1267:, on opposition to public safety commissioner Eugene 'Bull' Connors's plan for black and white residents to form separate lines and enter the train in groups of twenty, with one group leaving before the other entered. Rev. James L. Ware from Trinity Baptist Church headed a committee of representatives from local black organizations, including women's groups, churches, business associations, fraternities, and the NAACP, that pressured Connors to alter the plan. When he proved intransigent, they threatened to boycott the train's visit if the AHF did not cancel the Birmingham stop. With added pressure from Walter White in New York, the AHF canceled the Birmingham visit, leaving Memphis and Birmingham as the only two locales deemed inhospitable to the Freedom Train."
611:
505:, the most influential figure in Memphis politics during the former half of the twentieth century.) When Freedom Train organizers then canceled the train's planned stop in Memphis, Mayor Pleasants responded that segregated viewing hours were necessary to avert "race trouble" that would inevitably result from interracial "jostling and pushing". To Freedom Train stops in other cities, the mayor's office sent undercover agents, who reported that, first, some other southern cities had enforced segregation during viewing, and furthermore, that white patrons of the Freedom Train elsewhere had disliked the presence of Black Americans.
577:
85:
1286:
Ernest
Taggart, understandably chastened by the entire episode, tried to justify his having approved the visit of the Freedom Train to Birmingham 'with separate lines leading up to the train with stipulated understanding that there would be free and unmolested comingling and movement of blacks and whites on the train.' He had favored the device 'as a compromise between a white protesting group and a negro protesting group, which made it obvious that the Freedom Train had to bypass Birmingham because people here couldn't decide how they would see it.'"
486:
307:
1055:, possessed seventy-two percent of the world's automobiles, sixty-one percent of the world's telephones, and ninety-two percent of the world's bathtubs. The Freedom Train program, Barney Balaban said several months later, meant 'accentuation of the essential unity of the American system.' 'Our American economic family ...,' with capital and labor united, had conquered the Atlantic, the Alleghenies, the continent:"
593:
357:"With polite and firm prodding the Marines hurried through as many as 1200 persons an hour, giving each an average of three seconds to look at each exhibit. As they shuffled through the beige-and-green cars, they listened to regional and patriotic music played over a public address system and to a 'move faster' exhortation by a suave Marine voice which came through the speaker every time a record changed."
1234:(1999), p. 129. "More specifically, what became known as the 'Birmingham Plan' required that the two races be admitted in alternate groups of twenty to twenty-five. Although whites and blacks would be on the train at the same time, they would never actually mix because a black group would not be admitted to the exhibit until the preceding white group had exited the first car and entered the second."
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features patronized women, referring to them as 'sister' and 'girl,' and rarely argued that jobs gained in the war were a favorable advance. The text of the advertising mats urged women to participate in civic and government activities, but the visual images suggested that women's main concern was childrearing."
1050:
Little, "The
Freedom Train" (1993), p. 46. "Material goods and self-fulfillment through consumption measured freedom: Americans experienced 'the highest standard of living in the history of mankind, the most leisure time, the greatest per capita wealth, the opportunity for the fullest development of
536:
Our segregation law is for the protection of the white and black races in the city, and for the prevention of disorders. . . . It is not a mantle to be set aside at the instance of this or that visitor to the city. If those in charge of the
Freedom Train should see fit to bring it to Birmingham, they
1285:
White, "Civil Rights in
Conflict" (1999), pp. 135–136. "Dr. Taggart, according to Jackson, had inexplicably given his verbal approval of segregated admission to the Freedom Train. Jackson dismissed I. J. Israel as 'a hustler who provides police tips and is an informer for the white supremacy group.'
545:, the American Heritage Foundation also canceled the Freedom Train's appearance in Birmingham. The episode was somewhat embarrassing for collaborationist local black leaders Ernest Taggart and I. J. Israel, who defended their support of the segregated Freedom Train visit in the spirit of compromise.
531:
insisted that black and white people would wait for the train in separate lines and take turns entering. The idea behind the "Birmingham Plan" was that whites and blacks would technically be on board the train at the same time, without having to encounter each other directly. Under pressure, Connors
293:
While preparing for the tour, the planners decided to downplay comparisons of the United States with Nazis, as well as direct calls for foreign intervention. Instead they sought to focus on crafting a shared ideology for
Americans. Clark wrote, "Indoctrination in democracy is the essential catalytic
125:
Thomas D'Arcy Brophy (of advertising firm Kenyon & Eckhardt) described the
Freedom Train as "a campaign to sell America to Americans". The Advertising Council planned an assortment of other events to accompany the Train, including messages in radio programs, comic books, and films. In each city
297:
The Train displayed exhibits such as "Good
Citizen", which portrayed men wearing suits Exhibits also defined American freedoms in terms of consumerism and boasted of superior commodity production. For women (more often referred to as "girls" or "sisters"), good citizenship was defined in terms of
1142:
McGinnis, "The
Advertising Council and the Cold War" (1991), p. 94. "The advertising industry at first thought that it could solve social problems through advertising alone, but by 1949 Brophy had decided, largely on his Freedom Train experience, that to be fully effective, a national advertising
1005:
Little, "The
Freedom Train" (1993), pp. 48–49. "The National Archives' staff originally compiled documents and produced a wide-ranging and intriguing collection. The staff recommended documents covering women's suffrage, collective bargaining, Franklin D. Roosevelt's Executive Order 8802, and the
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Little, "The
Freedom Train" (1993), p. 47. "Advertising Council news features for women celebrated democracy in fashion, liberty to attend PTA meetings, and the right to donate time and funds to charity: freedom for American women was as precious as 'grandmother's old diamond ring.' Most of the
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supplied the train with key documents, while, as archivist Elizabeth Hamer noted in August 1947, "Hollywood, chiefly, is putting up the capital for this exhibit." The Foundation rejected the list of documents proposed by the National Archives, which included documents such as
1006:
National Labor Relations Act. The Foundation was unhappy with the list because it 'detracts from our objectives.' In April 1947 the Foundation rejected the Archives' list and gained control of document selection with the creation of the Documents Approval Committee."
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published a two-page section titled "No Premium Fares on Freedom Train—But Actually Some Citizens Still Ride Second Class", detailing persistent discrimination and violence against Black Americans. These and other rumblings were described by FBI Director
454:, is launching the campaign. Their wayward historical bus is scheduled to depart with great huzzahs from the White House ... Hold on to your hats, boys, you're going for another ride and remember to keep the moths out of that uniform."
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agent needed to blend our various groups into one American family. Without it, we could not sustain the continuity of our way of life. In its largest sense, preaching Americanism is an affirmative declaration of our faith in ourselves."
457:
In the view of the Advertising Council, the Freedom Train succeeded, especially through the local rallies and media messages which accompanied it. This multifaceted project thus became a model for future efforts in the Cold War.
763:
The train's tour of all across 48 contiguous states lasted from April 1, 1975, until December 31, 1976. More than 7 million Americans visited during its tour, while millions more stood trackside to see it go by.
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where the train stopped, they organized a "Rededication Week" for public celebrations of the United States. In February 1947, the group formed the "American Heritage Foundation" and named Brophy its president.
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443:
The American Heritage Foundation gave licenses to some vendors to sell Freedom Train gear such as books and postcards, while barring unauthorized merchants from selling other Freedom paraphernalia.
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and in advertisements, a white male professional, businessman or civil servant in a suit was the ideal citizen to emulate; the materials did not depict working class, ethnic, or racial diversity."
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1037:, with prescribed duties for good Americans, expressed business and advertising leaders' values and attitudes toward social and economic relationships (Fig. 4). With only a few exceptions in
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571:
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Top Marines were selected to attend to the train and its famous documents. The Marine contingent was led by Col. Robert F. Scott. According to attendees Mark and Mary Ellen Murphy:
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cars, converted from NYC and PC baggage cars, #40 and #41. They had large showcase windows on either side, which the exhibits can be seen day and night. They carried a model of the
482:
as more free than its counterpart, the Truman administration announced in September 1947 a policy of desegregation for the train, scheduled to depart only two weeks later.
667:, which pulled the train in Texas. Each locomotive pulled the train throughout a different region of the country. Due to light rail loadings and track conditions on the
839:
states and then north again to Pennsylvania. The tour continued southeast to New Jersey then south along the Atlantic coast before finally ending December 26, 1976, in
58:. Each train had its own special red, white and blue paint scheme and its own itinerary and route across the 48 contiguous states, stopping to visitors and displaying
97:
501:
announced that black and white people would be allowed to visit the Freedom Train only during separate visiting hours. (Pleasants acted with the support of Boss
282:—and even in this case, accompanying commentary focused on the white president Abraham Lincoln who issued the document. The Train also displayed a letter from
109:, who believed that Americans had begun taking the principles of liberty for granted in the post-war years. The idea was adopted by a coalition that included
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also published a report from Emory O. Jackson, Birmingham NAACP executive secretary, president of the Alabama state NAACP conference, and editor of the
466:
The announcement of the Freedom Train plan on May 22, 1947, provoked spirited commentary on the state of Freedom in Black America. Black American poet
73:, refused to allow blacks and whites to see the exhibits at the same time, the Freedom Train skipped the planned visits, amid significant controversy.
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resulted in the appointment of black members to the local Freedom Train planning committee and a promise of desegregation during the train's visit.
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program needed to be combined with a strong programs in local communities The train was an excellent example of just such a combined program."
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The white press favored the train with mostly positive coverage. One exception was John O'Donnell, who commented in the Washington
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485:
585:
1534:
McGinnis, John Vianney. "The Advertising Council and the Cold War". Dissertation at Syracuse University, accepted May 15, 1991.
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will be welcomed cordially, but cannot expect that either they or visitors to the Freedom Train will be exempt from our laws.
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The 1940s Freedom Train exhibit was integrated—black and white viewers were allowed to mingle freely. When town officials in
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20:
1512:
Battling the Plantation Mentality: Memphis and the Black Freedom Struggle". University of North Carolina Press, 2007.
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629:. The 26-car train was powered by 3 newly restored steam locomotives. The first to pull the train was the former
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The Susan B. Anthony Club of Los Angeles gathers for a photograph in front of the Freedom Train in February 1948
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205:
1567:– Information on both Freedom Trains, DVD documentaries, decals for modeling the '76 train in HO and N scales.
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from the list of citizens' rights. In the final roster, the only document pertaining to black history was the
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southern states, where black and white passengers rode in separate cars. The poem was famously recorded by
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Inventing the "American Way": The Politics of Consensus from the New Deal to the Civil Rights Movement.
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the human personality.' The United States, according to the Advertising Council's citizenship manual
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748:"Arabian" steam locomotive, the Friendship Fire Engine from George Washington's fire company, a 1904
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wrote a critical poem, "Freedom Train", in which he described the Freedom Train passing through the
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above the front coupler. For 1976, the tour continued from southern California eastward through
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Locomotive SP 4449 pulling a post-Bicentennial excursion train in 1977 but still painted for the
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1133:, 15 May 1947; quoted in McGinnis, "The Advertising Council and the Cold War" (1991), pp. 85–86.
843:. The last visitor went through the train on December 31, 1976. By the time the tour ended, the
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from Tamar Chute, archivist for the Jesse Owens Collection at Ohio State University Libraries.
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after the steam locomotive derailed attempting to negotiate tracks by the Chicago lakefront.
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that existed at the time. It was the first train to visit all 48 contiguous states (the 1936
160:, then a lawyer and Republican political advisor, soon to become the U.S. Secretary of State;
1537:
White, John. "Civil Rights in Conflict: The "Birmingham plan" and the Freedom Train, 1947",
1523:
Little, Stuart J. "The Freedom Train: Citizenship and Postwar Political Culture 1946-1949",
733:
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Black and White people wait together in line to enter the Freedom Train on January 21, 1948.
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The Story of 1947–1949 Freedom Train and the 1975–1976 Bicentennial American Freedom Train
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bought 15 of the cars and used them from 1978 to 1980 on a rail tour across Canada as the
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had traveled 25,833 miles (40,858 kilometers) over 21 months, and stopped at 138 cities.
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clothing, participation in certain acceptable community activities, and raising children.
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The American Freedom Trains Come To Pittsburgh: September 15–17, 1948 and July 7–10, 1976
62:
and related historical artifacts. There are plans to run a Freedom Train again in 2026.
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diesel-electric locomotive pulled the train, which carried the original versions of the
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404:. After touring the perimeter of the nation, the train moved inland from Minnesota to
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1 (January 1948), p. 116; quoted in Little, "The Freedom Train" (1993), pp. 50–51.
1246:, December 24, 1947; quoted in White, "Civil Rights in Conflict" (1999), p. 131.
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450:: "... we understand a committee headed by Winthrop Alrich, son-in-law of
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835:, then turned north to visit Kansas and Missouri before traveling through the
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517:
425:
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393:
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876:; a song performed by Merle Haggard about the 1975–76 American Freedom Train.
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traveled on the American Freedom Train alongside a Lunar Rover test article.
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Under pressure and threat of boycott by various organizations including the
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401:
274:. Contrary to the wishes of the Justice Department, the Foundation excluded
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819:, decorating #4449 with a large profile of Santa Claus on the front of the
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baggage cars. They carried more than 500 treasures of Americana, including
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432:, nearly three months after its last public display October 26, 1948, in
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290:, and documents of German and Japanese surrender from World War II.
212:—sometimes described as "co-president" of the United States under Truman.
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1378:"In 1975 and '76, an artifact-filled choo-choo chugged around the U.S."
913:
890:; a Cold War public relations effort following the first Freedom Train.
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from 1936 (one of which was stolen somewhere along the way), a pair of
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870:; a graffiti artwork painted in 1976 to commemorate the Bicentennial.
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McGinnis, "The Advertising Council and the Cold War" (1991), p. 73.
436:. A notable stop on the train's itinerary was its appearance at the
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The Board of Trustees did not include any African-Americans until
117:, which had just changed its name from "War Advertising Council".
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428:. The train's official tour end occurred on January 22, 1949 in
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did not gain statehood until 1959, this train toured all of the
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1463:"The Story of the 1978 - 1980 Discovery Train / La Découverte"
686:
The train itself consisted of 10 display cars, converted from
478:. Facing a public relations backlash and seeking to brand the
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548:
Public critique of the Train continued during the tour. The
811:, the tour then traveled south along the Pacific coast to
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on its tour of more than 300 cities in all 48 states. As
232:
were proposed and rejected as candidates for membership.
361:
The Freedom Train even had an official song, written by
16:
Traveling exhibit that toured the United States on train
129:
The Board of Trustees for the new foundation included:
92:
locomotive built specially for the first Freedom Train.
858:, a mobile museum focusing on that country's history.
102:
The first Freedom Train was proposed in April 1946 by
1308:"The Story of the 1975 - 1976 American Freedom Train"
795:, the tour continued westward, zigzagging across the
1107:
Mark Murphy and Mary Ellen Murphy, "Freedom Train",
771:, and headed northeast to New England, west through
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steam locomotive which pulled the train through the
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valley, north again to Michigan and finally east to
1581:
History of rail transportation in the United States
625:, toured the country in 1975–76 to commemorate the
1586:History of racial segregation in the United States
376:The train's first public display stop occurred in
1191:White, "Civil Rights in Conflict" (1999), p. 128.
671:, diesels hauled the American Freedom Train from
936:Little, "The Freedom Train" (1993), pp. 40–41.
572:American Freedom Train – 1975–76 station stops
1527:34(1), Spring 1993, pp. 35–67. Accessed
1217:; Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2003;
1215:Portraits of African American Life Since 1865
973:"Dr. Patterson Named Freedom Train Trustee".
815:. The train and crew spent Christmas 1975 in
8:
1129:John O'Donnell, "Capitol Stuff," Washington
1033:Little, "The Freedom Train" (1993), p. 43. "
932:
930:
1077:"Bloomington stop for 1948 'Freedom Train'"
958:"Millionaires Added to 'Freedom' Backers".
1409:"American Freedom Train steam locomotives"
1295:Little, "The Freedom Train" (1993), p. 54.
1276:Little, "The Freedom Train" (1993), p. 59.
1120:Little, "The Freedom Train" (1993), p. 50.
1024:Little, "The Freedom Train" (1993), p. 42.
996:Little, "The Freedom Train" (1993), p. 40.
987:Little, "The Freedom Train" (1993), p. 48.
948:Little, "The Freedom Train" (1993), p. 55.
944:
942:
532:and his colleague James E. Morgan stated:
527:, protest from public safety commissioner
392:, across the nation's southern states to
170:automobile company, administrator of the
1353:"The Second Coming Of The Freedom Train"
756:, a map of the train's journey, and the
586:Naval Air Station in Miramar, California
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305:
262:were vice presidents of the Foundation.
244:was named as a trustee in October 1947.
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1561:. Lincoln Highway Museum & Archives
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400:, then across the northern states to
190:Motion Picture Association of America
98:Freedom Train – 1947–49 station stops
7:
1089:from the original on October 3, 2015
350:had come close, but missed Nevada).
256:Congress of Industrial Organizations
1318:from the original on April 10, 2019
896:, a Soviet train of similar purpose
1473:from the original on July 25, 2019
1363:from the original on April 4, 2019
1339:from the original on July 12, 2019
740:. The train also consisted of two
174:, and soon-to-be President of the
14:
1407:Iverson, Lucas (March 15, 2023).
1388:from the original on May 27, 2019
1257:Battling the Plantation Mentality
1202:Battling the Plantation Mentality
1180:Battling the Plantation Mentality
1167:Battling the Plantation Mentality
1154:Battling the Plantation Mentality
724:'s pulpit and robes, replicas of
669:Louisville and Nashville Railroad
1500:Oxford University Press, 2008.
679:. Diesels were also required in
559:as "Negro Communist" agitation.
977:. October 18, 1947. p. 5.
210:Office of Defense Mobilization
46:: the 1947–49 special exhibit
33:Freedom Train (Czechoslovakia)
1:
1438:: CS1 maint: date and year (
1075:Kemp, Bill (August 2, 2015).
881:Freedom Bell, American Legion
388:, down the Atlantic coast to
1376:Kelly, John (May 25, 2019).
1359:. The Brookline Connection.
1333:"The American Freedom Train"
874:Here Comes the Freedom Train
868:The Freedom Train (graffiti)
640:. The second was the former
621:A second freedom train, the
248:American Federation of Labor
208:and soon to be chief of the
21:The Freedom Train (graffiti)
736:'s basketball shoes, and a
656:. The third was the former
324:Declaration of Independence
198:, prominent theologian; and
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1591:United States Bicentennial
1469:. Accuen Media LLC. 2019.
852:National Museums of Canada
627:United States Bicentennial
603:in 1976 while pulling the
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396:, up the Pacific coast to
320:United States Constitution
184:, former President of the
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56:United States Bicentennial
18:
1616:1976 in the United States
1611:1975 in the United States
1606:1949 in the United States
1601:1948 in the United States
1596:1947 in the United States
791:and Wisconsin. From the
462:Conflict over segregation
280:Emancipation Proclamation
242:United Negro College Fund
136:(chairman), president of
1232:Civil Rights in Conflict
434:Havre de Grace, Maryland
220:the train had launched.
206:General Electric Company
186:U.S. Chamber of Commerce
19:Not to be confused with
1335:. Steamlocomotive.com.
452:John D. Rockefeller Jr.
440:from July 5 – 9, 1948.
52:American Freedom Train
1559:The 1947 Freedom Train
845:American Freedom Train
722:Martin Luther King Jr.
623:American Freedom Train
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616:American Freedom Train
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605:American Freedom Train
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565:American Freedom Train
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495:James J. Pleasants Jr.
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234:Frederick D. Patterson
152:Rockefeller Foundation
140:and brother-in-law of
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1306:Wines, Larry (2019).
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960:The Gazette and Daily
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597:Southern Pacific 4449
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438:Chicago Railroad Fair
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276:collective bargaining
188:and president of the
142:J. D. Rockefeller Jr.
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54:which celebrated the
1314:. Accuen Media LLC.
1204:(2007), pp. 128–129.
1182:(2007), pp. 127–128.
1169:(2007), pp. 120–121.
1156:(2007), pp. 118–120.
914:"Freedom Train 2026"
769:Wilmington, Delaware
420:, then south to the
284:Christopher Columbus
272:Executive Order 8802
1531:, 1 September 2014.
1382:The Washington Post
962:. October 16, 1947.
888:Crusade for Freedom
813:Southern California
809:Seattle, Washington
803:and then up to the
750:Oldsmobile Runabout
730:Olympic gold medals
658:Texas & Pacific
525:Birmingham, Alabama
510:Montgomery, Alabama
240:and founder of the
138:Chase National Bank
134:Winthrop W. Aldrich
121:Plans and messaging
115:Advertising Council
67:Birmingham, Alabama
25:Leica Freedom Train
1543:52(2), April 1999.
817:Pomona, California
767:The tour began in
746:Baltimore and Ohio
738:rock from the Moon
720:'s boxing trunks,
704:Louisiana Purchase
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499:Memphis, Tennessee
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238:Tuskegee Institute
230:A. Philip Randolph
158:John Foster Dulles
150:, chairman of the
111:Paramount Pictures
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71:Memphis, Tennessee
1518:978-0-8078-3106-9
1510:Green, Laurie B.
1506:978-0-19-532910-0
805:Pacific Northwest
696:George Washington
365:and performed by
288:Mayflower Compact
267:National Archives
202:Charles E. Wilson
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1525:American Studies
1494:Wall, Wendy L.
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512:, agitation by
503:Edward H. Crump
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38:Two national
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1489:Bibliography
1475:. Retrieved
1466:
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1422:. Retrieved
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1390:. Retrieved
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1091:. Retrieved
1080:
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1038:
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773:Pennsylvania
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762:
758:Freedom Bell
712:
708:Judy Garland
700:Constitution
692:Penn Central
685:
622:
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599:stopping in
581:
564:
563:The 1975–76
549:
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480:Western Bloc
476:Paul Robeson
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447:
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382:Pennsylvania
378:Philadelphia
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360:
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348:Rexall Train
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222:Walter White
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107:Tom C. Clark
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1477:November 2,
1392:November 2,
1367:November 2,
1343:November 2,
1322:November 2,
754:lunar rover
726:Jesse Owens
718:Joe Frazier
673:New Orleans
529:Bull Connor
514:Edgar Nixon
416:, north to
386:New England
367:Bing Crosby
344:U.S. states
1575:Categories
901:References
894:Agit-train
837:Gulf Coast
829:New Mexico
570:See also:
518:Rosa Parks
472:segregated
426:New Jersey
422:Ohio River
398:Washington
394:California
330:, and the
258:President
250:President
168:Studebaker
96:See also:
1529:via JStor
1424:March 15,
1093:March 20,
634:T-1 class
418:Wisconsin
402:Minnesota
302:Execution
166:, CEO of
90:ALCO PA-1
60:Americana
1471:Archived
1434:cite web
1386:Archived
1361:Archived
1337:Archived
1316:Archived
1087:Archived
919:March 5,
862:See also
821:smokebox
807:. From
789:Illinois
781:Michigan
742:showcase
728:'s four
414:Missouri
406:Colorado
369:and the
113:and the
1380:Local.
1255:Green,
1230:White,
1200:Green,
1178:Green,
1165:Green,
1152:Green,
1109:Holiday
825:Arizona
793:Midwest
681:Chicago
636:4-8-4 #
601:Georgia
390:Florida
316:ALCO PA
1516:
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1219:p. 205
797:plains
661:2-10-4
493:Mayor
410:Kansas
340:Hawaii
336:Alaska
286:, the
228:, and
69:, and
833:Texas
650:4-8-4
543:NAACP
497:, of
408:then
218:after
31:, or
1514:ISBN
1502:ISBN
1479:2019
1440:link
1426:2023
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1374:(4)
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1324:2019
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831:and
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