586:(electron) source to measure the degree of electron capture. ECD are used for the detection of molecules containing electronegative / withdrawing elements and functional groups like halogens, carbonyl, nitriles, nitro groups, and organometalics. In this type of detector either nitrogen or 5% methane in argon is used as the mobile phase carrier gas. The carrier gas passes between two electrodes placed at the end of the column, and adjacent to the cathode (negative electrode) resides a radioactive foil such as 63Ni. The radioactive foil emits a beta particle (electron) which collides with and ionizes the carrier gas to generate more ions resulting in a current. When analyte molecules with electronegative / withdrawing elements or functional groups electrons are captured which results in a decrease in current generating a detector response.
415:/Lahn decided to test the prevailing opinion among German chemists that molecules could not be separated in a moving gas stream. He set up a simple glass column filled with starch and successfully separated bromine and iodine using nitrogen as the carrier gas. He then built a system that flowed an inert gas through a glass condenser packed with silica gel and collected the eluted fractions. Courtenay S.G Phillips of Oxford University investigated separation in a charcoal column using a thermal conductivity detector. He consulted with Claesson and decided to use displacement as his separating principle. After learning about the results of James and Martin, he switched to partition chromatography.
343:
576:
Some Metals) emit light of specific characteristic wavelengths. The emitted light is filtered and detected by a photomultiplier tube. In particular, phosphorus emission is around 510–536 nm and sulfur emission is at 394 nm. With an atomic emission detector (AED), a sample eluting from a column enters a chamber which is energized by microwaves that induce a plasma. The plasma causes the analyte sample to decompose and certain elements generate an atomic emission spectra. The atomic emission spectra is diffracted by a diffraction grating and detected by a series of photomultiplier tubes or photo diodes.
310:. The stationary phase can be solid or liquid, although most GC systems today use a polymeric liquid stationary phase. The stationary phase is contained inside of a separation column. Today, most GC columns are fused silica capillaries with an inner diameter of 100–320 micrometres (0.0039–0.0126 in) and a length of 5–60 metres (16–197 ft). The GC column is located inside an oven where the temperature of the gas can be controlled and the effluent coming off the column is monitored by a suitable detector.
715:
5.0 grades, or 99.999% pure meaning that there is a total of 10 ppm of impurities in the carrier gas that could affect the results. The highest purity grades in common use are 6.0 grades, but the need for detection at very low levels in some forensic and environmental applications has driven the need for carrier gases at 7.0 grade purity and these are now commercially available. Trade names for typical purities include "Zero Grade", "Ultra-High Purity (UHP) Grade", "4.5 Grade" and "5.0 Grade".
498:
when working with samples with high analyte concentrations (>0.1%) whereas splitless injection is best suited for trace analysis with low amounts of analytes (<0.01%). In splitless mode the split valve opens after a pre-set amount of time to purge heavier elements that would otherwise contaminate the system. This pre-set (splitless) time should be optimized, the shorter time (e.g., 0.2 min) ensures less tailing but loss in response, the longer time (2 min) increases tailing but also signal.
545:
resistivity and electrical efficiency of the filament. When analyte molecules elute from the column, mixed with carrier gas, the thermal conductivity decreases while there is an increase in filament temperature and resistivity resulting in fluctuations in voltage ultimately causing a detector response. Detector sensitivity is proportional to filament current while it is inversely proportional to the immediate environmental temperature of that detector as well as flow rate of the carrier gas.
635:(VUV) represents the most recent development in gas chromatography detectors. Most chemical species absorb and have unique gas phase absorption cross sections in the approximately 120–240 nm VUV wavelength range monitored. Where absorption cross sections are known for analytes, the VUV detector is capable of absolute determination (without calibration) of the number of molecules present in the flow cell in the absence of chemical interferences.
319:
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if a solvent matrix has to be vaporized and partially removed, a S/SL injector is used (most common injection technique); gaseous samples (e.g., air cylinders) are usually injected using a gas switching valve system; adsorbed samples (e.g., on adsorbent tubes) are introduced using either an external (on-line or off-line) desorption apparatus such as a purge-and-trap system, or are desorbed in the injector (SPME applications).
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temperature of the liner was chosen slightly below the boiling point of the solvent. The low-boiling solvent was continuously evaporated and vented through the split line. Based on this technique, Poy developed the programmed temperature vaporising injector; PTV. By introducing the sample at a low initial liner temperature many of the disadvantages of the classic hot injection techniques could be circumvented.
980:
shows when a component has been eluted). For this reason, dual TCD instruments used with a separate channel for hydrogen that uses nitrogen as a carrier are common. Argon is often used when analysing gas phase chemistry reactions such as F-T synthesis so that a single carrier gas can be used rather than two separate ones. The sensitivity is reduced, but this is a trade off for simplicity in the gas supply.
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541:(TCD). While TCDs are beneficial in that they are non-destructive, its low detection limit for most analytes inhibits widespread use. FIDs are sensitive primarily to hydrocarbons, and are more sensitive to them than TCD. FIDs cannot detect water or carbon dioxide which make them ideal for environmental organic analyte analysis. FID is two to three times more sensitive to analyte detection than TCD.
36:
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with capillary columns. In the injection system in the capillary gas chromatograph the amount injected should not overload the column and the width of the injected plug should be small compared to the spreading due to the chromatographic process. Failure to comply with this latter requirement will reduce the separation capability of the column. As a general rule, the volume injected, V
140:
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needle and prevent the syringe filling the next time it is used. It may not be obvious that this has happened. A fraction of the sample may get trapped in the rubber, to be released during subsequent injections. This can give rise to ghost peaks in the chromatogram. There may be selective loss of the more volatile components of the sample by evaporation from the tip of the needle.
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detectors and older instruments. Therefore, helium is the most common carrier gas used. However, the price of helium has gone up considerably over recent years, causing an increasing number of chromatographers to switch to hydrogen gas. Historical use, rather than rational consideration, may contribute to the continued preferential use of helium.
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injection technique. Depending on the detector(s) (see below) installed on the GC, there may be a number of detector conditions that can also be varied. Some GCs also include valves which can change the route of sample and carrier flow. The timing of the opening and closing of these valves can be important to method development.
330:, through which the vaporized sample passes, carried along by a continuous flow of inert or nonreactive gas. Components of the sample pass through the column at different rates, depending on their chemical and physical properties and the resulting interactions with the column lining or filling, called the
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the ability of the carbons to form cations and electrons upon pyrolysis which generates a current between the electrodes. The increase in current is translated and appears as a peak in a chromatogram. FIDs have low detection limits (a few picograms per second) but they are unable to generate ions from
774:
The real chromatographic analysis starts with the introduction of the sample onto the column. The development of capillary gas chromatography resulted in many practical problems with the injection technique. The technique of on-column injection, often used with packed columns, is usually not possible
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The choice of inlet type and injection technique depends on if the sample is in liquid, gas, adsorbed, or solid form, and on whether a solvent matrix is present that has to be vaporized. Dissolved samples can be introduced directly onto the column via a COC injector, if the conditions are well known;
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The purity of the carrier gas is also frequently determined by the detector, though the level of sensitivity needed can also play a significant role. Typically, purities of 99.995% or higher are used. The most common purity grades required by modern instruments for the majority of sensitivities are
509:
Gas source inlet or gas switching valve – gaseous samples in collection bottles are connected to what is most commonly a six-port switching valve. The carrier gas flow is not interrupted while a sample can be expanded into a previously evacuated sample loop. Upon switching, the contents of the sample
505:
PTV injector – Temperature-programmed sample introduction was first described by Vogt in 1979. Originally Vogt developed the technique as a method for the introduction of large sample volumes (up to 250 μL) in capillary GC. Vogt introduced the sample into the liner at a controlled injection rate. The
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of the sample and sample matrix. The carrier gas then either sweeps the entirety (splitless mode) or a portion (split mode) of the sample into the column. In split mode, a part of the sample/carrier gas mixture in the injection chamber is exhausted through the split vent. Split injection is preferred
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The rate at which a sample passes through the column is directly proportional to the temperature of the column. The higher the column temperature, the faster the sample moves through the column. However, the faster a sample moves through the column, the less it interacts with the stationary phase,
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present in a sample eluting from the column at different times. Retention time can be used to identify analytes if the method conditions are constant. Also, the pattern of peaks will be constant for a sample under constant conditions and can identify complex mixtures of analytes. However, in most
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The TCD relies on the thermal conductivity of matter passing around a thin wire of tungsten-rhenium with a current traveling through it. In this set up helium or nitrogen serve as the carrier gas because of their relatively high thermal conductivity which keep the filament cool and maintain uniform
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However, there are a number of problems inherent in the use of syringes for injection. Even the best syringes claim an accuracy of only 3%, and in unskilled hands, errors are much larger. The needle may cut small pieces of rubber from the septum as it injects sample through it. These can block the
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requires helium as the carrier gas. When analyzing gas samples the carrier is also selected based on the sample's matrix, for example, when analyzing a mixture in argon, an argon carrier is preferred because the argon in the sample does not show up on the chromatogram. Safety and availability can
575:
Flame photometric detector (FPD) uses a photomultiplier tube to detect spectral lines of the compounds as they are burned in a flame. Compounds eluting off the column are carried into a hydrogen fueled flame which excites specific elements in the molecules, and the excited elements (P,S, Halogens,
548:
In a flame ionization detector (FID), electrodes are placed adjacent to a flame fueled by hydrogen / air near the exit of the column, and when carbon containing compounds exit the column they are pyrolyzed by the flame. This detector works only for organic / hydrocarbon containing compounds due to
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P/T (purge-and-trap) system – An inert gas is bubbled through an aqueous sample causing insoluble volatile chemicals to be purged from the matrix. The volatiles are 'trapped' on an absorbent column (known as a trap or concentrator) at ambient temperature. The trap is then heated and the volatiles
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On-column inlet – the sample is here introduced directly into the column in its entirety without heat, or at a temperature below the boiling point of the solvent. The low temperature condenses the sample into a narrow zone. The column and inlet can then be heated, releasing the sample into the gas
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A method which holds the column at the same temperature for the entire analysis is called "isothermal". Most methods, however, increase the column temperature during the analysis, the initial temperature, rate of temperature increase (the temperature "ramp"), and final temperature are called the
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This image above shows the interior of a GeoStrata
Technologies Eclipse Gas Chromatograph that runs continuously in three-minute cycles. Two valves are used to switch the test gas into the sample loop. After filling the sample loop with test gas, the valves are switched again applying carrier gas
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Alkali flame detector (AFD) or alkali flame ionization detector (AFID) has high sensitivity to nitrogen and phosphorus, similar to NPD. However, the alkaline metal ions are supplied with the hydrogen gas, rather than a bead above the flame. For this reason AFD does not suffer the "fatigue" of the
406:
in 1947 together with
Austrian graduate student Fritz Prior developed what could be considered the first gas chromatograph that consisted of a carrier gas, a column packed with silica gel, and a thermal conductivity detector. They exhibited the chromatograph at ACHEMA in Frankfurt, but nobody was
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is that He, which is the most common and most sensitive inert carrier (sensitivity is proportional to molecular mass) has an almost identical thermal conductivity to hydrogen (it is the difference in thermal conductivity between two separate filaments in a
Wheatstone Bridge type arrangement that
827:
The column(s) in a GC are contained in an oven, the temperature of which is precisely controlled electronically. (When discussing the "temperature of the column," an analyst is technically referring to the temperature of the column oven. The distinction, however, is not important and will not
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With GCs made before the 1990s, carrier flow rate was controlled indirectly by controlling the carrier inlet pressure, or "column head pressure". The actual flow rate was measured at the outlet of the column or the detector with an electronic flow meter, or a bubble flow meter, and could be an
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Conditions which can be varied to accommodate a required analysis include inlet temperature, detector temperature, column temperature and temperature program, carrier gas and carrier gas flow rates, the column's stationary phase, diameter and length, inlet type and flow rates, sample size and
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The choice of carrier gas (mobile phase) is important. Hydrogen has a range of flow rates that are comparable to helium in efficiency. However, helium may be more efficient and provide the best separation if flow rates are optimized. Helium is non-flammable and works with a greater number of
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Some general requirements which a good injection technique should fulfill are that it should be possible to obtain the column's optimum separation efficiency, it should allow accurate and reproducible injections of small amounts of representative samples, it should induce no change in sample
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The carrier gas linear velocity affects the analysis in the same way that temperature does (see above). The higher the linear velocity the faster the analysis, but the lower the separation between analytes. Selecting the linear velocity is therefore the same compromise between the level of
743:
of the solute is crucial for the choice of stationary compound, which in an optimal case would have a similar polarity as the solute. Common stationary phases in open tubular columns are cyanopropylphenyl dimethyl polysiloxane, carbowax polyethyleneglycol, biscyanopropyl cyanopropylphenyl
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Many modern GCs, however, electronically measure the flow rate, and electronically control the carrier gas pressure to set the flow rate. Consequently, carrier pressures and flow rates can be adjusted during the run, creating pressure/flow programs similar to temperature programs.
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Different kinds of autosamplers exist. Autosamplers can be classified in relation to sample capacity (auto-injectors vs. autosamplers, where auto-injectors can work a small number of samples), to robotic technologies (XYZ robot vs. rotating robot – the most common), or to analysis:
423:
Early gas chromatography used packed columns, made of block 1–5 m long, 1–5 mm diameter, and filled with particles. The resolution of packed columns was improved by the invention of capillary column, in which the stationary phase is coated on the inner wall of the capillary.
987:. Disciplines as diverse as solid drug dose (pre-consumption form) identification and quantification, arson investigation, paint chip analysis, and toxicology cases, employ GC to identify and quantify various biological specimens and crime-scene evidence.
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involved, time consuming, and frustrating process. It was not possible to vary the pressure setting during the run, and thus the flow was essentially constant during the analysis. The relation between flow rate and inlet pressure is calculated with
641:, also called GC-O, uses a human assessor to analyse the odour activity of compounds. With an odour port or a sniffing port, the quality of the odour, the intensity of the odour and the duration of the odour activity of a compound can be assessed.
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Gas chromatography is the process of separating compounds in a mixture by injecting a gaseous or liquid sample into a mobile phase, typically called the carrier gas, and passing the gas through a stationary phase. The mobile phase is usually an
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composition, it should not exhibit discrimination based on differences in boiling point, polarity, concentration or thermal/catalytic stability, and it should be applicable for trace analysis as well as for undiluted samples.
893:) and is calculated by finding the response of a known amount of analyte and a constant amount of internal standard (a chemical added to the sample at a constant concentration, with a distinct retention time to the analyte).
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Schug, Kevin A.; Sawicki, Ian; Carlton, Doug D.; Fan, Hui; McNair, Harold M.; Nimmo, John P.; Kroll, Peter; Smuts, Jonathan; Walsh, Phillip; Harrison, Dale (1834). "Vacuum
Ultraviolet Detector for Gas Chromatography".
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Generally, chromatographic data is presented as a graph of detector response (y-axis) against retention time (x-axis), which is called a chromatogram. This provides a spectrum of peaks for a sample representing the
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provides the means to introduce a sample automatically into the inlets. Manual insertion of the sample is possible but is no longer common. Automatic insertion provides better reproducibility and time-optimization.
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The method is the collection of conditions in which the GC operates for a given analysis. Method development is the process of determining what conditions are adequate and/or ideal for the analysis required.
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Professionals working with GC analyze the content of a chemical product, for example in assuring the quality of products in the chemical industry; or measuring chemicals in soil, air or water, such as
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separation and length of analysis as selecting the column temperature. The linear velocity will be implemented by means of the carrier gas flow rate, with regards to the inner diameter of the column.
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plants after artificially injuring their leaves. These GC analyse hydrocarbons (C2-C40+). In a typical experiment, a packed column is used to separate the light gases, which are then detected with a
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converts carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide into methane so that it can be detected. A different technology is the polyarc, by
Activated Research Inc, that converts all compounds to methane.
924:. Very minute amounts of a substance can be measured, but it is often required that the sample must be measured in comparison to a sample containing the pure, suspected substance known as a
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A temperature program allows analytes that elute early in the analysis to separate adequately, while shortening the time it takes for late-eluting analytes to pass through the column.
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which acts as a backup detector. This combination is known as GC-MS-NMR-IR. It must, however, be stressed this is very rare as most analyses needed can be concluded via purely GC-MS.
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In general, substances that vaporize below 300 °C (and therefore are stable up to that temperature) can be measured quantitatively. The samples are also required to be
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and separation while reducing run time. The separation and run time also depends on the film thickness (of the stationary phase), the column diameter and the column length.
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The column inlet (or injector) provides the means to introduce a sample into a continuous flow of carrier gas. The inlet is a piece of hardware attached to the column head.
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Various temperature programs can be used to make the readings more meaningful; for example to differentiate between substances that behave similarly during the GC process.
1407:"A new form of chromatogram employing two liquid phases: A theory of chromatography. 2. Application to the micro-determination of the higher monoamino-acids in proteins"
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Skoog, Douglas A.; West, Donald M.; James Holler, F.; Crouch, Stanley R. (2013-01-01). Skoog, Douglas A.; West, Donald M.; Holler, F. James; Crouch, Stanley R. (eds.).
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613:; highly effective and sensitive, even in a small quantity of sample. This detector can be used to identify the analytes in chromatograms by their mass spectrum. Some
334:. The column is typically enclosed within a temperature controlled oven. As the chemicals exit the end of the column, they are detected and identified electronically.
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are directed into the carrier gas stream. Samples requiring preconcentration or purification can be introduced via such a system, usually hooked up to the S/SL port.
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The area under a peak is proportional to the amount of analyte present in the chromatogram. By calculating the area of the peak using the mathematical function of
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interested in it. N.C. Turner with the
Burrell Corporation introduced in 1943 a massive instrument that used a charcoal column and mercury vapors. Stig Claesson of
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NPD, but provides a constant sensitivity over long period of time. In addition, when alkali ions are not added to the flame, AFD operates like a standard FID. A
394:, had noted in an earlier paper that chromatography might also be used to separate gases. Synge pursued other work while Martin continued his work with James.
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386:. The popularity of gas chromatography quickly rose after the development of the flame ionization detector. Martin and another one of their colleagues,
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783:, should be about 1/10 of the volume occupied by the portion of sample containing the molecules of interest (analytes) when they exit the column.
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can play a large part in column selection. The polarity of the sample must closely match the polarity of the column stationary phase to increase
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S/SL (split/splitless) injector – a sample is introduced into a heated small chamber via a syringe through a septum – the heat facilitates
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The choice of column depends on the sample and the active measured. The main chemical attribute regarded when choosing a column is the
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1301:"Gas-liquid partition chromatography: the separation and micro-estimation of volatile fatty acids from formic acid to dodecanoic acid"
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Dry electrolytic conductivity detector (DELCD) uses an air phase and high temperature (v. Coulsen) to measure chlorinated compounds.
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phase. This ensures the lowest possible temperature for chromatography and keeps samples from decomposing above their boiling point.
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259:. Typical uses of GC include testing the purity of a particular substance, or separating the different components of a mixture. In
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1719:"Effects of soil rewetting and thawing on soil gas fluxes: a review of current literature and suggestions for future research"
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In general, the column temperature is selected to compromise between the length of the analysis and the level of separation.
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877:, the concentration of an analyte in the original sample can be determined. Concentration can be calculated using a
282:). These alternative names, as well as their respective abbreviations, are frequently used in scientific literature.
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published in 1946 his work on a charcoal column that also used mercury. Gerhard Hesse, while a professor at the
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In practical courses at colleges, students sometimes get acquainted to the GC by studying the contents of
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created by finding the response for a series of concentrations of analyte, or by determining the
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containing carbons. FID compatible carrier gasses include helium, hydrogen, nitrogen, and argon.
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polysiloxane and diphenyl dimethyl polysiloxane. For packed columns more options are available.
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or similar detector that is capable of identifying the analytes represented by the peaks.
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of an analyte. The relative response factor is the expected ratio of an analyte to an
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Bartle, Keith D.; Myers, Peter (10 September 2002). "History of gas chromatography".
706:. Which gas to use is usually determined by the detector being used, for example, a
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pressure to the sample loop and forcing the sample through the column for separation.
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Poole, Colin F. (2015-11-20). "Ionization-based detectors for gas chromatography".
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Other detectors include the Hall electrolytic conductivity detector (ElCD),
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In FID, sometimes the stream is modified before entering the detector. A
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Pavia, L.; Gary M. Lampman; George S. Kritz; Randall G. Engel (2006).
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An autosampler for liquid or gaseous samples based on a microsyringe
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Higson, S. (2004). Analytical
Chemistry. OXFORD University Press
362:, who separated plant pigments via liquid column chromatography.
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on a specially coated bead and a resulting current is measured.
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detector (CCD) measures combustible hydrocarbons and hydrogen.
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The invention of gas chromatography is generally attributed to
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which acts as a backup detector. This combination is known as
572:(DID) uses a high-voltage electric discharge to produce ions.
29:
1521:"Split/Splitless and On-Column Gas Chromatographic Injectors"
1245:"Berichte der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft v.24 1906"
971:
are separated using a capillary column and detected with a
326:
A gas chromatograph is made of a narrow tube, known as the
263:, GC can be used to prepare pure compounds from a mixture.
823:
A gas chromatography oven, open to show a capillary column
1717:
Kim, D; Vargas, R; Bond-Lamberty, B; Turetsky, M (2012).
1215:(Ninth ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman & Company.
975:. A complication with light gas analyses that include H
1127:(4th ed.). Thomson Brooks/Cole. pp. 797–817.
938:. GC is very accurate if used properly and can measure
1405:
Martin, A. J. P.; Synge, R. L. M. (1 December 1941).
358:
dates to 1903 in the work of the
Russian scientist,
3348:
3312:
3286:
3195:
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2991:
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2821:
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2389:
2305:
2226:
2176:
2052:
1995:
1871:
220:
199:
194:
167:
157:
149:
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1350:"Flame Ionization Detector for Gas Chromatography"
1488:"Osmar, the open-source microsyringe autosampler"
660:(PDD), and thermionic ionization detector (TID).
596:detector where nitrogen and phosphorus alter the
1694:Modern Practice of Gas Chromatography (4th Ed.)
1299:James, A. T.; Martin, A. J. P. (1 March 1952).
904:is used to draw and integrate peaks, and match
3304:Pyrolysis–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry
1206:
1204:
1202:
1200:
1198:
1196:
1194:
1192:
1190:
861:modern applications, the GC is connected to a
510:loop are inserted into the carrier gas stream.
463:Dynamic head-space by transfer-line technology
266:Gas chromatography is also sometimes known as
3155:
2799:
1820:
1188:
1186:
1184:
1182:
1180:
1178:
1176:
1174:
1172:
1170:
1125:Introduction to Organic Laboratory Techniques
1082:
1080:
1078:
1076:
1074:
1072:
1070:
1068:
1066:
725:Poiseuille's equation for compressible fluids
8:
1592:(Ninth ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
1348:R. A. Dewar; McWilliam, I. G. (March 1958).
144:A gas chromatograph with a headspace sampler
132:
1567:
1565:
1563:
1561:
1559:
1557:
1463:Chapters in the evolution of chromatography
1211:Harris, Daniel C.; Charles A. Lucy (2016).
942:of a substance in a 1 ml liquid sample, or
3162:
3148:
3140:
2806:
2792:
2784:
1827:
1813:
1805:
1692:Grob, Robert L.; Barry, Eugene F. (2004).
1555:
1553:
1551:
1549:
1547:
1545:
1543:
1541:
1539:
1537:
1027:Proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry
983:Gas chromatography is used extensively in
815:Column temperature and temperature program
138:
1742:
1503:
1430:
1373:
1324:
832:and the less the analytes are separated.
382:as the separating principle, rather than
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
1789:) is being considered for deletion. See
1456:
1454:
1452:
1450:
1267:
1265:
1118:
1116:
1037:Selected ion flow tube mass spectrometry
779:, and the volume of the detector cell, V
398:Gas adsorption chromatography precursors
3299:Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry
1062:
828:subsequently be made in this article.)
460:Static head-space by syringe technology
3248:Micellar electrokinetic chromatography
3233:High-performance liquid chromatography
3058:Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry
1017:High-performance liquid chromatography
212:High performance liquid chromatography
131:
2846:High-performance liquid chromatograph
770:The rule of ten in gas chromatography
625:. Some GC-MS-NMR are connected to an
7:
3294:Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry
3098:
2742:
1590:Fundamentals of analytical chemistry
1007:Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry
686:Carrier gas selection and flow rates
658:pulsed discharge ionization detector
251:and analyzing compounds that can be
225:Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
58:adding citations to reliable sources
3122:
2766:
1775:in the Chemistry LibreTexts Library
1274:TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry
946:concentrations in gaseous samples.
757:Sample size and injection technique
276:gas–liquid partition chromatography
1465:. London: Imperial College Press.
711:also influence carrier selection.
25:
1793:to help reach a consensus. ›
1032:Secondary electrospray ionization
3385:
3384:
3121:
3109:
3097:
3086:
3085:
2765:
2753:
2741:
2730:
2729:
1759:
533:Commonly used detectors are the
34:
3238:Capillary electrochromatography
1012:Gas chromatography-olfactometry
920:-free; they should not contain
390:, with whom he shared the 1952
378:. Their gas chromatograph used
45:needs additional citations for
3278:Two-dimensional chromatography
2831:Atomic absorption spectrometer
1213:Quantitative chemical analysis
690:Typical carrier gases include
322:Diagram of a gas chromatograph
1:
3268:Size-exclusion chromatography
3263:Reversed-phase chromatography
2094:Interface and colloid science
1848:Glossary of chemical formulae
1286:10.1016/S0165-9936(02)00806-3
735:Stationary compound selection
570:Discharge ionization detector
539:thermal conductivity detector
1671:10.1016/j.chroma.2015.02.061
908:spectra to library spectra.
590:Nitrogen–phosphorus detector
3371:Journal of Chromatography B
3364:Journal of Chromatography A
3253:Normal-phase chromatography
3218:Displacement chromatography
2836:Flame emission spectrometer
2371:Bioorganometallic chemistry
1858:List of inorganic compounds
1659:Journal of Chromatography A
1089:Modern analytical chemistry
846:Data reduction and analysis
467:Solid phase microextraction
3432:
3208:Argentation chromatography
2297:Dynamic covalent chemistry
2268:Enantioselective synthesis
2248:Physical organic chemistry
2201:Organolanthanide chemistry
1486:Carvalho, Matheus (2018).
1151:. Linde AG. Archived from
1052:Unresolved complex mixture
1022:Inverse gas chromatography
748:Inlet types and flow rates
646:helium ionization detector
627:infrared spectrophotometer
526:
268:vapor-phase chromatography
261:preparative chromatography
3380:
3357:Biomedical Chromatography
3273:Thin-layer chromatography
3177:
3081:
2912:Ion mobility spectrometry
2902:Electroanalytical methods
2725:
1886:Electroanalytical methods
1843:
1696:. John Wiley & Sons.
1505:10.1016/j.ohx.2018.01.001
1461:Ettre, Leslie S. (2008).
1047:Thin layer chromatography
654:photo-ionization detector
582:(ECD) uses a radioactive
580:Electron capture detector
535:flame ionization detector
384:adsorption chromatography
360:Mikhail Semenovich Tswett
207:Thin layer chromatography
137:
2641:Nobel Prize in Chemistry
2557:Supramolecular chemistry
2196:Organometallic chemistry
1791:templates for discussion
883:relative response factor
489:Common inlet types are:
402:German physical chemist
392:Nobel Prize in Chemistry
380:partition chromatography
3203:Affinity chromatography
3072:Analytical Biochemistry
2861:Melting point apparatus
2579:Combinatorial chemistry
2490:Food physical chemistry
2453:Environmental chemistry
2337:Bioorthogonal chemistry
2263:Retrosynthetic analysis
2084:Chemical thermodynamics
2067:Spectroelectrochemistry
2010:Computational chemistry
1773:Chromatographic Columns
1091:. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
529:Chromatography detector
3349:Prominent publications
3330:Kovats retention index
3051:Analytica Chimica Acta
2651:of element discoveries
2497:Agricultural chemistry
2485:Carbohydrate chemistry
2376:Bioinorganic chemistry
2241:Alkane stereochemistry
2186:Coordination chemistry
2015:Mathematical chemistry
1881:Instrumental chemistry
1744:10.5194/bg-9-2459-2012
1087:Harvey, David (2000).
824:
771:
674:
639:Olfactometric detector
483:
449:
347:
323:
239:) is a common type of
27:Type of chromatography
3416:Laboratory techniques
3320:Distribution constant
3223:Electrochromatography
3213:Column chromatography
2943:Coning and quartering
2851:Infrared spectrometer
2646:Timeline of chemistry
2543:Post-mortem chemistry
2528:Clandestine chemistry
2458:Atmospheric chemistry
2381:Biophysical chemistry
2213:Solid-state chemistry
2163:Equilibrium chemistry
2072:Photoelectrochemistry
1768:at Wikimedia Commons
960:Nicotiana benthamiana
953:oil or measuring the
869:Quantitative analysis
839:temperature program.
822:
769:
671:
527:Further information:
482:Split/splitless inlet
481:
447:
413:University of Marburg
345:
321:
3340:Van Deemter equation
3258:Paper chromatography
3065:Analytical Chemistry
2907:Gravimetric analysis
2871:Optical spectrometer
2815:Analytical chemistry
2636:History of chemistry
2591:Chemical engineering
2366:Bioorganic chemistry
2116:Structural chemistry
1853:List of biomolecules
1624:Analytical Chemistry
1519:Chasteen, Thomas G.
1149:"Gas Chromatography"
997:Analytical chemistry
957:that is secreted by
851:Qualitative analysis
803:of the mixture, but
617:are connected to an
566:catalytic combustion
245:analytical chemistry
69:"Gas chromatography"
54:improve this article
3325:Freundlich equation
2659:The central science
2613:Ceramic engineering
2538:Forensic toxicology
2511:Chemistry education
2409:Radiation chemistry
2391:Interdisciplinarity
2344:Medicinal chemistry
2282:Fullerene chemistry
2158:Microwave chemistry
2027:Molecular mechanics
2022:Molecular modelling
1735:2012BGeo....9.2459K
1411:Biochemical Journal
1366:1958Natur.181..760M
1305:Biochemical Journal
428:Physical components
314:Operating principle
134:
3411:Gas chromatography
3287:Hyphenated methods
3243:Ion chromatography
3228:Gas chromatography
2978:Separation process
2973:Sample preparation
2702:Chemical substance
2564:Chemical synthesis
2533:Forensic chemistry
2414:Actinide chemistry
2356:Clinical chemistry
2037:Molecular geometry
2032:Molecular dynamics
1987:Elemental analysis
1940:Separation process
1796:Gas Chromatography
1766:Gas chromatography
926:reference standard
900:systems, computer
825:
772:
675:
633:Vacuum ultraviolet
609:(MS), also called
484:
450:
409:Uppsala University
376:Archer J.P. Martin
348:
324:
233:Gas chromatography
133:Gas chromatography
18:Gas-chromatography
3398:
3397:
3137:
3136:
3019:Standard addition
3014:Internal standard
3004:Calibration curve
2917:Mass spectrometry
2876:Spectrophotometer
2856:Mass spectrometer
2841:Gas chromatograph
2781:
2780:
2717:Quantum mechanics
2682:Chemical compound
2665:Chemical reaction
2603:Materials science
2521:General chemistry
2516:Amateur chemistry
2444:Photogeochemistry
2429:Stellar chemistry
2399:Nuclear chemistry
2320:Molecular biology
2287:Polymer chemistry
2258:Organic synthesis
2253:Organic reactions
2218:Ceramic chemistry
2208:Cluster chemistry
2138:Chemical kinetics
2126:Molecular physics
2005:Quantum chemistry
1918:Mass spectrometry
1764:Media related to
1703:978-0-471-22983-4
1636:10.1021/ac5018343
1577:978-0-19-850289-0
1423:10.1042/bj0351358
1417:(12): 1358–1368.
1317:10.1042/bj0500679
1222:978-1-4641-3538-5
1134:978-0-495-28069-9
1042:Standard addition
944:parts-per-billion
891:external standard
887:internal standard
879:calibration curve
863:mass spectrometer
805:functional groups
650:infrared detector
607:Mass spectrometer
592:(NPD), a form of
419:Column technology
346:Gas chromatograph
230:
229:
130:
129:
122:
104:
16:(Redirected from
3423:
3388:
3387:
3335:Retention factor
3164:
3157:
3150:
3141:
3125:
3124:
3113:
3101:
3100:
3089:
3088:
3024:Isotope dilution
2808:
2801:
2794:
2785:
2769:
2768:
2757:
2745:
2744:
2733:
2732:
2677:Chemical element
2332:Chemical biology
2191:Magnetochemistry
2168:Mechanochemistry
2121:Chemical physics
2062:Electrochemistry
1967:Characterization
1829:
1822:
1815:
1806:
1763:
1749:
1748:
1746:
1729:(7): 3459–3483.
1714:
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1375:10.1038/181760a0
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1111:
1110:
1084:
985:forensic science
795:Column selection
762:Sample injection
619:NMR spectrometer
372:Anthony T. James
332:stationary phase
195:Other techniques
142:
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62:
38:
30:
21:
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3077:
3028:
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2880:
2823:Instrumentation
2817:
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2782:
2777:
2721:
2624:
2618:Polymer science
2574:Click chemistry
2569:Green chemistry
2463:Ocean chemistry
2439:Biogeochemistry
2385:
2301:
2273:Total synthesis
2236:Stereochemistry
2222:
2172:
2089:Surface science
2079:Thermochemistry
2048:
1991:
1962:Crystallography
1867:
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1630:(16): 8329–35.
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1155:on 3 March 2012
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896:In most modern
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51:
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28:
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5:
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3205:
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3178:
3175:
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3171:Chromatography
3169:
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3159:
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3135:
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3119:
3107:
3095:
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2899:
2897:Chromatography
2894:
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2879:
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2873:
2868:
2863:
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2506:
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2502:Soil chemistry
2494:
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2480:Food chemistry
2477:
2475:Carbochemistry
2472:
2470:Clay chemistry
2467:
2466:
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2448:
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2425:Astrochemistry
2421:Cosmochemistry
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2404:Radiochemistry
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2361:Neurochemistry
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2292:Petrochemistry
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1993:
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1989:
1984:
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1958:
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1945:Chromatography
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1930:
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1915:
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1863:Periodic table
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1755:External links
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1723:Biogeosciences
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1478:
1472:978-1860949432
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1311:(5): 679–690.
1291:
1280:(9): 547–557.
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1002:Chromatography
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24:
14:
13:
10:
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6:
4:
3:
2:
3428:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3408:
3406:
3391:
3383:
3382:
3379:
3373:
3372:
3368:
3366:
3365:
3361:
3359:
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3354:
3353:
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3347:
3341:
3338:
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3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
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3318:
3317:
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3311:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3297:
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3261:
3259:
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3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3200:
3198:
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3183:
3180:
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3176:
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3165:
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3142:
3130:
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3112:
3108:
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3084:
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3040:
3038:
3036:
3031:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3009:Matrix effect
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2996:
2994:
2990:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2968:Pulverization
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2940:
2938:
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2910:
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2900:
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2756:
2752:
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2749:
2740:
2738:
2737:
2728:
2727:
2724:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2707:Chemical bond
2705:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2678:
2675:
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2627:
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2611:
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2596:Stoichiometry
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2589:
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2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2566:
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2552:Nanochemistry
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2549:
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2536:
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2534:
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2529:
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2522:
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2500:
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2304:
2298:
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2277:Semisynthesis
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2256:
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2202:
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2111:Sonochemistry
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2106:Cryochemistry
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2016:
2013:
2012:
2011:
2008:
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2003:
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2000:
1998:
1994:
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1985:
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1980:
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1977:Wet chemistry
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1973:
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1965:
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1956:
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1948:
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1946:
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1941:
1938:
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1599:9780495558286
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1412:
1408:
1401:
1398:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1360:(4611): 760.
1359:
1355:
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1336:
1332:
1327:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
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1098:0-07-237547-7
1094:
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1005:
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986:
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833:
829:
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792:
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647:
642:
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628:
624:
620:
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612:
608:
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598:work function
595:
591:
587:
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584:beta particle
581:
577:
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571:
567:
561:
559:
554:
552:
546:
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536:
530:
522:
520:
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389:
388:Richard Synge
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257:decomposition
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110:November 2020
102:
99:
95:
92:
88:
85:
81:
78:
74:
71: –
70:
66:
65:Find sources:
59:
55:
49:
48:
43:This article
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
3369:
3362:
3355:
3227:
3126:
3114:
3102:
3090:
3070:
3063:
3056:
3049:
3042:
3035:publications
2999:Chemometrics
2983:Sub-sampling
2922:Spectroscopy
2840:
2770:
2758:
2746:
2734:
2584:Biosynthesis
2434:Geochemistry
2349:Pharmacology
2325:Cell biology
2315:Biochemistry
2143:Spectroscopy
2042:VSEPR theory
1949:
1891:Spectroscopy
1835:Branches of
1784:
1758:
1726:
1722:
1712:
1693:
1687:
1662:
1658:
1652:
1627:
1623:
1616:
1589:
1583:
1524:. Retrieved
1514:
1495:
1491:
1481:
1462:
1414:
1410:
1400:
1357:
1353:
1343:
1308:
1304:
1294:
1277:
1273:
1253:. Retrieved
1248:
1239:
1212:
1157:. Retrieved
1153:the original
1143:
1124:
1088:
982:
969:hydrocarbons
958:
948:
933:
930:
915:
912:Applications
895:
872:
854:
841:
837:
834:
830:
826:
798:
789:
785:
773:
751:
738:
729:
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602:
588:
578:
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555:
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532:
517:
488:
485:
451:
436:
433:Autosamplers
422:
404:Erika Cremer
401:
369:
354:
331:
327:
325:
294:gas such as
284:
279:
275:
271:
267:
265:
236:
232:
231:
116:
107:
97:
90:
83:
76:
64:
52:Please help
47:verification
44:
3128:WikiProject
2992:Calibration
2953:Dissolution
2892:Calorimetry
2772:WikiProject
1997:Theoretical
1982:Calorimetry
1779:‹ The
1665:: 137–153.
875:integration
439:autosampler
3405:Categories
3196:Techniques
3033:Prominent
2958:Filtration
2885:Techniques
2866:Microscope
2608:Metallurgy
2307:Biological
1873:Analytical
1526:October 6,
1255:2019-04-19
1249:HathiTrust
1058:References
936:soil gases
809:resolution
594:thermionic
558:methanizer
351:Background
292:unreactive
249:separating
221:Hyphenated
80:newspapers
2927:Titration
2670:Catalysis
2178:Inorganic
1972:Titration
1837:chemistry
1608:824171785
1498:: 10–38.
1492:HardwareX
1384:1476-4687
1231:915084423
940:picomoles
623:GC-MS-NMR
523:Detectors
366:Invention
288:inert gas
253:vaporized
180:Inorganic
3390:Category
3182:software
3092:Category
2948:Dilution
2936:Sampling
2736:Category
2692:Molecule
2629:See also
2054:Physical
1781:template
1679:25757823
1644:25079505
1441:16747422
1335:14934673
1159:11 March
1107:41070677
991:See also
955:ethylene
951:lavender
902:software
858:analytes
801:polarity
741:polarity
704:hydrogen
696:nitrogen
551:carbonyl
308:hydrogen
304:nitrogen
255:without
243:used in
186:volatile
184:Must be
168:Analytes
3187:history
3104:Commons
3044:Analyst
2963:Masking
2748:Commons
2712:Alchemy
2228:Organic
1783:below (
1731:Bibcode
1432:1265645
1392:4175977
1362:Bibcode
1326:1197726
664:Methods
656:(PID),
652:(IRD),
648:(HID),
338:History
200:Related
175:Organic
150:Acronym
94:scholar
3313:Theory
3116:Portal
2760:Portal
1906:UV-Vis
1800:Curlie
1786:Curlie
1700:
1677:
1642:
1606:
1596:
1575:
1469:
1439:
1429:
1390:
1382:
1354:Nature
1333:
1323:
1251:. 1883
1229:
1219:
1131:
1105:
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967:. The
702:, and
692:helium
474:Inlets
469:(SPME)
457:Liquid
328:column
296:helium
290:or an
274:), or
96:
89:
82:
75:
67:
1933:MALDI
1901:Raman
1388:S2CID
898:GC-MS
700:argon
615:GC-MS
611:GC-MS
300:argon
101:JSTOR
87:books
2687:Atom
1955:HPLC
1698:ISBN
1675:PMID
1663:1421
1640:PMID
1604:OCLC
1594:ISBN
1573:ISBN
1528:2019
1467:ISBN
1437:PMID
1380:ISSN
1331:PMID
1227:OCLC
1217:ISBN
1161:2012
1129:ISBN
1103:OCLC
1093:ISBN
922:ions
918:salt
889:(or
739:The
437:The
374:and
280:GLPC
247:for
73:news
2697:Ion
1928:ICP
1911:NMR
1798:at
1739:doi
1667:doi
1632:doi
1500:doi
1427:PMC
1419:doi
1370:doi
1358:181
1321:PMC
1313:doi
1282:doi
973:FID
965:TCD
781:det
777:inj
708:DID
306:or
302:,
272:VPC
56:by
3407::
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2423:/
2275:/
1950:GC
1923:EI
1896:IR
1737:.
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1721:.
1673:.
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1628:86
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