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the commitment to military autocratic rule pre-dated the acquisition of gunpowder weapons in all three cases. Nor does it seem to be the case that the acquisition of gunpowder weapons and their integration into the military was influenced by which variety of Islam the particular empire promoted. Whether or not gunpowder was inherently linked to the existence of any of these three empires, it cannot be questioned that each of the three acquired artillery and firearms early in their history and made such weapons an integral part of their military tactics.
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778:, a renowned early European alchemist (1214 â 1292), set forth the marvels of the world; key among them was the ingredients of gunpowder. With these ingredients available, European scientists, inventors and alchemists went on to create corned gunpowder, which had a different refinement process. It entailed adding a wet substance to the gunpowder and then drying it as a mixture. With this improved gunpowder technology, German friar
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centralized military empires in contiguous areas dominated by decentralized Turkic tribes. One explanation, called "Confessionalization" by historians of fifteenth century Europe, invokes examination of how the relation of church and state "mediated through confessional statements and church ordinances" lead to the origins of absolutist polities. Douglas
Streusand uses the Safavids as an example:
465:
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Koreans faced the
Manchus alone, again showing their competency in battle by using their musket tactics. Again, they lost in battle to the Manchus in both battles. In 1654 and 1658, the Koreans aided the Qing in battle against the Russians for control over land in Manchuria. In these instances, the Koreans showed their superior tactics and were the reason for the Russians' defeat.
623:, there were illustrations of Ottoman Turkish musketmen with detailed illustrations of their muskets, alongside European musketeers with detailed illustrations of their muskets. There was also illustration and description of how the Chinese had adopted the Ottoman kneeling position in firing. Zhao Shizhen described the Turkish muskets as being superior to the European muskets. The
64:
589:
397:(usually translated as musket) "formed nine consecutive rows and they fired their weapons row by row," in a "kneeling or standing position without the need for additional support or rest." The Chinese later adopted the Ottoman kneeling position for firing. In 1598, Chinese writer Zhao Shizhen described Turkish muskets as being superior to European muskets. The
719:
became more than 50 percent of the military by 1594. They trained using manuals based on Qi
Jiguang's techniques, such as the volley, while incorporating their own methods, too. These events marked the beginning of a Korean military revolution in which the Koreans could combat their enemies using modern equipment and methods of warfare.
678:'. However, after the Qing gained hegemony over East Asia in the mid-18th century, the practice of casting composite metal cannons fell into disuse until the dynasty faced external threats once again in the Opium War of 1840, at which point smoothbore cannons were already starting to become obsolete as a result of rifled barrels.
640:, a revered Ming military leader, drilled his soldiers to extremes so that their performance in battle would be successful. In addition, Qi Jiguang also used innovative battle techniques like volleys, countermarchs, and division into teams, and it even encouraged flexible formation to adapt to the battlefield.
674:. The Manchu elite did not concern themselves directly with guns and their production, preferring instead to delegate the task to Han-Chinese craftsmen, who produced for the Qing a similar composite metal cannon known as the "Shenwei grand general." Cannons and muskets are also widely used in wars known as '
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forming the vanguard of the Mughal cavalry. The Mughal Empire became a powerful geopolitical entity with at times, 24.2% of the world population. The
Mughals inherited elements of Persian culture and art, as did the Ottomans and Safavids. Indian Muslims maintained the dominance of artillery in India,
189:
of Islam; their powers, wealth, architecture, and various contributions significantly influenced the course of
Islamic world history. Hodgson's colleague William H. McNeill expanded on the history of gunpowder use across multiple civilizations including East Asian, European, and South Asian powers in
269:
Michael
Axworthy has pointed out that the label is misleading in the case of the Safavids, as unlike contemporary European armies, the Safavid military mostly used swords, lances, and bows well into the mid-18th century. It was not until the rule of Nader Shah's Afsharid dynasty that the majority of
265:
One problem of the
HodgsonâMcNeill theory is that the acquisition of firearms does not seem to have preceded the initial acquisition of territory constituting the imperial critical mass of any of the three early modern Islamic empires, except in the case of the Mughal empire. Moreover, it seems that
722:
There were many instances where the Korean military used their new techniques effectively. In 1619, the
Koreans aided the Ming against the Manchus, a great military force. While the Koreans and Ming lost, a Korean unit did exhibit their techniques successfully in battle. Then, in 1627 and 1636, the
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perspectives on warfare. While it was a devastating defeat to the
Koreans, this war forced the Koreans to realize that they needed to adopt the use of the musket as well as Japanese and Chinese methods. The Koreans quickly issued the musket as the base of their military tactic, and their musketeers
615:
forces inevitably got hold of the weapons and copied them. It was also likely that a powerful mariner Wang Zhi, who controlled thousands of armed men eventually surrendered to the Ming in 1558 and they replicated his weapons. This particular account on arquebus technology was the first to spark the
610:
The first firearms originated in 10th-century China, and there were various ways that more modern forms of small firearms came to China. During the golden age of East Asian Piracy between the 1540s and 1560s, it was most likely that through their battles and other encounters with these pirates, the
601:
The three
Islamic gunpowder empires are known for their quickly gained success in dominating the battle fields using their newly acquired firearms and techniques. East Asian powers and their military success are commonly overlooked in this subject due to the success of not only the Islamic empires,
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in favor of Selim's rivals. Ismail staked his reputation as a divinely-favored ruler on an open cavalry charge against a fixed Ottoman position. The Ottomans deployed their cannons between the carts that carried them, which also provided cover for the armed Janissaries. The result of the charge was
731:
Comparatively little attention has been made to the use and innovation of gunpowder in the expansion of Vietnam. It is theorised that the Vietnamese, after adopting firearms from China, also introduced some innovations in firearms to China â although other scholars disagree. Regardless, the use of
690:
in the middle of the 16th century. Multiple accounts have said that Portuguese men working for Chinese pirates ended up in Japan by chance and impressed the local ruler with the weapons. Soon after, the Japanese started mass-producing the Portuguese style weapon for themselves. In other accounts,
256:
More recently, the HodgsonâMcNeill "gunpowder empire" hypothesis has been called into disfavour as a neither "adequate or accurate" explanation, although the term remains in use. Reasons other than (or in addition to) military technology have been offered for the nearly simultaneous rise of three
238:
McNeill argued that whenever such states "were able to monopolize the new artillery, central authorities were able to unite larger territories into new, or newly consolidated, empires." Monopolization was key. Although Europe pioneered the development of new artillery in the fifteenth century, no
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described the formation at Jam as "in the Anatolian fashion." The several thousand gun-bearing infantry also massed in the center as did the Janissaries of the Ottoman army. Although the Uzbek cavalry engaged and turned the Safavid army on both flanks, the Safavid center held (because it was not
513:
The Safavids first put their gunpowder arms to good use against the Uzbeks, who had invaded eastern Persia during the civil war that followed the death of Ismail I. The young shah Tahmasp I headed an army to relieve Herat and encountered the Uzbeks on 24 September 1528 at Jam, where the Safavids
786:
in 1353. Due to constant warfare, Europe saw an exponential growth innovation of gunpowder firearms, making it the most advanced in the whole world. Europeans improved the gunpowder firearms which had been made in China and the Middle East, creating much stronger and more durable rifles using
697:
cited that the Military Revolution Model that gave the Europeans so much military success included the use of superior drilling techniques. The drilling technique he was speaking of was the musketeer volley technique. The volley technique was said to have been invented by Japanese Warlord Oda
501:
defeat brought an end to Ismail's territorial expansion program, the shah nonetheless took immediate steps to protect against the real threat from the Ottoman sultanate by arming his troops with gunpowder weapons. Within two years of Chaldiran, Ismail had a corps of musketeers
691:
this firearm technology may have trickled in to Japan as early as 1540 from the constant in and out flow of Japanese mercenaries who could have picked up firearms in their travels. Soon, Japanese soldiers carrying firearms would greatly outnumber those with other weapons.
655:(Koxinga) used similar tactics to Qi Jiguang effectively in battle. The Chinese defeated the Dutch forces through their strict adherence to discipline and ability to stay in formation. Ultimately, it was their technique and training that defeated the Dutch weapons.
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they were drilled with firearms and became "perhaps the first standing infantry force equipped with firearms in the world." The Janissaries are thus considered the first modern standing armies. The combination of artillery and Janissary firepower proved decisive at
123:
use across multiple civilizations including East Asian, South Asian and European powers in his "The Age of Gunpowder Empires". Vast amounts of territory were conquered by the gunpowder empires with the use and development of the newly invented
315:. The adoption of the gunpowder weapons by the Ottomans was so rapid that they "preceded both their European and Middle Eastern adversaries in establishing centralized and permanent troops specialized in the manufacturing and handling of
234:
Such states grew "out of Mongol notions of greatness", but "uch notions could fully mature and create stable bureaucratic empires only after gunpowder weapons and their specialized technology attained a primary place in military life."
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in 1526, where the Afghan and Rajput forces loyal to the Delhi sultanate, though superior in numbers but without the gunpowder weapons, were defeated. Similarly Babur also used these gunpowder weapons to win the decisive
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but also European empires. The success and innovation of gunpowder combat in East Asia, however, are worth mentioning in the same context as that of the Islamic gunpowder empires for their military advancements.
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near the mouths of the Scheldt and Rhine rivers. France and the Habsburgs divided those territories, resulting in an arms standoff. By contrast, such monopolies allowed states to create militarized empires in
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319:." But it was their use of artillery that shocked their adversaries and impelled the other two Islamic empires to accelerate their weapons programs. The Ottomans had artillery at least by the reign of
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as early as the late 14th century. They were also quite adept and innovative with their strategies on the battlefield. There were accounts of Koreans using a type of volley technique in 1447. But the
698:
Nobunaga. He used the same technique that Japanese archers used, but the effect that the technique had to allow soldiers to reload at the same time others could fire was devastating to their enemies.
794:
Improved gunpowder from Europe later, in 1520, reached China on a Portuguese ship, though Turkish arquebuses may have reached China before Portuguese ones. The Ottomans and Portuguese introduced the
1835:
Cullen, Christopher (2011). "Reflections on the Transmission and Transformation of Technologies: Agriculture, Printing and Gunpowder between East and West". In GĂŒnergun, Feza; Raina, Dhruv (eds.).
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first, a legitimization of independent dynastic law; second, the conception of the whole state as a single military force; third, the attempt to explain all economic and high cultural resources as
551:, who showed Babur the standard Ottoman formationâartillery and firearm-equipped infantry protected by wagons in the center, and mounted archers on both wings. Babur used this formation at the
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The Safavids from the beginning imposed a new religious identity on their general population; they did not seek to develop a national or linguistic identity, but their policy had that effect.
103:, leading to commercial expansion, and patronage of culture, while their political and legal institutions were consolidated with an increasing degree of centralization. They stretched from
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Europeans are said to have pushed gunpowder technology to its limits, improving the formulas that existed and devising new uses of the substance after it was introduced to Europe via the
218:(1974). Hodgson saw gunpowder weapons as the key to the "military patronage states of the Later Middle Period" which replaced the unstable, geographically limited confederations of
798:, improved rifles and other advancements to China, hundreds of years after gunpowder's original invention in China, bringing gunpowder's journey through Asia full circle.
564:. The decisive victory of the Timurid forces is one reason opponents rarely met Mughal princes in pitched battle over the course of the empire's history. The reigns of
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directly engaged by the Uzbeks). Rallying under Tahmasp's personal leadership, the infantry of the center engaged and scattered the Uzbek center and secured the field.
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1995:
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decisively beat the Uzbeks. The shah's army deployed cannons (swivel guns on wagons) in the center protected by wagons with cavalry on both flanks. Mughal emperor
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and even after the fall of the Mughal empire, various non-Muslim Indian kingdoms continued to recruit Hindustani Muslims as artillery officers in their armies.
445:'Royal') was designed and cast in bronze in 1464 by Munir Ali. The Dardanelles Gun was still present for duty more than 340 years later in 1807, when a
1960:
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devastating losses to the Safavid cavalry. The defeat was so thorough that the Ottoman forces were able to move on and briefly occupy the Safavid capital,
214:. Hodgson used the phrase in the title of Book 5 ("The Second Flowering: The Empires of Gunpowder Times") of his highly influential three-volume work,
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1689:
1436:
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Parker, Geoffrey (2007). "The Limits to Revolutions in Military Affairs: Maurice of Nassau, the Battle of Nieuwpoort (1600), and the Legacy".
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survived until the invention of gunpowder, it might have become a "Gunpowder Empire" similar to the above and survived into the 21st Century.
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or "Treatise on Armament Technology or Records of Armaments and Military Provisions" of 1621 later described Turkish muskets that used a
1520:
99:, in the period they flourished from mid-16th to the early 18th century. These three empires were among the most stable empires of the
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advanced European metalworking techniques. They learned how to calculate the amount of force exerted by the gas contained in a gun's
547:, Babur was familiar with gunpowder firearms and field artillery and a method for deploying them. Babur had employed Ottoman expert
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and used them in the sieges of Constantinople in 1399 and 1402. They finally proved their worth as siege engines in the successful
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Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology: The Gunpowder Epic
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222:, which prevailed in post-Mongol times. Hodgson defined a "military patronage state" as one having three characteristics:
840:
1463:
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Lord Kinross (1977). Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire. New York: Morrow Quill Paperbacks, 52.
580:. By the time of Aurangzeb, the Mughal army was predominantly composed of Indian Muslims, with tribal elements like the
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reformed the army (around 1598), the Safavid forces had an artillery corps of 500 cannons as well as 12,000 musketeers.
219:
489:. Only the limited campaign radius of the Ottoman army prevented it from holding the city and ending the Safavid rule.
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in 1526 against Hungary. But the battle which convinced the Safavids and the Mughals of the efficacy of gunpowder was
2201:"Military Technology Transfers from Ming China and the Emergence of Northern Mainland Southeast Asia (c. 1390-1527)"
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1884:
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The Chinese intensively practiced tactical strategies based on firearm use, which resulted in military success.
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419:
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Goodwin, Jason (1998). Lords of the Horizons: A History of the Ottoman Empire. New York: H. Holt, 59,179â181.
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Schmidtchen, Volker (1977b), "RiesengeschĂŒtze des 15. Jahrhunderts. Technische Höchstleistungen ihrer Zeit",
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2087:
Burke, Edmund III (May 1979). "Islamic History as World History: Marshall Hodgson, 'The Venture of Islam'".
552:
164:
147:, in the gunpowder empires these changes went well beyond military organisation. The Mughals, based in the
1693:
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in 1453, they had large enough cannons to batter the walls of the city, to the surprise of the defenders.
332:
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Persian Musketeer in time of Abbas I by Habib-Allah Mashadi after Falsafi (Berlin Museum of Islamic Art).
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In 1631, "Heavy Troops" that could build and operate European-style cannon, The imported cannons in the
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and fired them at the British ships. The British squadron suffered 28 casualties from this bombardment.
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211:
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and sponsored major developments in the fine arts. The sultans of the Ottoman Empire, also known as the
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between the Japanese against the Koreans and the Ming starting in 1592 and ending in 1598 would change
283:
1014:
Axworthy, Michael. "The Army of Nader Shah." Iranian Studies 40, no. 5 (2007): 635-46. Pages 636, 645.
619:
Turkish arquebuses may have reached China before Portuguese ones. In Zhao Shizhen's book of 1598, the
45:
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1839:. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science. Vol. 275. Springer Netherlands. pp. 13â26.
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Hess, Andrew Christie (January 1985). "Islamic Civilization and the Legend of Political Failure".
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mechanism, which was not known to have been used in any European or Chinese firearms at the time.
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mechanism, which was not known to have been used in any European or Chinese firearms at the time.
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342:'s regularized use of firearms proceeded ahead of the pace of their European counterparts. The
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The military revolution debate: readings on the military transformation of early modern Europe
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was later used in the production of firearms such as the musket from the 16th century. At the
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1690:"The Rise and Fall of Distinctive Composite-Metal Cannons Cast During the Ming-Qing Period"
37:
2290:
1498:
652:
630:
565:
415:
408:
352:
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248:, Russia, and India, and "in a considerably modified fashion" in China, Korea, and Japan.
1820:
Laichen, Sun (September 2003). "Chinese Military Technology and Dai Viet: c. 1390-1497".
1494:
Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics
2070:
The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History
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Ling, Wang (1947-07-01). "On the Invention and Use of Gunpowder and Firearms in China".
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The gunpowder age: China, military innovation, and the rise of the West in world history
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gunpowder technology has left an undeniable mark in Vietnamese history, allowing the "
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Gunpowder and Firearms in the Mamluk Kingdom: A Challenge to Medieval Society (1956)
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Guns for the Sultan: Military Power and the Weapons Industry in the Ottoman Empire
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Guns for the Sultan: Military Power and the Weapons Industry in the Ottoman Empire
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interest of Ming officials for the Chinese to broaden their use of these weapons.
87:
at the University of Chicago, referring to three early modern Muslim empires: the
30:
This article is about the Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal empires. For the novel, see
2200:
17:
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moved east with his field artillery in 1514 to confront what he perceived as a
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in the thirteenth century. Europeans were improving gunpowder a century after
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weapons prompted changes such as the rise of centralized monarchical states.
2506:
The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part One
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2320:
Khan, Iqtidar Alam (MarchâApril 2005). "Gunpowder and Empire: Indian Case".
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Struggle for Domination in the Middle East: The Ottoman-Mamluk War, 1485-91
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ISPI Report Xi's Policy Gambles: The Bumpy Road Ahead, ISPI, Beijing, China
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At Chaldiran, the Ottomans met the Safavids in battle for the first time.
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had been an infantry bodyguard using bows and arrows. During the rule of
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Modern world system and Indian proto-industrialization: Bengal 1650-1800
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state monopolized it. Gun-casting know-how had been concentrated in the
167:. The Safavids created an efficient and modern state administration for
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Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia
2303:
The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization'
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The first of the three empires to acquire gunpowder weapons was the
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in the east. Hodgson's colleague William H. McNeill expanded on the
2175:
1921:
27:
Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal empires from the 16th to 18th centuries
2432:(2011). "Jam, Battle of (1528)". In Mikaberidze, Alexander (ed.).
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657:
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in 1430. The Ottomans employed Middle-Eastern as well as European
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Iran's troops would be equipped with firearms for the first time.
178:
62:
56:
44:
2436:. Vol. 1. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. pp. 442â43.
2251:. Vol. 44. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. pp.
168:
2362:
Colour of Paradise: The Emerald in the Age of Gunpowder Empires
2249:
Islamic & European Expansion: The Forging of a Global Order
791:, which led to guns with the power to fire greater distances.
1870:"China's "New Silk Road": A Case Study in EU-China Relations"
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and small arms, in the course of imperial expansion. Like in
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Islamic Gunpowder Empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals
1055:
1053:
539:
By the time he was invited by the Lodi governor of Lahore
381:
began to be used by the Janissary corps by the 1440s. The
311:. By the 14th century, the Ottomans had adopted gunpowder
1327:
1325:
1235:
Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-year History
2402:
Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient
1730:(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 936â939
950:
948:
1607:
1605:
736:" and significant expansion of Vietnamese territory.
506:) numbering 8,000, and by 1521, possibly 20,000. After
2400:
Matthee, Rudi (2010). "Was Safavid Iran an Empire?".
1997:
Journal of China Marketing Volume 6 (1): Volume 6 (1)
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662:
A soldier from the Qianlong era, holding an arquebus.
760:
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629:(1621) later described Turkish muskets that used a
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453:. Turkish forces loaded the ancient relics with
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875:"The Art of the Timurid Period (ca. 1370â1507)"
686:The Japanese adopted the use of the Portuguese
295:in Hampshire. Similar cannons were used by the
224:
385:later appeared in the Ottoman Empire by 1465.
8:
2089:International Journal of Middle East Studies
393:in 1526, the Janissaries equipped with 2000
1395:
1594:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
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1263:, Cambridge University Press, p. 24,
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1435:; Herbert Leonard Offley Garrett (1995).
1419:
1407:
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990:
978:
576:have been described as a major height of
67:A mufti sprinkling cannon with rose water
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2567:Military history of the Ottoman Empire
2345:. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
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1974:
1972:
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877:. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art
543:to support his rebellion against Lodi
355:in 1444 against a force of Crusaders,
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1025:Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300-1774
817:novel whose premise is that, had the
274:Gunpowder empires of the Muslim world
7:
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423:
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2205:Journal of Southeast Asian Studies
2126:Firearms: A Global History to 1700
1462:Dirk H. A. Kolff (8 August 2002).
331:to cast their cannons, and by the
25:
2396:(Updated as of January 26, 2012.)
2000:. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
1994:Tian, Robert Guang (2016-02-08).
560:against the numerically superior
449:force appeared and commenced the
79:, is a collective term coined by
2577:Military history of Safavid Iran
2532:. Philadelphia: Westview Press.
2414:10.1163/002249910x12573963244449
185:, and hence were the recognised
177:, controlled the holy cities of
163:an era of what some describe as
2164:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
1959:Ffoulkes, Charles John (1969).
1837:Science between Europe and Asia
1742:The Journal of Military History
230:of the chief military families.
155:, and are recognised for their
2528:Streusand, Douglas E. (2011).
2462:, Cambridge University Press,
2128:, Cambridge University Press,
2072:, Princeton University Press,
836:Political history of the world
670:had a high reputation such as
597:Gunpowder empires of East Asia
1:
2572:Military of the Mughal Empire
2199:Laichen, Sun (October 2003).
1386:, pp. 59-60 & n.165.
841:Timeline of the gunpowder age
2498:"State Building Before 1644"
2028:. Anno XX (81) (1): 177â92.
782:invented the first European
434:
220:Turkic tribal confederations
192:The Age of Gunpowder Empires
2496:Roth Li, Gertraude (2002).
2341:Khan, Iqtidar Alam (2004).
1962:The Gun-founders of England
1845:10.1007/978-90-481-9968-6_2
1072:Hammer, Paul E. J. (2017).
895:Singh, Abhay Kumar (2006).
708:Chinese and Korean firearms
252:Recent views on the concept
198:The HodgsonâMcNeill concept
159:and for having heralded in
2608:
2510:Cambridge University Press
2481:. IOS Press. p. 129.
2247:. In Adas, Michael (ed.).
1786:Kang, Hyeok Hweon (2013).
1519:Romesh C. Butalia (1998).
1306:Cambridge University Press
1078:. Routledge. p. 511.
29:
2217:10.1017/s0022463403000456
2101:10.1017/s0020743800034796
2034:10.1163/22138617-08101009
1979:Rogers, Clifford (2018).
1465:Naukar, Rajput, and Sepoy
1433:Stephen Meredyth Edwardes
1238:. MIT Press. p. 80.
202:The phrase was coined by
77:Islamic gunpowder empires
2562:Military history of Asia
1883:: 92â109. Archived from
1298:Needham, Joseph (1987).
151:, inherited in part the
41:Map of Gunpowder empires
2299:Hodgson, Marshall G. S.
2124:Chase, Kenneth (2003),
2068:Andrade, Tonio (2016),
2049:Ăgoston, GĂĄbor (2005).
1822:Asia Research Institute
1728:Imperial China 900â1800
1259:Ăgoston, GĂĄbor (2008),
1023:Nicolle, David (1980).
553:First Battle of Panipat
333:siege of Constantinople
301:siege of Constantinople
165:proto-industrialization
2430:Mikaberidze, Alexander
2360:Lane, Kris E. (2010).
2147:. Leiden: E.J. Brill.
1350:(3): 213â237 (226â228)
1232:Pacey, Arnold (1991).
1201:Ayalon, David (2013).
772:
762:
663:
593:
536:
469:
304:
263:
232:
136:, the introduction of
81:Marshall G. S. Hodgson
68:
60:
42:
2143:Har-El, Shai (1995).
1754:10.1353/jmh.2007.0142
1027:. Osprey Publishing,
768:
758:
661:
591:
530:
480:threat instigated by
467:
451:Dardanelles operation
286:
259:
212:University of Chicago
66:
48:
40:
2502:Peterson, Willard J.
2385:EncyclopĂŠdia Iranica
1983:. Europe: Routledge.
1868:Wang, Yiwei (2015).
1438:Mughal rule in India
930:, p. II:405-06.
831:History of gunpowder
359:in 1473 against the
216:The Venture of Islam
121:history of gunpowder
55:during the reign of
2241:McNeill, William H.
1626:, pp. 447â454.
1288:, pp. 449â452.
815:alternative history
740:Gunpowder in Europe
676:Ten Great Campaigns
647:beginning in 1661,
545:Sultan Ibrahim Khan
157:lavish architecture
153:Timurid Renaissance
149:Indian subcontinent
101:early modern period
2460:The Gunpowder Epic
1398:, pp. 442â43.
969:, pp. 110â11.
773:
763:
664:
594:
562:Rajput confederacy
537:
470:
305:
208:William H. McNeill
206:and his colleague
85:William H. McNeill
69:
61:
43:
2539:978-0-8133-1359-7
2519:978-0-521-24334-6
2512:. pp. 9â72.
2488:978-1-58603-958-5
2458:, vol. V:7:
2443:978-1-59884-336-1
2371:978-0-300-16131-1
2352:978-0-19-566526-0
2312:978-0-226-34677-9
2262:978-1-56639-068-2
2154:978-90-04-10180-7
2079:978-0-691-13597-7
2060:978-0-521-84313-3
2007:978-1-4438-8833-2
1854:978-90-481-9968-6
1650:, pp. 57â58.
1573:978-1-4008-7444-6
1532:978-81-7023-872-0
1475:978-0-521-52305-9
1448:978-81-7156-551-1
1345:Technikgeschichte
1315:978-0-521-30358-3
1270:978-0-521-60391-1
1245:978-0-262-66072-3
1218:978-1-136-27732-0
1187:978-1-85532-413-8
1159:, pp. 98â99.
1101:, pp. 45â46.
1085:978-1-351-87376-5
942:, p. III:16.
444:
432:
401:Chinese work the
325:siege of Salonica
73:gunpowder empires
18:Gunpowder Empires
16:(Redirected from
2599:
2543:
2523:
2492:
2472:
2447:
2425:
2395:
2393:
2391:
2375:
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2322:Social Scientist
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2012:
2011:
1991:
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1949:
1916:(3/4): 160â178.
1905:
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1798:. Archived from
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1692:. Archived from
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1180:. pp. 21f.
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811:Gunpowder Empire
807:Harry Turtledove
780:Berthold Schwarz
592:Mughal musketeer
558:Battle of Khanwa
439:
437:
427:
425:
391:Battle of MohĂĄcs
348:Sultan Mehmed II
340:Ottoman military
204:Marshall Hodgson
32:Gunpowder Empire
21:
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2452:Needham, Joseph
2450:
2444:
2428:
2408:(1/2): 233â65.
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2026:Oriente Moderno
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1513:
1509:, pages 259â261
1499:OECD Publishing
1489:Maddison, Angus
1487:
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1308:. p. 444.
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1284:
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1271:
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1257:
1253:
1246:
1231:
1230:
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1219:
1211:. p. 126.
1200:
1199:
1195:
1188:
1174:The Janissaries
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827:
804:
742:
734:southward march
729:
704:
684:
653:Zheng Chenggong
631:rack-and-pinion
608:
599:
566:Akbar The Great
525:
508:Abbas the Great
495:
420:Ottoman Turkish
416:Dardanelles Gun
409:rack and pinion
289:Dardanelles Gun
281:
276:
254:
200:
111:in the west to
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2605:
2603:
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2557:Former empires
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2338:
2328:(3/4): 54â65.
2317:
2311:
2295:
2287:|journal=
2261:
2237:
2211:(3): 495â517.
2196:
2176:10.1086/373102
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2134:
2121:
2084:
2078:
2065:
2059:
2046:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2013:
2006:
1986:
1968:
1965:. CUP Archive.
1951:
1922:10.1086/348023
1900:
1860:
1853:
1827:
1812:
1775:
1748:(2): 331â372.
1732:
1719:
1707:
1696:on 2 July 2020
1678:
1676:, p. 201.
1666:
1652:
1640:
1638:, p. 444.
1628:
1616:
1614:, p. 144.
1601:
1572:
1562:(2016-01-12).
1560:Tonio, Andrade
1538:
1531:
1511:
1481:
1474:
1454:
1447:
1424:
1422:, p. 255.
1420:Streusand 2011
1412:
1410:, p. 170.
1408:Streusand 2011
1400:
1388:
1376:
1364:
1362:, p. 145.
1360:Streusand 2011
1352:
1336:
1334:, p. 446.
1321:
1314:
1290:
1275:
1269:
1251:
1244:
1224:
1217:
1193:
1186:
1170:Nicolle, David
1161:
1149:
1132:
1115:
1113:, p. 125.
1103:
1091:
1084:
1064:
1060:Streusand 2011
1049:
1037:
1016:
1007:
1005:, p. 192.
995:
991:Streusand 2011
983:
979:Streusand 2011
971:
959:
957:, p. 103.
944:
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683:
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645:Sino-Dutch War
607:
604:
598:
595:
578:Indian history
549:Ustad Ali Quli
524:
521:
494:
493:Safavid Empire
491:
474:Sultan Selim I
387:Damascus steel
309:Ottoman Empire
291:on display at
280:
279:Ottoman Empire
277:
275:
272:
253:
250:
199:
196:
190:his 1993 work
105:Central Europe
93:Safavid Empire
89:Ottoman Empire
26:
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2:
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2508:. Cambridge:
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2102:
2098:
2095:(2): 241â64.
2094:
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1963:
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1927:
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1911:
1904:
1901:
1890:on 2020-10-22
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1861:
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1802:on 2022-06-05
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1715:Millward 2007
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1566:. Princeton.
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1128:0-688-08093-6
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1076:
1068:
1065:
1062:, p. 83.
1061:
1056:
1054:
1050:
1047:, p. 92.
1046:
1041:
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1033:9780850455113
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906:81-7211-203-3
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898:
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870:
868:
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861:, p. 54.
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709:
706:Koreans used
701:
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695:Tonio Andrade
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579:
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523:Mughal Empire
522:
520:
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500:
497:Although the
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478:Twelver Shi'a
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541:Daulat Khan
482:Shah Ismail
459:projectiles
344:Janissaries
293:Fort Nelson
287:The bronze
50:Mughal Army
2551:Categories
2381:"Firearms"
1894:2019-07-27
1806:2018-07-25
1612:Chase 2003
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881:2021-03-11
847:References
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574:Aurangzeb
533:matchlock
504:tofangchi
499:Chaldiran
429:romanized
404:Wubei Zhi
376:matchlock
369:Chaldiran
329:foundries
321:Bayezid I
313:artillery
246:West Asia
228:appanages
138:gunpowder
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