881:, 32.7% of crayfishes, 25.9% of amphibians, and 21.2% of fish are either endangered or threatened. Extinction rates of many species may increase severely into the next century because of invasive species, loss of keystone species, and species which are already functionally extinct (e.g., species which are not reproducing). Even using conservative estimates, freshwater fish extinction rates in North America are 877 times higher than background extinction rates (1 in 3,000,000 years). Projected extinction rates for freshwater animals are around five times greater than for land animals, and are comparable to the rates for rainforest communities. Given the dire state of freshwater biodiversity, a team of scientists and practitioners from around the globe recently drafted an Emergency Action plan to try and restore freshwater biodiversity.
2644:
3340:
31:
885:
diverse taxonomy, ease of collection, sensitivity to a range of stressors, and overall value to the ecosystem. Additionally, algal community structure (often using diatoms) is measured in biomonitoring programs. Algae are also taxonomically diverse, easily collected, sensitive to a range of stressors, and overall valuable to the ecosystem. Algae grow very quickly and communities may represent fast changes in environmental conditions.
234:
343:
3366:
3354:
952:
938:
2972:
312:, which has a maximum depth of 1642 m. The general distinction between pools/ponds and lakes is vague, but Brown states that ponds and pools have their entire bottom surfaces exposed to light, while lakes do not. In addition, some lakes become seasonally stratified. Ponds and pools have two regions: the
884:
Current freshwater biomonitoring techniques focus primarily on community structure, but some programs measure functional indicators like biochemical (or biological) oxygen demand, sediment oxygen demand, and dissolved oxygen. Macroinvertebrate community structure is commonly monitored because of the
888:
In addition to community structure, responses to freshwater stressors are investigated by experimental studies that measure organism behavioural changes, altered rates of growth, reproduction or mortality. Experimental results on single species under controlled conditions may not always reflect
901:
valves, macrophyte pollen, insect chitin and fish scales can be used to determine conditions prior to large scale human disturbance. These temporal reference conditions are often easier to reconstruct in standing water than moving water because stable sediments can better preserve biological
373:
streams drain into mid-size streams, which progressively drain into larger river networks. The major zones in river ecosystems are determined by the river bed's gradient or by the velocity of the current. Faster moving turbulent water typically contains greater concentrations of
1206:
Dudgeon, David; Arthington, Angela H.; Gessner, Mark O.; Kawabata, Zen-Ichiro; Knowler, Duncan J.; Lévêque, Christian; Naiman, Robert J.; Prieur-Richard, Anne-Hélène; Soto, Doris (2005-12-12). "Freshwater biodiversity: importance, threats, status and conservation challenges".
920:
greatly complicate and frequently exacerbate the impacts of other stressors that threaten many fish, invertebrates, phytoplankton, and other organisms. Climate change is increasing the average temperature of water bodies, and worsening other issues such as changes in
925:
composition, oxygen concentration, and other system changes that have ripple effects on the biology of the system. Water temperatures have already increased by around 1 °C, and significant declines in ice coverage have caused subsequent ecosystem stresses.
120:
Freshwater ecosystems have undergone substantial transformations over time, which has impacted various characteristics of the ecosystems. Original attempts to understand and monitor freshwater ecosystems were spurred on by threats to human health (for example
896:
health" of a freshwater ecosystem. Reference sites can be selected spatially by choosing sites with minimal impacts from human disturbance and influence. However, reference conditions may also be established temporally by using preserved indicators such as
1131:
Rudolfs, Willem; Falk, Lloyd L.; Ragotzkie, R. A. (1950). "Literature Review on the
Occurrence and Survival of Enteric, Pathogenic, and Relative Organisms in Soil, Water, Sewage, and Sludges, and on Vegetation: I. Bacterial and Virus Diseases".
397:. A dam produces negative effects that continue down the watershed. The most important negative effects are the reduction of spring flooding, which damages wetlands, and the retention of sediment, which leads to the loss of deltaic wetlands.
1170:
Friberg, Nikolai; Bonada, NĂşria; Bradley, David C.; Dunbar, Michael J.; Edwards, Francois K.; Grey, Jonathan; Hayes, Richard B.; Hildrew, Alan G.; Lamouroux, Nicolas (2011), "Biomonitoring of Human
Impacts in Freshwater Ecosystems",
774:
noted an 83% decline in the populations of freshwater vertebrates between 1970 and 2014. These declines continue to outpace contemporaneous declines in marine or terrestrial systems. The causes of these declines are related to:
2201:
Prather, Chelse M.; Pelini, Shannon L.; Laws, Angela; Rivest, Emily; Woltz, Megan; Bloch, Christopher P.; Del Toro, Israel; Ho, Chuan-Kai; Kominoski, John; Newbold, T. A. Scott; Parsons, Sheena; Joern, A. (2012).
844:
plants and animals are a major issue to freshwater ecosystems, in many cases outcompeting native species and altering water conditions. Introduced species are especially devastating to ecosystems that are home to
2803:
3295:
1645:
Giri, C.; Pengra, B.; Zhu, Z.; Singh, A.; Tieszen, L.L. (2007). "Monitoring mangrove forest dynamics of the
Sundarbans in Bangladesh and India using multi-temporal satellite data from 1973 to 2000".
129:
contamination). Early monitoring focused on chemical indicators, then bacteria, and finally algae, fungi and protozoa. A new type of monitoring involves quantifying differing groups of organisms (
2035:
Tickner, David; Opperman, Jeffrey J; Abell, Robin; Acreman, Mike; Arthington, Angela H; Bunn, Stuart E; Cooke, Steven J; Dalton, James; Darwall, Will; Edwards, Gavin; Harrison, Ian (2020-04-01).
759:. Recent extinction trends can be attributed largely to sedimentation, stream fragmentation, chemical and organic pollutants, dams, and invasive species. Common chemical stresses on freshwater
2798:
168:
because water temperatures have already increased by about 1 °C, and there have been significant declines in ice coverage which have caused subsequent ecosystem stresses.
85:
habitats can be classified by different factors, including temperature, light penetration, nutrients, and vegetation. There are three basic types of freshwater ecosystems:
1956:
2643:
2828:
4257:
3510:
877:
Over 123 freshwater fauna species have gone extinct in North
America since 1900. Of North American freshwater species, an estimated 48.5% of mussels, 22.8% of
2320:
911:
165:
4401:
3402:
2668:
4471:
1289:
1274:
320:, which comprises the bottom and shore regions. Since lakes have deep bottom regions not exposed to light, these systems have an additional zone, the
117:(areas where the soil is saturated or inundated for at least part of the time). Freshwater ecosystems contain 41% of the world's known fish species.
4008:
2818:
379:
4481:
4209:
1453:
378:, which supports greater biodiversity than the slow-moving water of pools. These distinctions form the basis for the division of rivers into
4486:
4043:
2833:
4674:
2931:
2793:
4091:
4427:
4250:
3503:
1609:
1492:
1004:
3763:
2823:
2127:
1428:
1188:
1074:
1041:
324:. These three areas can have very different abiotic conditions and, hence, host species that are specifically adapted to live there.
1420:
2458:
2313:
4506:
4219:
4086:
3798:
3395:
393:
are also an important source of nutrients. Environmental threats to rivers include loss of water, dams, chemical pollution and
5067:
4764:
3285:
1381:
1356:
1331:
4891:
4536:
1482:
385:
The food base of streams within riparian forests is mostly derived from the trees, but wider streams and those that lack a
4937:
4491:
4243:
3496:
420:
kilometers in width. Much of this article applies to lotic ecosystems in general, including related lotic systems such as
30:
4369:
3305:
3290:
2413:
1285:
5062:
4726:
3617:
3300:
2306:
1405:"Biology Concepts & Connections Sixth Edition", Campbell, Neil A. (2009), page 2, 3 and G-9. Retrieved 2010-06-14.
850:
5092:
5087:
4791:
4511:
3715:
3612:
3388:
2608:
1625:
1858:
1833:
1542:
Davidson, N.C. (2014). "How much wetland has the world lost? Long-term and recent trends in global wetland area".
4972:
4584:
4476:
4334:
4319:
4314:
3705:
2916:
2810:
1468:
Allan, J.D. 1995. Stream
Ecology: structure and function of running waters. Chapman and Hall, London. Pp. 388.
917:
4731:
5097:
5077:
4962:
4957:
4927:
4194:
4076:
3369:
3162:
3157:
2453:
1687:
Ricciardi, Anthony; Rasmussen, Joseph B. (1999-10-23). "Extinction Rates of North
American Freshwater Fauna".
4806:
4669:
4579:
4447:
4329:
4299:
4156:
4121:
3841:
3808:
3783:
3070:
2881:
2775:
2503:
2493:
267:(non-living) physical and chemical interactions. Lake ecosystems are a prime example of lentic ecosystems (
1293:
294:, and much of this article applies to lentic ecosystems in general. Lentic ecosystems can be compared with
4952:
4896:
4831:
4694:
4629:
4564:
4224:
4126:
3914:
3622:
3602:
2896:
2886:
2588:
2573:
1216:
485:, either permanently, for years or decades, or only seasonally for a shorter periods. Flooding results in
4856:
4801:
4664:
4649:
4432:
4389:
4379:
4374:
4131:
4111:
3967:
3957:
3899:
3894:
3730:
3582:
3315:
3242:
3042:
3017:
2992:
2876:
2623:
2403:
590:
506:
177:
86:
4982:
4947:
4942:
4866:
4861:
4816:
4714:
4684:
4679:
4531:
4394:
4384:
3929:
3768:
3557:
3050:
3012:
2155:
1747:
1696:
1654:
1522:
866:
526:
425:
193:
102:
62:
3488:
2204:"Invertebrates, ecosystem services and climate change: Invertebrates, ecosystems and climate change"
1221:
5072:
5032:
5007:
4871:
4841:
4786:
4699:
4589:
4574:
4521:
4354:
4289:
4171:
4101:
3632:
3272:
2926:
2735:
2693:
2463:
2423:
922:
794:
771:
752:
692:
346:
This stream operating together with its environment can be thought of as forming a river ecosystem.
157:
4235:
5082:
5043:
4992:
4987:
4796:
4759:
4457:
4422:
4279:
4204:
4106:
4038:
4028:
3962:
3909:
3720:
3665:
3627:
3552:
3192:
3187:
3055:
2997:
2891:
2740:
2658:
2543:
2523:
2433:
2376:
2278:
2231:
1720:
1559:
1250:
1141:
1033:
846:
756:
688:
542:
394:
213:
161:
4501:
1396:
Angelier, E. 2003. Ecology of
Streams and Rivers. Science Publishers, Inc., Enfield. Pp. 215.
308:
Lentic systems are diverse, ranging from a small, temporary rainwater pool a few inches deep to
4932:
4901:
4689:
4516:
4324:
4189:
4166:
4023:
3904:
3680:
3592:
3577:
3562:
3542:
3415:
3202:
3177:
3080:
3027:
2946:
2613:
2578:
2518:
2478:
2448:
2418:
2329:
2270:
2223:
2183:
2123:
2074:
2056:
2017:
1950:
1913:
1815:
1771:
1763:
1712:
1605:
1488:
1449:
1424:
1377:
1352:
1327:
1242:
1234:
1184:
1113:
1070:
1037:
1010:
1000:
858:
510:
429:
375:
264:
130:
42:
1970:
4886:
4749:
4741:
4659:
4541:
4526:
4462:
4442:
4359:
4349:
4344:
4309:
4141:
4081:
3952:
3753:
3695:
3607:
3567:
3380:
3310:
3002:
2906:
2858:
2770:
2663:
2603:
2361:
2262:
2215:
2173:
2163:
2115:
2064:
2048:
2007:
1903:
1895:
1805:
1755:
1704:
1662:
1599:
1551:
1226:
1176:
1103:
841:
786:
760:
744:
612:
354:
295:
248:
149:
74:
5022:
4881:
4851:
4846:
4836:
4769:
4754:
4634:
4614:
4496:
4364:
4270:
4161:
4071:
4013:
3998:
3597:
3523:
3280:
3247:
3108:
3060:
2936:
2911:
2720:
2673:
2598:
2443:
2428:
1108:
1091:
748:
725:
628:
478:
437:
386:
350:
335:
153:
138:
54:
2203:
2159:
2142:
Arthington, Angela H.; Dulvy, Nicholas K.; Gladstone, William; Winfield, Ian J. (2016).
1751:
1700:
1658:
1092:"State of the World's Freshwater Ecosystems: Physical, Chemical, and Biological Changes"
233:
5102:
5002:
4826:
4779:
4709:
4704:
4599:
4466:
4339:
4146:
4136:
4116:
3993:
3919:
3884:
3823:
3700:
3655:
3547:
3411:
3144:
3098:
3093:
3065:
3032:
2901:
2760:
2688:
2678:
2528:
2473:
2391:
2386:
2381:
2119:
2069:
1908:
1883:
1180:
1059:
943:
824:
780:
764:
721:
413:
390:
366:
342:
260:
244:
226:
46:
2110:
Stevenson, R. Jan; Smol, John P. (2003), "Use of Algae in
Environmental Assessments",
2037:"Bending the Curve of Global Freshwater Biodiversity Loss: An Emergency Recovery Plan"
1759:
5056:
5027:
4003:
3977:
3934:
3924:
3879:
3866:
3846:
3738:
3572:
3527:
3358:
3252:
3217:
3118:
3113:
3088:
2618:
2583:
2558:
2408:
2371:
2250:
1794:"Emerging threats and persistent conservation challenges for freshwater biodiversity"
1708:
814:
809:
647:
587:
538:
490:
2282:
2235:
1738:
Xu, F (September 2001). "Lake
Ecosystem Health Assessment: Indicators and Methods".
1724:
1563:
1254:
912:
Effects of climate change on the water cycle § Impacts on freshwater ecosystems
5012:
4997:
4654:
4624:
4569:
4452:
4417:
4294:
3793:
3431:
3353:
3344:
3123:
3103:
3007:
2745:
2628:
2548:
2508:
2498:
2468:
2144:"Fish conservation in freshwater and marine realms: status, threats and management"
1066:
957:
740:
594:
463:
436:. Together, these two ecosystems form the more general study area of freshwater or
317:
313:
145:
17:
1932:
1498:
4304:
4033:
3851:
3813:
3788:
3778:
3743:
3690:
3670:
3436:
3257:
3232:
3227:
3197:
2980:
2956:
2921:
2730:
2633:
2553:
2513:
2366:
862:
708:
675:
652:
640:
522:
498:
470:
309:
208:(areas where the soil is saturated or inundated for at least part of the time).
82:
1666:
5017:
4594:
4559:
4199:
4151:
4096:
4066:
3972:
3889:
3833:
3710:
3660:
3237:
3172:
2961:
2941:
2725:
2698:
2483:
2396:
2266:
1577:
1230:
970:
933:
854:
799:
700:
663:
636:
565:
561:
514:
432:, which involve relatively still terrestrial waters such as lakes, ponds, and
357:(living) interactions amongst plants, animals and micro-organisms, as well as
272:
134:
2274:
2187:
2060:
2052:
2021:
1767:
1716:
1238:
1117:
770:
Freshwater biodiversity faces many threats. The World Wide Fund for Nature's
4922:
4876:
4604:
4048:
4018:
3818:
3773:
3748:
3685:
3675:
3650:
3642:
3587:
3262:
3167:
2951:
2715:
2708:
2683:
2593:
2012:
1995:
1014:
951:
878:
729:
684:
657:
624:
557:
550:
466:
370:
362:
321:
209:
2971:
2227:
2078:
1917:
1899:
1819:
1775:
1246:
829:
Calcium concentrations falling below the needs of some freshwater organisms
4977:
4906:
4437:
3944:
3856:
3803:
3758:
3464:
3459:
3212:
3022:
2568:
2563:
2488:
2036:
1090:
Carpenter, Stephen R.; Stanley, Emily H.; Vander Zanden, M. Jake (2011).
696:
680:
632:
573:
569:
502:
2178:
1145:
361:(nonliving) physical and chemical interactions of its many parts. River
306:. Together, these two ecosystems are examples of freshwater ecosystems.
4967:
4774:
4644:
4639:
4266:
4214:
3874:
3519:
3477:
3451:
3426:
3222:
3182:
3152:
3130:
2750:
2538:
2438:
965:
598:
546:
530:
474:
459:
451:
433:
358:
291:
205:
122:
114:
70:
2219:
1810:
1793:
3472:
3446:
3207:
2533:
2298:
2168:
2143:
1275:"Chapter 2: Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems and their Services"
898:
861:. Common causes of invasive species in freshwater ecosystems include
704:
534:
486:
421:
303:
256:
197:
126:
106:
58:
1555:
667:, water source is excess water from overflowed rivers or lakes; and
1273:
Parmesan, Camille; Morecroft, Mike; Trisurat, Yongyut; et al.
620:
607:
602:
582:
577:
482:
417:
404:
341:
299:
276:
252:
201:
110:
29:
1996:"Extinction Rates in North American Freshwater Fishes, 1900–2010"
892:
The use of reference sites is common when defining the idealized
2703:
645:
Examples of wetlands classified by the sources of water include
616:
518:
494:
287:
283:
189:
185:
181:
98:
94:
90:
78:
66:
50:
4239:
3492:
3384:
2856:
2340:
2302:
2094:
Freshwater biomonitoring and benthic macroinvertebrates, 40-158
2765:
2755:
1884:"Invasive aquarium fish transform ecosystem nutrient dynamics"
832:
The additive—and possibly synergistic—effects of these threats
669:
576:. The main types of wetland are defined based on the dominant
166:
Climate change is putting further pressure on these ecosystems
1975:
Smithsonian's
National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute
353:
are flowing waters that drain the landscape, and include the
141:) and measuring the stream conditions associated with them.
1601:
The World's Largest Wetlands: Their Ecology and Conservation
1317:
1315:
1313:
1282:
Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
2092:
Johnson, R. K.; Wiederholm, T.; Rosenberg, D. M. (1993).
399:
River ecosystems are prime examples of lotic ecosystems.
1888:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
1857:
Reid, Andrea Jane; Cooke, Steven J. (22 January 2019).
533:
to a wide range of aquatic and semi-aquatic plants and
2148:
Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems
1487:(2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press.
176:
There are three basic types of freshwater ecosystems:
1882:
Capps, Krista; Flecker, Alexander (22 October 2013).
1476:
1474:
1326:. Heinimann Educational Books, London. p. 163.
4915:
4815:
4740:
4613:
4550:
4410:
4278:
4180:
4059:
3986:
3943:
3865:
3832:
3729:
3641:
3535:
3271:
3143:
3079:
3041:
2979:
2869:
2786:
2651:
2354:
730:
Ecosystem § Human interactions with ecosystems
389:derive the majority of their food base from algae.
298:, which involve flowing terrestrial waters such as
1288:of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
1058:
1030:Environmental Biology for Engineers and Scientists
889:natural conditions and multi-species communities.
802:damming and fragmenting of half the world's rivers
1517:
1515:
1376:. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle, NJ. p. 592.
1351:. Oxford University Press, Oxford. p. 285.
661:, water source is mixed tidal and river waters;
2251:"Phytoplankton response to a changing climate"
1859:"Freshwater wildlife face an uncertain future"
627:in Europe are dominated by reeds, not trees).
4251:
3504:
3396:
2604:Stable isotope analysis in aquatic ecosystems
2314:
1604:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
8:
2105:
2103:
1955:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1931:Station, Julia Hampton, Great Rivers Field.
1682:
1680:
1678:
1676:
1484:Wetland ecology: principles and conservation
1446:Wetland Ecology. Principles and Conservation
497:. Wetlands form a transitional zone between
493:) processes taking place, especially in the
2669:Freshwater environmental quality parameters
1448:. Cambridge University Press. p. 497.
999:(3rd ed.). San Diego: Academic Press.
869:, and introduction for use as a food fish.
687:. The world's largest wetlands include the
639:woody plants that have evolved to tolerate
407:
4472:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
4258:
4244:
4236:
3511:
3497:
3489:
3403:
3389:
3381:
2985:
2866:
2853:
2351:
2337:
2321:
2307:
2299:
1284:. Contribution of Working Group II to the
1268:
1266:
1264:
1096:Annual Review of Environment and Resources
997:Limnology : lake and river ecosystems
580:and the source of the water. For example,
428:. Lotic ecosystems can be contrasted with
412:, meaning washed. Lotic waters range from
216:) is a study about freshwater ecosystems.
2177:
2167:
2068:
2011:
1907:
1809:
1290:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
1220:
1201:
1199:
1165:
1163:
1161:
1159:
1157:
1155:
1107:
282:, which means "sluggish"), which include
271:refers to stationary or relatively still
4370:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations
4009:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
1523:"Official page of the Ramsar Convention"
990:
988:
986:
767:and copper and pesticide contamination.
232:
4402:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model
2249:Winder, Monika; Sommer, Ulrich (2012).
1787:
1785:
982:
805:Emerging contaminants, such as hormones
4210:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
1948:
1598:Fraser, L.; Keddy, P.A., eds. (2005).
1057:Daily, Gretchen C. (1 February 1997).
849:species. An example of this being the
369:networks or catchments, where smaller
1417:Encyclopedia of Environmental Science
1109:10.1146/annurev-environ-021810-094524
1028:Vaccari, David A. (8 November 2005).
753:destruction or degradation of habitat
525:. They are considered among the most
416:only a few centimeters wide to major
158:destruction or degradation of habitat
7:
4225:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
1994:Burkhead, Noel M. (September 2012).
1647:Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science
1347:Brönmark, C.; L. A. Hansson (2005).
726:River ecosystem § Human impacts
4675:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
2932:Oceanic physical-biological process
2794:List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)
823:Saltier coastal freshwaters due to
722:Lake ecosystem § Human impacts
4428:Ecological effects of biodiversity
1415:Alexander, David E. (1 May 1999).
1181:10.1016/b978-0-12-374794-5.00001-8
564:. The water in wetlands is either
403:refers to flowing water, from the
196:(faster moving water, for example
105:(faster moving water, for example
27:Part of Earth's aquatic ecosystems
25:
3764:Generalist and specialist species
2112:Freshwater Algae of North America
1834:"Living Planet Report 2018 | WWF"
739:Five broad threats to freshwater
247:or lacustrine ecosystem includes
238:The three primary zones of a lake
4487:Occupancy–abundance relationship
3365:
3364:
3352:
3338:
2970:
2642:
2459:Colored dissolved organic matter
2120:10.1016/b978-012741550-5/50024-6
1709:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.98380.x
950:
936:
450:This section is an excerpt from
334:This section is an excerpt from
225:This section is an excerpt from
4507:Relative abundance distribution
4220:Plant defense against herbivory
4087:Competitive exclusion principle
3799:Mesopredator release hypothesis
2804:Latin America and the Caribbean
1173:Advances in Ecological Research
505:, and are different from other
4092:Consumer–resource interactions
3286:Ecological values of mangroves
2829:North Pacific Subtropical Gyre
2114:, Elsevier, pp. 775–804,
1792:Reid, AJ; et al. (2019).
1544:Marine and Freshwater Research
1349:The Biology of Lakes and Ponds
873:Extinction of freshwater fauna
529:of all ecosystems, serving as
521:having adapted to oxygen-poor
180:(slow moving water, including
89:(slow moving water, including
73:. They can be contrasted with
1:
4938:Biological data visualization
4765:Environmental niche modelling
4492:Population viability analysis
1760:10.1016/s0043-1354(01)00040-9
4423:Density-dependent inhibition
3306:Marine conservation activism
3291:Fisheries and climate change
1134:Sewage and Industrial Wastes
820:Light and noise interference
651:, where the water source is
4892:Liebig's law of the minimum
4727:Resource selection function
3618:Metabolic theory of ecology
3301:Human impact on marine life
3178:Davidson Seamount § Ecology
2414:Aquatic population dynamics
1175:, Elsevier, pp. 1–68,
865:releases, introduction for
5119:
4792:Niche apportionment models
4512:Relative species abundance
3716:Primary nutritional groups
3613:List of feeding behaviours
1667:10.1016/j.ecss.2006.12.019
995:Wetzel, Robert G. (2001).
909:
785:Online wildlife trade and
719:
699:in South America, and the
586:are wetlands dominated by
449:
333:
224:
5041:
4973:Ecosystem based fisheries
4585:Interspecific competition
4477:Minimum viable population
4335:Maximum sustainable yield
4320:Intraspecific competition
4315:Effective population size
4195:Anti-predator adaptations
3706:Photosynthetic efficiency
3456:Pechton / Pecton / Pekton
3422:
3332:
2988:
2968:
2917:Marine primary production
2865:
2852:
2811:List of marine ecoregions
2640:
2350:
2336:
2267:10.1007/s10750-012-1149-2
1971:"Northern snakehead fish"
1231:10.1017/s1464793105006950
918:effects of climate change
316:open water zone, and the
4963:Ecological stoichiometry
4928:Alternative stable state
3163:Coastal biogeomorphology
3158:Marine coastal ecosystem
1626:"WWF Pantanal Programme"
556:Wetlands exist on every
41:are a subset of Earth's
4807:Ontogenetic niche shift
4670:Ideal free distribution
4580:Ecological facilitation
4330:Malthusian growth model
4300:Consumer-resource model
4157:Paradox of the plankton
4122:Energy systems language
3842:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
3809:Optimal foraging theory
3784:Heterotrophic nutrition
3071:Paradox of the plankton
2882:Diel vertical migration
2776:Freshwater swamp forest
2494:GIS and aquatic science
2342:General components and
2013:10.1525/bio.2012.62.9.5
1444:Keddy, Paul A. (2010).
1286:Sixth Assessment Report
763:include acidification,
541:by the plants removing
4953:Ecological forecasting
4897:Marginal value theorem
4695:Landscape epidemiology
4630:Cross-boundary subsidy
4565:Biological interaction
3915:Microbial intelligence
3603:Green world hypothesis
2897:Large marine ecosystem
2589:Shoaling and schooling
2053:10.1093/biosci/biaa002
1900:10.1098/rspb.2013.1520
537:, with often improved
408:
347:
240:
144:Threats to freshwater
77:, which have a larger
35:
5068:Freshwater ecoregions
4958:Ecological humanities
4857:Ecological energetics
4802:Niche differentiation
4665:Habitat fragmentation
4433:Ecological extinction
4380:Small population size
4132:Feed conversion ratio
4112:Ecological succession
4044:San Francisco Estuary
3958:Ecological efficiency
3900:Microbial cooperation
3316:Marine protected area
3243:Salt pannes and pools
3018:Marine larval ecology
2993:Census of Marine Life
2877:Deep scattering layer
2834:San Francisco Estuary
2799:Africa and Madagascar
2624:Underwater camouflage
2404:Aquatic biomonitoring
2344:freshwater ecosystems
1322:Brown, A. L. (1987).
902:indicator materials.
751:, flow modification,
720:Further information:
591:herbaceous vegetation
345:
236:
156:, flow modification,
39:Freshwater ecosystems
33:
4983:Evolutionary ecology
4948:Ecological footprint
4943:Ecological economics
4867:Ecological threshold
4862:Ecological indicator
4732:Source–sink dynamics
4685:Land change modeling
4680:Insular biogeography
4532:Species distribution
4271:Modelling ecosystems
3930:Microbial metabolism
3769:Intraguild predation
3558:Biogeochemical cycle
3524:Modelling ecosystems
3051:Marine bacteriophage
3013:Marine invertebrates
1933:"Asian carp species"
1689:Conservation Biology
1481:Keddy, P.A. (2010).
527:biologically diverse
34:Freshwater ecosystem
5033:Theoretical ecology
5008:Natural environment
4872:Ecosystem diversity
4842:Ecological collapse
4832:Bateman's principle
4787:Limiting similarity
4700:Landscape limnology
4522:Species homogeneity
4360:Population modeling
4355:Population dynamics
4172:Trophic state index
3412:Groups of organisms
2927:Ocean fertilization
2736:Trophic state index
2694:Lake stratification
2424:Aquatic respiration
2160:2016ACMFE..26..838A
1752:2001WatRe..35.3157X
1701:1999ConBi..13.1220R
1659:2007ECSS...73...91G
853:competing with the
772:Living Planet Index
693:West Siberian Plain
365:are part of larger
5063:Freshwater ecology
5044:Outline of ecology
4993:Industrial ecology
4988:Functional ecology
4852:Ecological deficit
4797:Niche construction
4760:Ecosystem engineer
4537:Species–area curve
4458:Introduced species
4273:: Other components
4205:Deimatic behaviour
4107:Ecological network
4039:North Pacific Gyre
4024:hydrothermal vents
3963:Ecological pyramid
3910:Microbial food web
3721:Primary production
3666:Foundation species
3416:aquatic ecosystems
3193:Intertidal wetland
3188:Intertidal ecology
3056:Marine prokaryotes
2998:Deep-sea community
2892:Iron fertilization
2815:Specific examples
2741:Upland and lowland
2659:Freshwater biology
2524:Microbial food web
2434:Aquatic toxicology
2377:Aquatic adaptation
2330:Aquatic ecosystems
2208:Biological Reviews
2096:. pp. 40–158.
1937:blogs.illinois.edu
1798:Biological Reviews
1372:Kalff, J. (2002).
1324:Freshwater Ecology
1209:Biological Reviews
1034:Wiley-Interscience
795:Toxic algae blooms
791:Infectious disease
755:, and invasion by
689:Amazon River basin
679:, water source is
631:are wetlands with
511:aquatic ecosystems
395:introduced species
380:upland and lowland
348:
241:
214:freshwater biology
160:, and invasion by
131:macroinvertebrates
43:aquatic ecosystems
36:
18:Freshwater habitat
5093:Fisheries science
5088:Freshwater plants
5050:
5049:
4933:Balance of nature
4690:Landscape ecology
4575:Community ecology
4517:Species diversity
4453:Indicator species
4448:Gradient analysis
4325:Logistic function
4233:
4232:
4190:Animal coloration
4167:Trophic mutualism
3905:Microbial ecology
3696:Photoheterotrophs
3681:Myco-heterotrophy
3593:Ecosystem ecology
3578:Carrying capacity
3543:Abiotic component
3486:
3485:
3378:
3377:
3359:Oceans portal
3328:
3327:
3324:
3323:
3203:Hydrothermal vent
3139:
3138:
3028:Seashore wildlife
2859:Marine ecosystems
2848:
2847:
2844:
2843:
2614:Thermal pollution
2579:Ramsar Convention
2519:Microbial ecology
2479:Fisheries science
2419:Aquatic predation
2220:10.1111/brv.12002
1811:10.1111/brv.12480
1746:(13): 3157–3167.
1455:978-0-521-51940-3
1140:(10): 1261–1281.
1061:Nature's Services
859:Mississippi river
611:are dominated by
523:waterlogged soils
430:lentic ecosystems
220:Lentic ecosystems
125:outbreaks due to
75:marine ecosystems
16:(Redirected from
5110:
4750:Ecological niche
4722:selection theory
4542:Umbrella species
4527:Species richness
4463:Invasive species
4443:Flagship species
4350:Population cycle
4345:Overexploitation
4310:Ecological yield
4260:
4253:
4246:
4237:
4142:Mesotrophic soil
4082:Climax community
4014:Marine food webs
3953:Biomagnification
3754:Chemoorganotroph
3608:Keystone species
3568:Biotic component
3513:
3506:
3499:
3490:
3405:
3398:
3391:
3382:
3368:
3367:
3361:
3357:
3356:
3347:
3345:Lakes portal
3343:
3342:
3341:
3311:Marine pollution
3003:Deep-water coral
2986:
2974:
2907:Marine chemistry
2867:
2854:
2771:Freshwater marsh
2664:Freshwater biome
2646:
2362:Acoustic ecology
2352:
2338:
2323:
2316:
2309:
2300:
2287:
2286:
2246:
2240:
2239:
2198:
2192:
2191:
2181:
2171:
2169:10.1002/aqc.2712
2139:
2133:
2132:
2107:
2098:
2097:
2089:
2083:
2082:
2072:
2032:
2026:
2025:
2015:
1991:
1985:
1984:
1982:
1981:
1967:
1961:
1960:
1954:
1946:
1944:
1943:
1928:
1922:
1921:
1911:
1879:
1873:
1872:
1870:
1869:
1863:The Conversation
1854:
1848:
1847:
1845:
1844:
1830:
1824:
1823:
1813:
1789:
1780:
1779:
1735:
1729:
1728:
1695:(5): 1220–1222.
1684:
1671:
1670:
1642:
1636:
1635:
1633:
1632:
1622:
1616:
1615:
1595:
1589:
1588:
1586:
1585:
1574:
1568:
1567:
1539:
1533:
1532:
1530:
1529:
1519:
1510:
1509:
1507:
1506:
1497:. Archived from
1478:
1469:
1466:
1460:
1459:
1441:
1435:
1434:
1412:
1406:
1403:
1397:
1394:
1388:
1387:
1369:
1363:
1362:
1344:
1338:
1337:
1319:
1308:
1307:
1305:
1304:
1298:
1292:. Archived from
1279:
1270:
1259:
1258:
1224:
1203:
1194:
1193:
1167:
1150:
1149:
1128:
1122:
1121:
1111:
1087:
1081:
1080:
1064:
1054:
1048:
1047:
1025:
1019:
1018:
992:
960:
955:
954:
946:
941:
940:
939:
837:Invasive species
787:invasive species
781:changing climate
761:ecosystem health
745:overexploitation
613:woody vegetation
543:excess nutrients
411:
376:dissolved oxygen
351:River ecosystems
329:Lotic ecosystems
296:lotic ecosystems
212:(and its branch
150:overexploitation
21:
5118:
5117:
5113:
5112:
5111:
5109:
5108:
5107:
5098:Systems ecology
5078:Aquatic ecology
5053:
5052:
5051:
5046:
5037:
5023:Systems ecology
4911:
4882:Extinction debt
4847:Ecological debt
4837:Bioluminescence
4818:
4811:
4780:marine habitats
4755:Ecological trap
4736:
4616:
4609:
4552:
4546:
4502:Rapoport's rule
4497:Priority effect
4438:Endemic species
4406:
4365:Population size
4281:
4274:
4264:
4234:
4229:
4182:
4176:
4162:Trophic cascade
4072:Bioaccumulation
4055:
3982:
3939:
3861:
3828:
3725:
3637:
3598:Ecosystem model
3531:
3517:
3487:
3482:
3418:
3409:
3379:
3374:
3351:
3350:
3339:
3337:
3336:
3320:
3281:Coral bleaching
3267:
3248:Seagrass meadow
3145:Marine habitats
3135:
3109:Coral reef fish
3075:
3061:Marine protists
3037:
2975:
2966:
2937:Ocean turbidity
2912:Marine food web
2861:
2840:
2782:
2721:River ecosystem
2674:Freshwater fish
2647:
2638:
2444:Bioluminescence
2429:Aquatic science
2346:
2332:
2327:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2290:
2248:
2247:
2243:
2200:
2199:
2195:
2141:
2140:
2136:
2130:
2109:
2108:
2101:
2091:
2090:
2086:
2034:
2033:
2029:
1993:
1992:
1988:
1979:
1977:
1969:
1968:
1964:
1947:
1941:
1939:
1930:
1929:
1925:
1881:
1880:
1876:
1867:
1865:
1856:
1855:
1851:
1842:
1840:
1832:
1831:
1827:
1791:
1790:
1783:
1737:
1736:
1732:
1686:
1685:
1674:
1653:(1–2): 91–100.
1644:
1643:
1639:
1630:
1628:
1624:
1623:
1619:
1612:
1597:
1596:
1592:
1583:
1581:
1576:
1575:
1571:
1556:10.1071/MF14173
1550:(10): 934–941.
1541:
1540:
1536:
1527:
1525:
1521:
1520:
1513:
1504:
1502:
1495:
1480:
1479:
1472:
1467:
1463:
1456:
1443:
1442:
1438:
1431:
1414:
1413:
1409:
1404:
1400:
1395:
1391:
1384:
1371:
1370:
1366:
1359:
1346:
1345:
1341:
1334:
1321:
1320:
1311:
1302:
1300:
1296:
1277:
1272:
1271:
1262:
1222:10.1.1.568.4047
1205:
1204:
1197:
1191:
1169:
1168:
1153:
1130:
1129:
1125:
1089:
1088:
1084:
1077:
1056:
1055:
1051:
1044:
1027:
1026:
1022:
1007:
994:
993:
984:
979:
956:
949:
942:
937:
935:
932:
914:
908:
875:
839:
749:water pollution
737:
732:
718:
713:
712:
629:Mangrove forest
455:
447:
442:
441:
438:aquatic ecology
391:Anadromous fish
339:
336:River ecosystem
331:
326:
325:
261:micro-organisms
239:
230:
222:
174:
154:water pollution
45:. They include
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5116:
5114:
5106:
5105:
5100:
5095:
5090:
5085:
5080:
5075:
5070:
5065:
5055:
5054:
5048:
5047:
5042:
5039:
5038:
5036:
5035:
5030:
5025:
5020:
5015:
5010:
5005:
5003:Microecosystem
5000:
4995:
4990:
4985:
4980:
4975:
4970:
4965:
4960:
4955:
4950:
4945:
4940:
4935:
4930:
4925:
4919:
4917:
4913:
4912:
4910:
4909:
4904:
4902:Thorson's rule
4899:
4894:
4889:
4884:
4879:
4874:
4869:
4864:
4859:
4854:
4849:
4844:
4839:
4834:
4829:
4827:Assembly rules
4823:
4821:
4813:
4812:
4810:
4809:
4804:
4799:
4794:
4789:
4784:
4783:
4782:
4772:
4767:
4762:
4757:
4752:
4746:
4744:
4738:
4737:
4735:
4734:
4729:
4724:
4712:
4710:Patch dynamics
4707:
4705:Metapopulation
4702:
4697:
4692:
4687:
4682:
4677:
4672:
4667:
4662:
4657:
4652:
4647:
4642:
4637:
4632:
4627:
4621:
4619:
4611:
4610:
4608:
4607:
4602:
4600:Storage effect
4597:
4592:
4587:
4582:
4577:
4572:
4567:
4562:
4556:
4554:
4548:
4547:
4545:
4544:
4539:
4534:
4529:
4524:
4519:
4514:
4509:
4504:
4499:
4494:
4489:
4484:
4482:Neutral theory
4479:
4474:
4469:
4467:Native species
4460:
4455:
4450:
4445:
4440:
4435:
4430:
4425:
4420:
4414:
4412:
4408:
4407:
4405:
4404:
4399:
4398:
4397:
4392:
4382:
4377:
4372:
4367:
4362:
4357:
4352:
4347:
4342:
4340:Overpopulation
4337:
4332:
4327:
4322:
4317:
4312:
4307:
4302:
4297:
4292:
4286:
4284:
4276:
4275:
4265:
4263:
4262:
4255:
4248:
4240:
4231:
4230:
4228:
4227:
4222:
4217:
4212:
4207:
4202:
4197:
4192:
4186:
4184:
4178:
4177:
4175:
4174:
4169:
4164:
4159:
4154:
4149:
4147:Nutrient cycle
4144:
4139:
4137:Feeding frenzy
4134:
4129:
4124:
4119:
4117:Energy quality
4114:
4109:
4104:
4099:
4094:
4089:
4084:
4079:
4077:Cascade effect
4074:
4069:
4063:
4061:
4057:
4056:
4054:
4053:
4052:
4051:
4046:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4026:
4021:
4011:
4006:
4001:
3996:
3990:
3988:
3984:
3983:
3981:
3980:
3975:
3970:
3965:
3960:
3955:
3949:
3947:
3941:
3940:
3938:
3937:
3932:
3927:
3922:
3920:Microbial loop
3917:
3912:
3907:
3902:
3897:
3892:
3887:
3885:Lithoautotroph
3882:
3877:
3871:
3869:
3867:Microorganisms
3863:
3862:
3860:
3859:
3854:
3849:
3844:
3838:
3836:
3830:
3829:
3827:
3826:
3824:Prey switching
3821:
3816:
3811:
3806:
3801:
3796:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3751:
3746:
3741:
3735:
3733:
3727:
3726:
3724:
3723:
3718:
3713:
3708:
3703:
3701:Photosynthesis
3698:
3693:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3673:
3668:
3663:
3658:
3656:Chemosynthesis
3653:
3647:
3645:
3639:
3638:
3636:
3635:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3600:
3595:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3548:Abiotic stress
3545:
3539:
3537:
3533:
3532:
3518:
3516:
3515:
3508:
3501:
3493:
3484:
3483:
3481:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3441:
3440:
3439:
3434:
3423:
3420:
3419:
3410:
3408:
3407:
3400:
3393:
3385:
3376:
3375:
3373:
3372:
3362:
3348:
3333:
3330:
3329:
3326:
3325:
3322:
3321:
3319:
3318:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3277:
3275:
3269:
3268:
3266:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3149:
3147:
3141:
3140:
3137:
3136:
3134:
3133:
3128:
3127:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3099:Saltwater fish
3096:
3094:Marine reptile
3091:
3085:
3083:
3077:
3076:
3074:
3073:
3068:
3066:Marine viruses
3063:
3058:
3053:
3047:
3045:
3043:Microorganisms
3039:
3038:
3036:
3035:
3033:Wild fisheries
3030:
3025:
3020:
3015:
3010:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2989:
2983:
2977:
2976:
2969:
2967:
2965:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2949:
2947:Thorson's rule
2944:
2939:
2934:
2929:
2924:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2904:
2902:Marine biology
2899:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2873:
2871:
2863:
2862:
2857:
2850:
2849:
2846:
2845:
2842:
2841:
2839:
2838:
2837:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2813:
2808:
2807:
2806:
2801:
2790:
2788:
2784:
2783:
2781:
2780:
2779:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2761:Brackish marsh
2758:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2712:
2711:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2689:Lake ecosystem
2686:
2681:
2679:Hyporheic zone
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2655:
2653:
2649:
2648:
2641:
2639:
2637:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2529:Microbial loop
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2491:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2474:Eutrophication
2471:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2454:Cascade effect
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2416:
2411:
2406:
2401:
2400:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2382:Aquatic animal
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2358:
2356:
2348:
2347:
2341:
2334:
2333:
2328:
2326:
2325:
2318:
2311:
2303:
2289:
2288:
2241:
2214:(2): 327–348.
2193:
2154:(5): 838–857.
2134:
2128:
2099:
2084:
2047:(4): 330–342.
2027:
2006:(9): 798–808.
1986:
1962:
1923:
1874:
1849:
1825:
1804:(3): 849–873.
1781:
1740:Water Research
1730:
1672:
1637:
1617:
1611:978-0521834049
1610:
1590:
1569:
1534:
1511:
1494:978-0521519403
1493:
1470:
1461:
1454:
1436:
1429:
1407:
1398:
1389:
1382:
1364:
1357:
1339:
1332:
1309:
1260:
1195:
1189:
1151:
1123:
1082:
1075:
1049:
1042:
1020:
1006:978-0127447605
1005:
981:
980:
978:
975:
974:
973:
968:
962:
961:
947:
944:Ecology portal
931:
928:
907:
906:Climate change
904:
874:
871:
838:
835:
834:
833:
830:
827:
825:sea level rise
821:
818:
812:
806:
803:
797:
792:
789:
783:
765:eutrophication
757:exotic species
736:
733:
717:
714:
648:tidal wetlands
462:is a distinct
456:
448:
446:
443:
340:
332:
330:
327:
245:lake ecosystem
237:
231:
227:Lake ecosystem
223:
221:
218:
173:
170:
162:exotic species
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5115:
5104:
5101:
5099:
5096:
5094:
5091:
5089:
5086:
5084:
5081:
5079:
5076:
5074:
5071:
5069:
5066:
5064:
5061:
5060:
5058:
5045:
5040:
5034:
5031:
5029:
5028:Urban ecology
5026:
5024:
5021:
5019:
5016:
5014:
5011:
5009:
5006:
5004:
5001:
4999:
4996:
4994:
4991:
4989:
4986:
4984:
4981:
4979:
4976:
4974:
4971:
4969:
4966:
4964:
4961:
4959:
4956:
4954:
4951:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4939:
4936:
4934:
4931:
4929:
4926:
4924:
4921:
4920:
4918:
4914:
4908:
4905:
4903:
4900:
4898:
4895:
4893:
4890:
4888:
4887:Kleiber's law
4885:
4883:
4880:
4878:
4875:
4873:
4870:
4868:
4865:
4863:
4860:
4858:
4855:
4853:
4850:
4848:
4845:
4843:
4840:
4838:
4835:
4833:
4830:
4828:
4825:
4824:
4822:
4820:
4814:
4808:
4805:
4803:
4800:
4798:
4795:
4793:
4790:
4788:
4785:
4781:
4778:
4777:
4776:
4773:
4771:
4768:
4766:
4763:
4761:
4758:
4756:
4753:
4751:
4748:
4747:
4745:
4743:
4739:
4733:
4730:
4728:
4725:
4723:
4721:
4717:
4713:
4711:
4708:
4706:
4703:
4701:
4698:
4696:
4693:
4691:
4688:
4686:
4683:
4681:
4678:
4676:
4673:
4671:
4668:
4666:
4663:
4661:
4660:Foster's rule
4658:
4656:
4653:
4651:
4648:
4646:
4643:
4641:
4638:
4636:
4633:
4631:
4628:
4626:
4623:
4622:
4620:
4618:
4612:
4606:
4603:
4601:
4598:
4596:
4593:
4591:
4588:
4586:
4583:
4581:
4578:
4576:
4573:
4571:
4568:
4566:
4563:
4561:
4558:
4557:
4555:
4549:
4543:
4540:
4538:
4535:
4533:
4530:
4528:
4525:
4523:
4520:
4518:
4515:
4513:
4510:
4508:
4505:
4503:
4500:
4498:
4495:
4493:
4490:
4488:
4485:
4483:
4480:
4478:
4475:
4473:
4470:
4468:
4464:
4461:
4459:
4456:
4454:
4451:
4449:
4446:
4444:
4441:
4439:
4436:
4434:
4431:
4429:
4426:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4416:
4415:
4413:
4409:
4403:
4400:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4388:
4387:
4386:
4383:
4381:
4378:
4376:
4373:
4371:
4368:
4366:
4363:
4361:
4358:
4356:
4353:
4351:
4348:
4346:
4343:
4341:
4338:
4336:
4333:
4331:
4328:
4326:
4323:
4321:
4318:
4316:
4313:
4311:
4308:
4306:
4303:
4301:
4298:
4296:
4293:
4291:
4288:
4287:
4285:
4283:
4277:
4272:
4268:
4261:
4256:
4254:
4249:
4247:
4242:
4241:
4238:
4226:
4223:
4221:
4218:
4216:
4213:
4211:
4208:
4206:
4203:
4201:
4198:
4196:
4193:
4191:
4188:
4187:
4185:
4179:
4173:
4170:
4168:
4165:
4163:
4160:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4138:
4135:
4133:
4130:
4128:
4125:
4123:
4120:
4118:
4115:
4113:
4110:
4108:
4105:
4103:
4100:
4098:
4095:
4093:
4090:
4088:
4085:
4083:
4080:
4078:
4075:
4073:
4070:
4068:
4065:
4064:
4062:
4058:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4042:
4040:
4037:
4035:
4032:
4030:
4027:
4025:
4022:
4020:
4017:
4016:
4015:
4012:
4010:
4007:
4005:
4002:
4000:
3997:
3995:
3992:
3991:
3989:
3985:
3979:
3978:Trophic level
3976:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3959:
3956:
3954:
3951:
3950:
3948:
3946:
3942:
3936:
3935:Phage ecology
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3925:Microbial mat
3923:
3921:
3918:
3916:
3913:
3911:
3908:
3906:
3903:
3901:
3898:
3896:
3893:
3891:
3888:
3886:
3883:
3881:
3880:Bacteriophage
3878:
3876:
3873:
3872:
3870:
3868:
3864:
3858:
3855:
3853:
3850:
3848:
3847:Decomposition
3845:
3843:
3840:
3839:
3837:
3835:
3831:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3802:
3800:
3797:
3795:
3794:Mesopredators
3792:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3747:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3739:Apex predator
3737:
3736:
3734:
3732:
3728:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3712:
3709:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3664:
3662:
3659:
3657:
3654:
3652:
3649:
3648:
3646:
3644:
3640:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3573:Biotic stress
3571:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3540:
3538:
3534:
3529:
3525:
3521:
3514:
3509:
3507:
3502:
3500:
3495:
3494:
3491:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3442:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3429:
3428:
3425:
3424:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3406:
3401:
3399:
3394:
3392:
3387:
3386:
3383:
3371:
3363:
3360:
3355:
3349:
3346:
3335:
3334:
3331:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3278:
3276:
3274:
3270:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3253:Sponge ground
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3218:Marine biomes
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3150:
3148:
3146:
3142:
3132:
3129:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3119:Demersal fish
3117:
3115:
3114:Deep-sea fish
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3101:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3089:Marine mammal
3087:
3086:
3084:
3082:
3078:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3048:
3046:
3044:
3040:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2990:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2978:
2973:
2963:
2960:
2958:
2955:
2953:
2950:
2948:
2945:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2928:
2925:
2923:
2920:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2905:
2903:
2900:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2874:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2855:
2851:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2816:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2796:
2795:
2792:
2791:
2789:
2785:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2753:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2710:
2707:
2706:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2656:
2654:
2650:
2645:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2619:Trophic level
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2584:Sediment trap
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2559:Phytoplankton
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2409:Aquatic plant
2407:
2405:
2402:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2384:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2372:Anoxic waters
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2359:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2324:
2319:
2317:
2312:
2310:
2305:
2304:
2301:
2297:
2294:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2255:Hydrobiologia
2252:
2245:
2242:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2197:
2194:
2189:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2138:
2135:
2131:
2129:9780127415505
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2106:
2104:
2100:
2095:
2088:
2085:
2080:
2076:
2071:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2031:
2028:
2023:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1990:
1987:
1976:
1972:
1966:
1963:
1958:
1952:
1938:
1934:
1927:
1924:
1919:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1878:
1875:
1864:
1860:
1853:
1850:
1839:
1838:wwf.panda.org
1835:
1829:
1826:
1821:
1817:
1812:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1788:
1786:
1782:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1734:
1731:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1683:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1673:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1641:
1638:
1627:
1621:
1618:
1613:
1607:
1603:
1602:
1594:
1591:
1579:
1573:
1570:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1538:
1535:
1524:
1518:
1516:
1512:
1501:on 2023-03-17
1500:
1496:
1490:
1486:
1485:
1477:
1475:
1471:
1465:
1462:
1457:
1451:
1447:
1440:
1437:
1432:
1430:0-412-74050-8
1426:
1422:
1418:
1411:
1408:
1402:
1399:
1393:
1390:
1385:
1379:
1375:
1368:
1365:
1360:
1354:
1350:
1343:
1340:
1335:
1329:
1325:
1318:
1316:
1314:
1310:
1299:on 2022-02-28
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1276:
1269:
1267:
1265:
1261:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1223:
1218:
1215:(2): 163–82.
1214:
1210:
1202:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1190:9780123747945
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1166:
1164:
1162:
1160:
1158:
1156:
1152:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1127:
1124:
1119:
1115:
1110:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1086:
1083:
1078:
1076:1-55963-476-6
1072:
1068:
1063:
1062:
1053:
1050:
1045:
1043:0-471-74178-7
1039:
1035:
1031:
1024:
1021:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1002:
998:
991:
989:
987:
983:
976:
972:
969:
967:
964:
963:
959:
953:
948:
945:
934:
929:
927:
924:
919:
913:
905:
903:
900:
895:
890:
886:
882:
880:
872:
870:
868:
867:sport fishing
864:
860:
856:
852:
848:
843:
836:
831:
828:
826:
822:
819:
816:
813:
811:
810:nanomaterials
807:
804:
801:
798:
796:
793:
790:
788:
784:
782:
778:
777:
776:
773:
768:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
734:
731:
727:
723:
715:
710:
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
677:
672:
671:
666:
665:
660:
659:
654:
650:
649:
644:
642:
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
618:
614:
610:
609:
604:
600:
596:
592:
589:
585:
584:
579:
575:
571:
567:
563:
559:
554:
552:
548:
544:
540:
539:water quality
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
513:due to their
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
465:
461:
453:
444:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
410:
406:
402:
398:
396:
392:
388:
383:
381:
377:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
344:
337:
328:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
278:
274:
270:
266:
263:, as well as
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
235:
228:
219:
217:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
171:
169:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
147:
142:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
118:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
32:
19:
5013:Regime shift
4998:Macroecology
4719:
4715:
4655:Edge effects
4625:Biogeography
4570:Commensalism
4418:Biodiversity
4295:Allee effect
4034:kelp forests
3987:Example webs
3852:Detritivores
3691:Organotrophs
3671:Kinetotrophs
3623:Productivity
3432:Macrobenthos
3273:Conservation
3124:Pelagic fish
3104:Coastal fish
3008:Marine fungi
2746:Water garden
2629:Water column
2574:Productivity
2549:Pelagic zone
2509:Macrobenthos
2499:Hydrobiology
2469:Ecohydrology
2343:
2295:
2292:
2258:
2254:
2244:
2211:
2207:
2196:
2179:10072/143075
2151:
2147:
2137:
2111:
2093:
2087:
2044:
2040:
2030:
2003:
1999:
1989:
1978:. Retrieved
1974:
1965:
1940:. Retrieved
1936:
1926:
1891:
1887:
1877:
1866:. Retrieved
1862:
1852:
1841:. Retrieved
1837:
1828:
1801:
1797:
1743:
1739:
1733:
1692:
1688:
1650:
1646:
1640:
1629:. Retrieved
1620:
1600:
1593:
1582:. Retrieved
1572:
1547:
1543:
1537:
1526:. Retrieved
1503:. Retrieved
1499:the original
1483:
1464:
1445:
1439:
1416:
1410:
1401:
1392:
1373:
1367:
1348:
1342:
1323:
1301:. Retrieved
1294:the original
1281:
1212:
1208:
1172:
1137:
1133:
1126:
1102:(1): 75–99.
1099:
1095:
1085:
1067:Island Press
1060:
1052:
1029:
1023:
996:
958:Water portal
915:
893:
891:
887:
883:
876:
840:
815:Microplastic
769:
741:biodiversity
738:
735:Biodiversity
676:vernal ponds
674:
668:
662:
656:
646:
606:
581:
555:
471:groundcovers
464:semi-aquatic
457:
400:
384:
349:
318:benthic zone
279:
268:
242:
175:
146:biodiversity
143:
119:
38:
37:
4650:Disturbance
4553:interaction
4375:Recruitment
4305:Depensation
4097:Copiotrophs
3968:Energy flow
3890:Lithotrophy
3834:Decomposers
3814:Planktivore
3789:Insectivore
3779:Heterotroph
3744:Bacterivore
3711:Phototrophs
3661:Chemotrophs
3633:Restoration
3583:Competition
3437:Meiobenthos
3258:Sponge reef
3233:Rocky shore
3228:Oyster reef
3198:Kelp forest
3081:Vertebrates
2981:Marine life
2957:Viral shunt
2922:Marine snow
2824:Maharashtra
2731:Stream pool
2634:Zooplankton
2554:Photic zone
2514:Meiobenthos
2367:Algal bloom
2261:(1): 5–16.
808:Engineered
709:Brahmaputra
664:floodplains
653:ocean tides
641:salty water
625:reed swamps
507:terrestrial
499:waterbodies
310:Lake Baikal
275:, from the
135:macrophytes
5073:Ecosystems
5057:Categories
5018:Sexecology
4595:Parasitism
4560:Antibiosis
4395:Resistance
4390:Resilience
4280:Population
4200:Camouflage
4152:Oligotroph
4067:Ascendency
4029:intertidal
4019:cold seeps
3973:Food chain
3774:Herbivores
3749:Carnivores
3676:Mixotrophs
3651:Autotrophs
3530:components
3238:Salt marsh
3173:Coral reef
2962:Whale fall
2942:Photophore
2819:Everglades
2787:Ecoregions
2726:Stream bed
2699:Macrophyte
2652:Freshwater
2484:Food chain
2397:Water bird
2041:BioScience
2000:BioScience
1980:2024-04-15
1942:2024-04-15
1868:2019-04-09
1843:2019-04-09
1631:2011-09-25
1584:2011-09-25
1528:2011-09-25
1505:2020-06-03
1383:0130337757
1358:0198516134
1333:0435606220
1303:2022-03-03
977:References
971:Freshwater
910:See also:
879:gastropods
855:paddlefish
851:Asian carp
847:endangered
800:Hydropower
779:A rapidly
701:Sundarbans
637:halophytic
623:(although
566:freshwater
562:Antarctica
551:phosphates
515:vegetation
363:ecosystems
273:freshwater
83:Freshwater
5083:Limnology
4923:Allometry
4877:Emergence
4605:Symbiosis
4590:Mutualism
4385:Stability
4290:Abundance
4102:Dominance
4060:Processes
4049:tide pool
3945:Food webs
3819:Predation
3804:Omnivores
3731:Consumers
3686:Mycotroph
3643:Producers
3588:Ecosystem
3553:Behaviour
3263:Tide pool
3168:Cold seep
2952:Upwelling
2716:Rheotaxis
2709:Fish pond
2684:Limnology
2609:Substrate
2594:Siltation
2464:Dead zone
2275:0018-8158
2188:1099-0755
2061:0006-3568
2022:1525-3244
1768:0043-1354
1717:0888-8892
1374:Limnology
1239:1464-7931
1217:CiteSeerX
1118:1543-5938
923:substrate
817:pollution
685:meltwater
658:estuaries
633:mangroves
574:saltwater
560:, except
558:continent
503:dry lands
479:saturated
467:ecosystem
371:headwater
367:watershed
322:profundal
251:(living)
210:Limnology
81:content.
4978:Endolith
4907:Xerosere
4819:networks
4635:Ecocline
4181:Defense,
3857:Detritus
3759:Foraging
3628:Resource
3465:Pleuston
3460:Plankton
3370:Category
3296:HERMIONE
3213:Mangrove
3023:Seagrass
2569:Pleuston
2564:Plankton
2544:Particle
2489:Food web
2283:16907349
2236:23578609
2228:23217156
2079:32284631
1951:cite web
1918:23966642
1894:(1769).
1820:30467930
1776:11487113
1725:85338348
1578:"US EPA"
1564:85617334
1421:Springer
1255:15921269
1247:16336747
1146:25031419
1015:46393244
930:See also
863:aquarium
842:Invasive
743:include
697:Pantanal
681:rainfall
615:such as
599:cattails
593:such as
588:emergent
570:brackish
547:nitrates
545:such as
531:habitats
445:Wetlands
434:wetlands
382:rivers.
292:wetlands
206:wetlands
148:include
115:wetlands
71:wetlands
4968:Ecopath
4775:Habitat
4645:Ecotype
4640:Ecotone
4617:ecology
4615:Spatial
4551:Species
4411:Species
4282:ecology
4267:Ecology
4215:Mimicry
4183:counter
4127:f-ratio
3875:Archaea
3563:Biomass
3536:General
3528:Trophic
3520:Ecology
3478:Tripton
3452:Neuston
3427:Benthos
3223:Mudflat
3183:Estuary
3153:Bay mud
3131:Seabird
2887:f-ratio
2870:General
2751:Wetland
2539:Neuston
2504:Hypoxia
2449:Biomass
2439:Benthos
2355:General
2156:Bibcode
2070:7138689
1909:3768308
1748:Bibcode
1697:Bibcode
1655:Bibcode
966:Ecology
857:in the
716:Threats
703:in the
583:marshes
535:animals
489:-poor (
475:flooded
460:wetland
452:Wetland
426:springs
422:streams
414:springs
359:abiotic
314:pelagic
304:streams
265:abiotic
257:animals
198:streams
123:cholera
107:streams
63:springs
59:streams
3999:Rivers
3895:Marine
3473:Seston
3469:Plocon
3447:Nekton
3443:Herpon
3208:Lagoon
2534:Nekton
2392:Mammal
2387:Insect
2281:
2273:
2234:
2226:
2186:
2126:
2077:
2067:
2059:
2020:
1916:
1906:
1818:
1774:
1766:
1723:
1715:
1608:
1580:. 2015
1562:
1491:
1452:
1427:
1380:
1355:
1330:
1253:
1245:
1237:
1219:
1187:
1144:
1116:
1073:
1040:
1013:
1003:
899:diatom
728:, and
711:delta.
705:Ganges
695:, the
691:, the
621:shrubs
608:Swamps
603:sedges
578:plants
491:anoxic
487:oxygen
469:whose
418:rivers
387:canopy
355:biotic
300:rivers
280:lentus
269:lentic
253:plants
249:biotic
204:) and
202:rivers
188:, and
178:Lentic
127:sewage
113:) and
111:rivers
97:, and
87:Lentic
69:, and
55:rivers
5103:Water
4916:Other
4817:Other
4770:Guild
4742:Niche
3994:Lakes
2599:Spawn
2279:S2CID
2232:S2CID
1721:S2CID
1560:S2CID
1297:(PDF)
1278:(PDF)
1251:S2CID
1142:JSTOR
617:trees
595:reeds
519:roots
495:soils
483:water
409:lotus
405:Latin
401:Lotic
288:lakes
284:ponds
277:Latin
194:lotic
190:lakes
186:ponds
182:pools
172:Types
103:lotic
99:lakes
95:ponds
91:pools
51:ponds
47:lakes
4004:Soil
2704:Pond
2271:ISSN
2224:PMID
2184:ISSN
2124:ISBN
2075:PMID
2057:ISSN
2018:ISSN
1957:link
1914:PMID
1816:PMID
1772:PMID
1764:ISSN
1713:ISSN
1606:ISBN
1489:ISBN
1450:ISBN
1425:ISBN
1378:ISBN
1353:ISBN
1328:ISBN
1243:PMID
1235:ISSN
1185:ISBN
1114:ISSN
1071:ISBN
1038:ISBN
1011:OCLC
1001:ISBN
916:The
673:and
670:bogs
619:and
601:and
549:and
501:and
473:are
424:and
302:and
290:and
259:and
200:and
139:fish
137:and
109:and
79:salt
67:bogs
3414:in
2766:Fen
2756:Bog
2263:doi
2259:698
2216:doi
2174:hdl
2164:doi
2116:doi
2065:PMC
2049:doi
2008:doi
1904:PMC
1896:doi
1892:280
1806:doi
1756:doi
1705:doi
1663:doi
1552:doi
1227:doi
1177:doi
1104:doi
683:or
655:);
572:or
517:'s
509:or
481:in
477:or
192:),
101:),
5059::
4465:/
4269::
3526::
3522::
2277:.
2269:.
2257:.
2253:.
2230:.
2222:.
2212:88
2210:.
2206:.
2182:.
2172:.
2162:.
2152:26
2150:.
2146:.
2122:,
2102:^
2073:.
2063:.
2055:.
2045:70
2043:.
2039:.
2016:.
2004:62
2002:.
1998:.
1973:.
1953:}}
1949:{{
1935:.
1912:.
1902:.
1890:.
1886:.
1861:.
1836:.
1814:.
1802:94
1800:.
1796:.
1784:^
1770:.
1762:.
1754:.
1744:35
1742:.
1719:.
1711:.
1703:.
1693:13
1691:.
1675:^
1661:.
1651:73
1649:.
1558:.
1548:65
1546:.
1514:^
1473:^
1423:.
1419:.
1312:^
1280:.
1263:^
1249:.
1241:.
1233:.
1225:.
1213:81
1211:.
1198:^
1183:,
1154:^
1138:22
1136:.
1112:.
1100:36
1098:.
1094:.
1069:.
1065:.
1036:.
1032:.
1009:.
985:^
747:,
724:,
643:.
635:,
605:.
597:,
568:,
553:.
458:A
286:,
255:,
243:A
184:,
164:.
152:,
133:,
93:,
65:,
61:,
57:,
53:,
49:,
4720:K
4718:/
4716:r
4259:e
4252:t
4245:v
3512:e
3505:t
3498:v
3404:e
3397:t
3390:v
2322:e
2315:t
2308:v
2285:.
2265::
2238:.
2218::
2190:.
2176::
2166::
2158::
2118::
2081:.
2051::
2024:.
2010::
1983:.
1959:)
1945:.
1920:.
1898::
1871:.
1846:.
1822:.
1808::
1778:.
1758::
1750::
1727:.
1707::
1699::
1669:.
1665::
1657::
1634:.
1614:.
1587:.
1566:.
1554::
1531:.
1508:.
1458:.
1433:.
1386:.
1361:.
1336:.
1306:.
1257:.
1229::
1179::
1148:.
1120:.
1106::
1079:.
1046:.
1017:.
894:"
707:-
454:.
440:.
338:.
229:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
