18197347
1323:(2011).
1321:Emsley J
1272:11635168
1264:21171855
1222:Archived
1218:22106466
1168:Archived
1151:18584000
1066:Archived
1038:Archived
819:excreted
709:fluoride
666:polyuria
647:fluoride
643:fluoride
518:and the
509:volcanic
446:Toxicity
411:fluoride
404:fluoride
256:disputed
195:disputed
3708:Related
3483:itrogen
3467:ydrogen
3301:Commons
3257:argyria
3166:Stinger
3136:Locoism
2916:Amnesic
2883:Seafood
2812:Digoxin
2779:Opioids
2774:Lithium
2769:Cocaine
2754:Aspirin
2744:Alcohol
2736:Nervous
2704:Toluene
2677:Ethanol
2671:alcohol
2644:Cyanide
2597:Organic
2550:Arsenic
2454:Mercury
2444:Cadmium
2403:History
2295:D005458
2148:Bibcode
2111:: 1–7.
1999:4571972
1950:1244774
1909:1001288
1900:1475154
1860:7059030
1819:6359948
1582:3491930
1470:Bibcode
1462:Science
1421:9383753
1307:8953969
1210:1945630
976:8259189
775:thyroid
769:Thyroid
565:Effects
469:granite
451:Chronic
320:Please
312:may be
142:scholar
107:removed
3552:Sodium
3532:Iodine
3522:Copper
3447:CHONPS
3267:toxins
3263:venoms
3253:Silver
3104:Plants
3049:Apamin
3010:Ancrod
2996:Snakes
2991:Mammal
2942:Other
2699:Oxygen
2528:Silver
2497:Copper
2492:Cobalt
2459:Nickel
2422:Metals
2398:Poison
2240:
2166:
2123:
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2034:572159
2032:
1997:
1956:
1948:
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856:decay.
783:iodine
779:iodine
698:kidney
639:kidney
633:Kidney
512:ejecta
505:fluxes
493:chrome
144:
137:
130:
123:
115:
3499:ulfur
3475:xygen
3459:arbon
3171:plant
3108:Fungi
2979:Birds
2306:29228
2284:T59.5
2193:(PDF)
2186:(PDF)
2083:(PDF)
2060:(PDF)
2038:S2CID
1954:S2CID
1774:S2CID
1658:27492
1494:S2CID
1268:S2CID
1214:S2CID
1110:(PDF)
1093:(PDF)
1041:(PDF)
1024:(PDF)
743:Teeth
717:renal
702:urine
672:with
662:urine
608:bones
596:Bones
573:Brain
516:Hekla
475:Acute
414:salts
149:JSTOR
135:books
3562:Zinc
3527:Iron
3164:and
3162:Bite
2879:Fish
2512:Zinc
2502:Iron
2449:Lead
2290:MeSH
2238:PMID
2201:2015
2164:PMID
2121:PMID
2072:PMID
2030:PMID
1995:PMID
1946:PMID
1905:PMID
1856:PMID
1815:PMID
1766:PMID
1723:2009
1705:ISBN
1663:PMID
1587:PMID
1523:link
1486:PMID
1417:PMID
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1329:ISBN
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924:ISBN
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2469:Tin
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1936:doi
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