Geocentric model - Knowledge (XXG)

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long as each confines himself within his own lines, and both are careful, as St. Augustine warns us, "not to make rash assertions, or to assert what is not known as known". If dissension should arise between them, here is the rule also laid down by St. Augustine, for the theologian: "Whatever they can really demonstrate to be true of physical nature, we must show to be capable of reconciliation with our Scriptures; and whatever they assert in their treatises which is contrary to these Scriptures of ours, that is to Catholic faith, we must either prove it as well as we can to be entirely false, or at all events we must, without the smallest hesitation, believe it to be so." To understand how just is the rule here formulated we must remember, first, that the sacred writers, or to speak more accurately, the Holy Ghost "Who spoke by them, did not intend to teach men these things (that is to say, the essential nature of the things of the visible universe), things in no way profitable unto salvation." Hence they did not seek to penetrate the secrets of nature, but rather described and dealt with things in more or less figurative language, or in terms which were commonly used at the time, and which in many instances are in daily use at this day, even by the most eminent men of science. Ordinary speech primarily and properly describes what comes under the senses; and somewhat in the same way the sacred writers-as the Angelic Doctor also reminds us – "went by what sensibly appeared", or put down what God, speaking to men, signified, in the way men could understand and were accustomed to.

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and yearly motions, to His Holiness through Divine Providence, Pope Pius VII. Previously, His Holiness had referred this request to the Supreme Sacred Congregation and concurrently to the consideration of the Most Eminent and Most Reverend General Cardinal Inquisitor. His Holiness has decreed that no obstacles exist for those who sustain Copernicus' affirmation regarding the Earth's movement in the manner in which it is affirmed today, even by Catholic authors. He has, moreover, suggested the insertion of several notations into this work, aimed at demonstrating that the above mentioned affirmation , as it has come to be understood, does not present any difficulties; difficulties that existed in times past, prior to the subsequent astronomical observations that have now occurred. has also recommended that the implementation be given to the Cardinal Secretary of the Supreme Sacred Congregation and Master of the Sacred Apostolic Palace. He is now appointed the task of bringing to an end any concerns and criticisms regarding the printing of this book, and, at the same time, ensuring that in the future, regarding the publication of such works, permission is sought from the Cardinal Vicar whose signature will not be given without the authorization of the Superior of his Order.

461:. The deferent is a circle whose center point, called the eccentric and marked in the diagram with an X, is distant from the Earth. The original purpose of the eccentric was to account for the difference in length of the seasons (northern autumn was about five days shorter than spring during this time period) by placing the Earth away from the center of rotation of the rest of the universe. Another sphere, the epicycle, is embedded inside the deferent sphere and is represented by the smaller dotted line to the right. A given planet then moves around the epicycle at the same time the epicycle moves along the path marked by the deferent. These combined movements cause the given planet to move closer to and further away from the Earth at different points in its orbit, and explained the observation that planets slowed down, stopped, and moved backward in 361:. Therefore, the Greeks chose the simpler of the two explanations. Another observation used in favor of the geocentric model at the time was the apparent consistency of Venus' luminosity, which implies that it is usually about the same distance from Earth, which in turn is more consistent with geocentrism than heliocentrism. (In fact, Venus' luminous consistency is due to any loss of light caused by its phases being compensated for by an increase in apparent size caused by its varying distance from Earth.) Objectors to heliocentrism noted that terrestrial bodies naturally tend to come to rest as near as possible to the center of the Earth. Further, barring the opportunity to fall closer the center, terrestrial bodies tend not to move unless forced by an outside object, or transformed to a different element by heat or moisture. 1781:

centrality of the Earth, was to think that our understanding of the physical world's structure was, in some way, imposed by the literal sense of Sacred Scripture. Let us recall the celebrated saying attributed to Baronius "Spiritui Sancto mentem fuisse nos docere quomodo ad coelum eatur, non quomodo coelum gradiatur". In fact, the Bible does not concern itself with the details of the physical world, the understanding of which is the competence of human experience and reasoning. There exist two realms of knowledge, one which has its source in Revelation and one which reason can discover by its own power. To the latter belong especially the experimental sciences and philosophy. The distinction between the two realms of knowledge ought not to be understood as opposition.

440: 1462:], not only those moving uniformly, but also those moving quite arbitrarily, relative to each other? If this can be done, our difficulties will be over. We shall then be able to apply the laws of nature to any CS. The struggle, so violent in the early days of science, between the views of Ptolemy and Copernicus would then be quite meaningless. Either CS could be used with equal justification. The two sentences, 'the sun is at rest and the Earth moves', or 'the sun moves and the Earth is at rest', would simply mean two different conventions concerning two different CS. Could we build a real relativistic physics valid in all CS; a physics in which there would be no place for absolute, but only for relative, motion? This is indeed possible!" 1668:

as the Angelic Doctor says, speaking either "in figurative language, or in terms which were commonly used at the time, and which in many instances are in daily use at this day, even among the most eminent men of science". For "the sacred writers, or to speak more accurately – the words are St. Augustine's – the Holy Spirit, Who spoke by them, did not intend to teach men these things – that is the essential nature of the things of the universe – things in no way profitable to salvation"; which principle "will apply to cognate sciences, and especially to history", that is, by refuting, "in a somewhat similar way the fallacies of the adversaries and defending the historical truth of Sacred Scripture from their attacks".

341:. He further described his system by explaining the natural tendencies of the terrestrial elements: earth, water, fire, air, as well as celestial aether. His system held that earth was the heaviest element, with the strongest movement towards the center, thus water formed a layer surrounding the sphere of Earth. The tendency of air and fire, on the other hand, was to move upwards, away from the center, with fire being lighter than air. Beyond the layer of fire, were the solid spheres of aether in which the celestial bodies were embedded. They were also entirely composed of aether. 1196:, and stated that they orbited around Jupiter, not Earth. This was a significant claim as it would mean not only that not everything revolved around Earth as stated in the Ptolemaic model, but also showed a secondary celestial body could orbit a moving celestial body, strengthening the heliocentric argument that a moving Earth could retain the Moon. Galileo's observations were verified by other astronomers of the time period who quickly adopted use of the telescope, including 251: 1222: 33: 493:. The resultant system, which eventually came to be widely accepted in the west, seems unwieldy to modern astronomers; each planet required an epicycle revolving on a deferent, offset by an equant which was different for each planet. It predicted various celestial motions, including the beginning and end of retrograde motion, to within a maximum error of 10 degrees, considerably better than without the equant. 1812:, which establishes that "when two bodies in space are in motion relative to one another, ... science declares with absolute certainty that from the scientific point of view both possibilities are equally valid, namely that the Earth revolves around the sun, or the sun revolves around the Earth", although he also went on to refer to people who believed in geocentrism as "remaining in the world of Copernicus". 378: 714: 1308: 1213: 489:. The equant was a point near the center of a planet's orbit where, if you were to stand there and watch, the center of the planet's epicycle would always appear to move at uniform speed; all other locations would see non-uniform speed, as on the Earth. By using an equant, Ptolemy claimed to keep motion which was uniform and circular, although it departed from the Platonic ideal of 7141: 1012: 1732:

astronomers, as long as there are no other contrary indications, on the basis of the decrees of the Sacred Congregation of the Index of 1757 and of this Supreme of 1820; and that those who would show themselves to be reluctant or would disobey, should be forced under punishments at the choice of Sacred Congregation, with derogation of claimed privileges, where necessary.

7165: 7117: 1065: 7153: 7129: 1478:, the planets do indeed move around the Sun, which due to its much larger mass, moves far less than its own diameter and the gravity of which is dominant in determining the orbits of the planets (in other words, the center of mass of the Solar System is near the center of the Sun). The Earth and Moon are much closer to being a 1667:

The first and greatest care of Leo XIII was to set forth the teaching on the truth of the Sacred Books and to defend it from attack. Hence with grave words did he proclaim that there is no error whatsoever if the sacred writer, speaking of things of the physical order "went by what sensibly appeared"

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we have to contend against those who, making an evil use of physical science, minutely scrutinize the Sacred Book in order to detect the writers in a mistake, and to take occasion to vilify its contents. ... There can never, indeed, be any real discrepancy between the theologian and the physicist, as

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This showed that with a Ptolemaic cosmology, the Venus epicycle can be neither completely inside nor completely outside of the orbit of the Sun. As a result, Ptolemaics abandoned the idea that the epicycle of Venus was completely inside the Sun, and later 17th-century competition between astronomical

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has moons) called into question some of the tenets of geocentrism but did not seriously threaten it. Because he observed dark "spots" on the Moon, craters, he remarked that the moon was not a perfect celestial body as had been previously conceived. This was the first detailed observation by telescope

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was conceived to move uniformly) and produce alternative configurations to the Ptolemaic model without abandoning geocentrism. They were more successful than their Andalusian predecessors in producing non-Ptolemaic configurations which eliminated the equant and eccentrics, were more accurate than the

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thought that the Earth was a sphere (in accordance with observations of eclipses), but not at the center; he believed that it was in motion around an unseen fire. Later these views were combined, so most educated Greeks from the 4th century BC onwards thought that the Earth was a sphere at the center

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The Assessor of the Holy Office has referred the request of Giuseppe Settele, Professor of Optics and Astronomy at La Sapienza University, regarding permission to publish his work Elements of Astronomy in which he espouses the common opinion of the astronomers of our time regarding the Earth’s daily

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Relativity agrees with Newtonian predictions that regardless of whether the Sun or the Earth are chosen arbitrarily as the center of the coordinate system describing the Solar System, the paths of the planets form (roughly) ellipses with respect to the Sun, not the Earth. With respect to the average

485:, even though it was an improvement over Hipparchus' system. Most noticeably the size of a planet's retrograde loop (especially that of Mars) would be smaller, or sometimes larger, than expected, resulting in positional errors of as much as 30 degrees. To alleviate the problem, Ptolemy developed the 430:

Ptolemy argued that the Earth was a sphere in the center of the universe, from the simple observation that half the stars were above the horizon and half were below the horizon at any time (stars on rotating stellar sphere), and the assumption that the stars were all at some modest distance from the

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The Zohar states: "The entire world and those upon it, spin round in a circle like a ball, both those at the bottom of the ball and those at the top. All God's creatures, wherever they live on the different parts of the ball, look different (in color, in their features) because the air is different

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stated that, "though this Earth on which we live may not be the center of the universe as at one time was thought, it was the scene of the original happiness of our first ancestors, witness of their unhappy fall, as too of the Redemption of mankind through the Passion and Death of Jesus Christ". In

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What the principle of relativity points out is that correct mathematical calculations can be made regardless of the reference frame chosen, and these will all agree with each other as to the predictions of actual motions of bodies with respect to each other. It is not necessary to choose the object

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entirely inside the sphere of the Sun (between the Sun and Mercury), but this was arbitrary; he could just as easily have swapped Venus and Mercury and put them on the other side of the Sun, or made any other arrangement of Venus and Mercury, as long as they were always near a line running from the

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Atmospheric explanations for many phenomena were preferred because the Eudoxan–Aristotelian model based on perfectly concentric spheres was not intended to explain changes in the brightness of the planets due to a change in distance. Eventually, perfectly concentric spheres were abandoned as it was

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All Islamic astronomers from Thabit ibn Qurra in the ninth century to Ibn al-Shatir in the fourteenth, and all natural philosophers from al-Kindi to Averroes and later, are known to have accepted ... the Greek picture of the world as consisting of two spheres of which one, the celestial sphere ...

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Donald B. DeYoung, for example, states that "Similar terminology is often used today when we speak of the sun's rising and setting, even though the earth, not the sun, is doing the moving. Bible writers used the 'language of appearance,' just as people always have. Without it, the intended message

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could remove Ptolemy's epicycles because the retrograde motion could be seen to be the result of the combination of the movements and speeds of Earth and planets. Copernicus felt strongly that equants were a violation of Aristotelian purity, and proved that replacement of the equant with a pair of

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should change considerably over the course of a year. As they did not appear to move, either the stars are much farther away than the Sun and the planets than previously conceived, making their motion undetectable, or the Earth is not moving at all. Because the stars are actually much further away

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stated that, "Consequently, we cannot but deplore certain habits of mind, which are sometimes found too among Christians, which do not sufficiently attend to the rightful independence of science and which, from the arguments and controversies they spark, lead many minds to conclude that faith and

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for the year 1631. The change from circular orbits to elliptical planetary paths dramatically improved the accuracy of celestial observations and predictions. Because the heliocentric model devised by Copernicus was no more accurate than Ptolemy's system, new observations were needed to persuade

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The deferent-and-epicycle model had been used by Greek astronomers for centuries along with the idea of the eccentric (a deferent whose center is slightly away from the Earth), which was even older. In the illustration, the center of the deferent is not the Earth but the spot marked X, making it

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Cardinal Poupard has also reminded us that the sentence of 1633 was not irreformable, and that the debate which had not ceased to evolve thereafter, was closed in 1820 with the imprimatur given to the work of Canon Settele. ... The error of the theologians of the time, when they maintained the

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To summarize, Ptolemy conceived a system that was compatible with Aristotelian philosophy and succeeded in tracking actual observations and predicting future movement mostly to within the limits of the next 1000 years of observations. The observed motions and his mechanisms for explaining them

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The model with epicycles is in fact a very good model of an elliptical orbit with low eccentricity. The well-known ellipse shape does not appear to a noticeable extent when the eccentricity is less than 5%, but the offset distance of the "center" (in fact the focus occupied by the Sun) is very

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In the fully developed Aristotelian system, the spherical Earth is at the center of the universe, and all other heavenly bodies are attached to 47–55 transparent, rotating spheres surrounding the Earth, all concentric with it. (The number is so high because several spheres are needed for each

1534:, A. L. Graebner observed that the synod had no doctrinal position on geocentrism, heliocentrism, or any scientific model, unless it were to contradict Scripture. He stated that any possible declarations of geocentrists within the synod did not set the position of the church body as a whole. 1731:

The most excellent have decreed that there must be no denial, by the present or by future Masters of the Sacred Apostolic Palace, of permission to print and to publish works which treat of the mobility of the Earth and of the immobility of the sun, according to the common opinion of modern

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Despite giving more respectability to the geocentric view than Newtonian physics does, relativity is not geocentric. Rather, relativity states that the Sun, the Earth, the Moon, Jupiter, or any other point for that matter could be chosen as a center of the Solar System with equal validity.

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While geocentrism is important in Maimonides' calendar calculations, the great majority of Jewish religious scholars, who accept the divinity of the Bible and accept many of his rulings as legally binding, do not believe that the Bible or Maimonides command a belief in geocentrism.

1156:), which posited that the Earth and the other planets instead revolved around the Sun. The geocentric system was still held for many years afterwards, as at the time the Copernican system did not offer better predictions than the geocentric system, and it posed problems for both 270:

proposed a cosmology with Earth shaped like a section of a pillar (a cylinder), held aloft at the center of everything. The Sun, Moon, and planets were holes in invisible wheels surrounding Earth; through the holes, humans could see concealed fire. About the same time,

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models provide identical results to identical inputs: they are computationally equivalent. It was not until Kepler demonstrated a physical observation that could show that the physical Sun is directly involved in determining an orbit that a new model was required.

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remains speculative, since there is no documentary evidence to prove it. The possibility that Copernicus independently developed the Tusi couple remains open, since no researcher has yet demonstrated that he knew about Tusi's work or that of the Maragha school.

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is most useful in those cases, galactic and extragalactic astronomy is easier if the Sun is treated as neither stationary nor the center of the universe, but rather rotating around the center of our galaxy, while in turn our galaxy is also not at rest in the

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successfully, and disproved Ptolemy's claim that parallax motion did not exist. This finally confirmed the assumptions made by Copernicus, providing accurate, dependable scientific observations, and conclusively displaying how distant stars are from Earth.

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In this depiction of the Tychonic system, the objects on blue orbits (the Moon and the Sun) revolve around the Earth. The objects on orange orbits (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn) revolve around the Sun. Around all is a sphere of stars, which

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quotes a 2006 survey that show currently some 20% of the U.S. population believe that the Sun goes around the Earth (geocentricism) rather than the Earth goes around the Sun (heliocentricism), while a further 9% claimed not to know. Polls conducted by

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as the force which both kept the Earth and planets moving through the universe and also kept the atmosphere from flying away. The theory of gravity allowed scientists to rapidly construct a plausible heliocentric model for the Solar System. In his

238:(1571–1630). There was much resistance to the transition between these two theories, since for a long time the geocentric postulate produced more accurate results. Additionally some felt that a new, unknown theory could not subvert an accepted 830:

based on a belief held by some of his contemporaries "that the motion we see is due to the Earth's movement and not to that of the sky." The prevalence of this view is further confirmed by a reference from the 13th century which states:

1482:; the center of mass around which they both rotate is still inside the Earth, but is about 4,624 km (2,873 mi) or 72.6% of the Earth's radius away from the centre of the Earth (thus closer to the surface than the center). 1654:

Maurice Finocchiaro, author of a book on the Galileo affair, notes that this is "a view of the relationship between biblical interpretation and scientific investigation that corresponds to the one advanced by Galileo in the

1545:, which, when taken literally, indicate that the daily apparent motions of the Sun and the Moon are due to their actual motions around the Earth rather than due to the rotation of the Earth about its axis. For example, in 1632:. In regards to the theological basis for such an argument, two Popes addressed the question of whether the use of phenomenological language would compel one to admit an error in Scripture. Both taught that it would not. 1486:

in the Solar System with the largest gravitational field as the center of the coordinate system in order to predict the motions of planetary bodies, though doing so may make calculations easier to perform or interpret. A

1379:, Newton explained his theory of how gravity, previously thought to be a mysterious, unexplained occult force, directed the movements of celestial bodies, and kept our Solar System in working order. His descriptions of 1498:), or when calculating what the sky will look like when viewed from Earth (as opposed to an imaginary observer looking down on the entire Solar System, where a different coordinate system might be more convenient). 1704:

The position of the curia evolved slowly over the centuries towards permitting the heliocentric view. In 1757, during the papacy of Benedict XIV, the Congregation of the Index withdrew the decree which prohibited

1325:(in which the Earth was still at the center of the universe, and around it revolved the Sun, but all other planets revolved around the Sun in one massive set of epicycles), or variations on the Copernican system. 1394:

of Newton's theory, explaining the longer period of oscillation of a pendulum at the equator and the differing size of a degree of latitude, would gradually become available between 1673 and 1738. In addition,

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In 1822, the Congregation of the Holy Office removed the prohibition on the publication of books treating of the Earth's motion in accordance with modern astronomy and Pope Pius VII ratified the decision:

1575:). These people subscribe to the view that a plain reading of the Bible contains an accurate account of the manner in which the universe was created and requires a geocentric worldview. Most contemporary 1120:

was the most radical. He correctly realized in the 4th century BC that the universe does not have any single center. This theory was widely accepted by the later Epicureans and was notably defended by

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planet.) These spheres, known as crystalline spheres, all moved at different uniform speeds to create the revolution of bodies around the Earth. They were composed of an incorruptible substance called

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Adherence to the geocentric model stemmed largely from several important observations. First of all, if the Earth did move, then one ought to be able to observe the shifting of the fixed stars due to

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in each place, but they stand erect as all other human beings, therefore, there are places in the world where, when some have light, others have darkness; when some have day, others have night."

862:), which some have interpreted to imply he was criticizing Ptolemy's geocentrism, but most agree that he was actually criticizing the details of Ptolemy's model rather than his geocentrism. 287:, wrote works based on the geocentric model. According to Plato, the Earth was a sphere, stationary at the center of the universe. The stars and planets were carried around the Earth on 1608:, an expert in the public understanding of science and technology, found that about 20%, or one in five, of American adults believe that the Sun orbits the Earth. According to 2011 702:

new epicycles was entirely equivalent. Astronomers often continued using the equants instead of the epicycles because the former was easier to calculate, and gave the same result.

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Although the basic tenets of Greek geocentrism were established by the time of Aristotle, the details of his system did not become standard. The Ptolemaic system, developed by the

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in the 4th century BC, believed that the Earth rotated on its axis but remained at the center of the universe. Such a system still qualifies as geocentric. It was revived in the

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A geocentric frame is useful for many everyday activities and most laboratory experiments, but is a less appropriate choice for Solar System mechanics and space travel. While a

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impossible to develop a sufficiently accurate model under that ideal, with the mathematical methods then available. However, while providing for similar explanations, the later

291:, arranged in the order (outwards from the center): Moon, Sun, Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, fixed stars, with the fixed stars located on the celestial sphere. In his " 3551: 955:

Ptolemaic model in numerically predicting planetary positions, and were in better agreement with empirical observations. The most important of the Maragha astronomers included

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Earth through the Sun, such as placing the center of the Venus epicycle near the Sun. In this case, if the Sun is the source of all the light, under the Ptolemaic system:

1112:, saying that the Sun was at the center of the universe, while the Earth and other planets revolved around it. His theory was not popular, and he had one named follower, 4254: 1022: 806:

generally accepted the Ptolemaic system and the geocentric model, but by the 10th century texts appeared regularly whose subject matter was doubts concerning Ptolemy (

5881: 919:) beyond this world such that each one of those worlds be bigger and more massive than this world as well as having the like of what this world has." To support his 1713:

and a few other books continued to be explicitly included. In 1820, the Congregation of the Holy Office, with the pope's approval, decreed that Catholic astronomer

1100:. Heraclides Ponticus was once thought to have proposed that both Venus and Mercury went around the Sun rather than the Earth, but it is now known that he did not. 930:

The "Maragha Revolution" refers to the Maragha school's revolution against Ptolemaic astronomy. The "Maragha school" was an astronomical tradition beginning in the

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in 1609 and 1619, based on a heliocentric view where the planets move in elliptical paths. Using these laws, he was the first astronomer to successfully predict a

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mechanisms, though this resulted in a system that was mathematically less accurate. His alternative system spread through most of Europe during the 13th century.

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those who still adhered to the geocentric model. However, Kepler's laws based on Brahe's data became a problem which geocentrists could not easily overcome.

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Lattis, James L. (1995). Between Copernicus and Galileo: Christoph Clavius and the Collapse of Ptolemaic Cosmology, University of Chicago Press, pgs 186-190

5147: 3090: 839:), the Earth is in constant circular motion, and what appears to be the motion of the heavens is actually due to the motion of the Earth and not the stars. 439: 5580: 4762: 3384: 7007: 5722: 1600:

in the 1990s found that 16% of Germans, 18% of Americans and 19% of Britons hold that the Sun revolves around the Earth. A study conducted in 2005 by

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center of the universe. If the Earth were substantially displaced from the center, this division into visible and invisible stars would not be equal.

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Two observations supported the idea that Earth was the center of the Universe. First, from anywhere on Earth, the Sun appears to revolve around Earth

1387:, finally replacing the previous schools of scientific thought, which had been dominated by Aristotle and Ptolemy. However, the process was gradual. 7190: 5183: 4525: 3830:

Grant, Edward (1984-01-01). "In Defense of the Earth's Centrality and Immobility: Scholastic Reaction to Copernicanism in the Seventeenth Century".

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The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, Prehistory to A.D. 1450

810:). Several Muslim scholars questioned the Earth's apparent immobility and centrality within the universe. Some Muslim astronomers believed that the 1160:

and scripture. The Copernican system was no more accurate than Ptolemy's system, because it still used circular orbits. This was not altered until

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assumed it was the correct cosmological model. Because of its influence, people sometimes wrongly think the Ptolemaic system is identical with the

7001: 6780: 6631: 5738: 4729: 4079: 6535: 118:. While the Moon and the planets have their own motions, they also appear to revolve around Earth about once per day. The stars appeared to be 3227: 1276:. He thought that while this observation was incompatible with the Ptolemaic system, it was a natural consequence of the heliocentric system. 179:

placing all of the then-known planets in their correct order around the Sun. The ancient Greeks believed that the motions of the planets were

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Prominent cases of modern geocentrism are very isolated. Very few individuals promoted a geocentric view of the universe. One of them was

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was allowed to treat the Earth's motion as an established fact and removed any obstacle for Catholics to hold to the motion of the Earth:

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meaning "center"), from which the spot takes its name. Unfortunately, the system that was available in Ptolemy's time did not quite match

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common to the major Eurasian religious traditions. It also follows the decreasing orbital periods of the Moon, Sun, planets and stars.

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would be awkward at best and probably not understood clearly. When the Bible touches on scientific subjects, it is entirely accurate."

1855:. He rejected the heliocentric model and wrote a book that explains the movement of the sun, moon and other planets around the Earth. 1829: 4047: 134:

of Earth. Second, Earth seems to be unmoving from the perspective of an earthbound observer; it feels solid, stable, and stationary.

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Sabra, A. I. (1998). "Configuring the Universe: Aporetic, Problem Solving, and Kinematic Modeling as Themes of Arabic Astronomy".

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system has already been mentioned; some Pythagoreans believed the Earth to be one of several planets going around a central fire.

7185: 4240: 333:. Aristotle believed that the Moon was in the innermost sphere and therefore touches the realm of Earth, causing the dark spots ( 6407: 6397: 5113: 960: 2814: 7205: 6265: 4755: 4005: 3940: 3917: 3905: 3797: 3552:"EgoCentrism and GeoCentrism; Human Significance and Existential Despair; Bible and Science; Fundamentalism and Skepticalism" 3346: 3068: 2794: 2547: 1773: 223: 64: 6200: 3435:"Orthodox Jews & science: An empirical study of their attitudes toward evolution, the fossil record, and modern geology" 1697:) and attached the various decrees connected with those books, including those concerned with heliocentrism. He stated in a 6220: 5805: 6316: 4652: 3658: 3184: 317:, who worked with Plato, developed a less mythical, more mathematical explanation of the planets' motion based on Plato's 7107: 5795: 1800:

leaders maintain a geocentric model of the universe based on the aforementioned Biblical verses and an interpretation of

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Only ratio between radius of deferent and associated epicycle determined; absolute distances not determined in theory

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notion of the Earth's centrality within the universe, but instead argues that there are "a thousand thousand worlds (

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Another demonstration of the complexity of observed orbits when assuming a geocentric model of the Solar System

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that his purpose in doing so was that "the succession of things done from the beginning might be made known ".

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in 1992. The Pope declared the incident to be based on a "tragic mutual miscomprehension". He further stated:

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can be more convenient when dealing only with bodies mostly influenced by the gravity of the Earth (such as

870: 490: 263: 6754: 6714: 6528: 6469: 6428: 6255: 6235: 6154: 6032: 5323: 5313: 4591: 4464: 4399: 4065: 3807: 3461:

Nussbaum, Alexander (January–April 2002). "Creationism and geocentrism among Orthodox Jewish scientists".

2363: 1760: 964: 681: 650: 24: 602:

Motion of epicycle in same direction as deferent. Period of epicycle is time between retrograde motions (

7021: 6815: 6729: 6402: 6215: 6184: 6129: 5917: 5568: 5558: 5389: 5308: 5105: 4945: 4627: 4556: 4294: 1750: 1646: 1384: 1033: 939: 890: 882: 458: 366: 3644: 3004:"Excerpts from Frank Zindler's 'Report from the center of the universe' and 'Turtles all the way down'" 956: 815: 325:

in the heavens can be explained with uniform circular motion. Aristotle elaborated on Eudoxus' system.

4042: 3734:"From Geocentrism to Allocentrism: Teaching the Phases of the Moon in a Digital Full-Dome Planetarium" 1714: 7040: 7014: 6855: 6825: 6230: 6210: 5901: 5800: 5785: 5596: 5505: 5399: 4830: 4698: 4439: 4389: 4309: 4284: 3745: 2718: 2447: 2412: 2385: 2215: 1888: 1491: 1113: 1105: 931: 896: 790: 416: 302: 239: 161: 7169: 6981: 6820: 6800: 6734: 6719: 6590: 6549: 6270: 6245: 5932: 5896: 5851: 5525: 5444: 5394: 5167: 5141: 5035: 4970: 4950: 4469: 4374: 4324: 4299: 3007: 2709:

Eastwood, B. S. (1992-11-01). "Heraclides and heliocentrism – Texts diagrams and interpretations".

1908: 1852: 1809: 1391: 1089: 811: 297: 39:— An illustration of a non-Ptolemaic geocentric system by Portuguese cosmographer and cartographer 5190: 3679: 1514:; from the late 16th century onward it was gradually replaced as the consensus description by the 7157: 7145: 7045: 6986: 6664: 6474: 6027: 5821: 5359: 5288: 5127: 4825: 4703: 4617: 3924: 3855: 3763: 3733: 3714: 3593: 2734: 2463: 2231: 2184: 2114: 2077: 1684: 1515: 1471: 1396: 1251: 1197: 1157: 694: 668: 176: 108: 6616: 6275: 3060: 3054: 1383:

were a breakthrough in scientific thought, using the newly developed mathematical discipline of

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of the Moon's imperfections, which had previously been explained by Aristotle as the Moon being

254:

Illustration of Anaximander's models of the universe. On the left, summer; on the right, winter.

2580: 7076: 7071: 6945: 6805: 6464: 6346: 6280: 5992: 5616: 5537: 5470: 5374: 5364: 5134: 5028: 4935: 4915: 4612: 4459: 4364: 4319: 4001: 3984: 3974: 3955: 3936: 3913: 3901: 3847: 3793: 3694: 3624: 3573: 3503: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3342: 3283: 3163: 3064: 3050: 2982: 2957: 2932: 2928: 2922: 2858: 2820: 2790: 2761: 2757: 2674: 2670: 2641: 2616: 2584: 2543: 2511: 2481:"Ptolemaic Astronomy, Islamic Planetary Theory, and Copernicus's Debt to the Maragha School". 2332: 2307: 2143: 2028: 2024: 1995: 1991: 1805: 1769: 1459: 1407:

over a period of ten years, finishing in 1680. However, it was not explained until 1729, when

1380: 1238:, despite remaining near the Sun in Earth's sky (first image). This proved that it orbits the 1101: 798: 536: 420: 314: 306: 288: 6367: 4052: 3488: 3484: 3036: 2612: 2253: 7121: 7086: 7055: 6930: 6920: 6709: 6669: 6654: 6577: 6542: 6522: 6387: 6372: 6093: 5942: 5831: 5651: 5369: 5303: 5273: 5263: 5253: 5197: 5153: 4980: 4771: 4724: 4677: 4647: 4586: 4561: 4179: 4016: 3839: 3753: 3706: 3616: 3411: 2850: 2810: 2726: 2662: 2568: 2455: 2420: 2254:"Fakhr Al-Din Al-Razi on physics and the nature of the physical world: A preliminary survey" 2223: 2176: 2106: 2069: 2016: 1983: 1872: 1871:

and geocentric models. In particular, the geocentric model is still used for projecting the

1797: 1755: 1745: 1558: 1538: 1345: 1221: 920: 874: 733: 589:

Eastward motion of deferents; period set by observation of planet going around the ecliptic

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says in part, "the world is established, firm and secure". Contemporary advocates for such

95:

Earth. The geocentric model was the predominant description of the cosmos in many European

6991: 6925: 6689: 6644: 6174: 6048: 6017: 5952: 5780: 5707: 5676: 5510: 5424: 5283: 5160: 5097: 4995: 4940: 4905: 4672: 4607: 4576: 4474: 4404: 4199: 4132: 4127: 3893: 3035:. St. Louis, MO: Lutheran Synod of Missouri, Ohio and other states, Concordia Publishing: 2380:

Rufus, W. C. (May 1939). "The influence of Islamic astronomy in Europe and the far east".

1764:

science are mutually opposed." The footnote on this statement is to Msgr. Pio Paschini's,

1562: 1507: 1447: 1333: 1322: 1269: 1261: 1235: 1231: 1201: 1192:

of the higher spheres. Galileo could also see the moons of Jupiter, which he dedicated to

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Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures

3202: 1518:. Geocentrism as a separate religious belief, however, never completely died out. In the 401:

in the 2nd century AD, finally standardised geocentrism. His main astronomical work, the

3749: 3673: 2722: 2451: 2416: 2389: 2219: 6835: 6810: 6596: 6459: 6113: 6088: 6073: 6058: 6022: 5891: 5671: 5633: 5409: 5384: 5379: 5176: 5120: 5083: 4850: 4840: 4810: 4535: 4414: 4349: 4329: 4214: 4204: 4189: 4184: 3929: 3881: 3871: 3786: 1918: 1913: 1625: 1550: 1451: 1142:

In 1543, the geocentric system met its first serious challenge with the publication of

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verse, "All praise belongs to God, Lord of the Worlds," emphasizing the term "Worlds."

878: 603: 528: 470: 408: 192: 180: 137: 127: 115: 2501: 2060:

Goldstein, Bernard R. (1967). "The Arabic version of Ptolemy's planetary hypothesis".

1537:

Articles arguing that geocentrism was the biblical perspective appeared in some early

1411:

provided an approximate explanation in terms of the Earth's revolution about the Sun.

32: 7179: 6955: 6865: 6739: 6609: 6602: 6301: 6169: 6144: 6083: 5553: 5458: 5439: 5069: 5062: 5055: 4965: 4960: 4930: 4855: 4805: 4657: 4642: 4622: 4137: 4122: 4117: 4107: 4088: 3767: 3718: 3157: 3153: 2851: 2738: 2663: 2569: 2564: 2531: 2467: 2424: 2235: 2188: 2118: 2017: 1984: 1660: 1633: 1601: 1592: 1571: 1519: 1479: 1431: 1408: 1185: 1109: 968: 778: 769: 394: 349: 7133: 6785: 6679: 6392: 6326: 6179: 5922: 5886: 5464: 5229: 4975: 4910: 4795: 4505: 4354: 4209: 4154: 4149: 4144: 4112: 4102: 3620: 3319: 2486: 1903: 1876: 1868: 1864: 1400: 1361: 1353: 1097: 338: 219: 200: 141: 5451: 3003: 377: 4025: 3303: 3251: 3107:"Astronomy and the Bible: Selected questions and answers excerpted from the book" 2403:

Hartner, Willy (1955). "The Mercury horoscope of Marcantonio Michiel of Venice".

6960: 6950: 6915: 6724: 6704: 6583: 6423: 6159: 6108: 6068: 5836: 5434: 5328: 5213: 5012: 4990: 4925: 4860: 4820: 4800: 4344: 4289: 3867: 3308:(in Latin). Rome: Ex typographia Reurendae Camerae Apostolicae. 1664. p. v. 2536:

A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam

1576: 1475: 1404: 1369: 1337: 1318: 1273: 1093: 983: 763: 482: 267: 145: 119: 3106: 2730: 1458:(1938): "Can we formulate physical laws so that they are valid for all CS [ 1368:

from the law of gravitation, thus helping to prove the latter. This introduced

1307: 1212: 713: 389:

point. The Green shaded area is the celestial sphere which the planet occupies.

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Goldstein, Bernard R. (1972). "Theory and observation in medieval astronomy".

2204:"Freeing astronomy from philosophy: An aspect of Islamic influence on science" 2180: 2163:

Ragep, F. Jamil (2001). "Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's motion in context".

1801: 1698: 1546: 1511: 1247: 1143: 994: 972: 943: 912: 292: 272: 227: 215: 153: 3988: 3851: 1554: 1304:

But Galileo saw Venus at first small and full, and later large and crescent.

777:

Ptolemy did not invent or work out this order, which aligns with the ancient

353:

than Greek astronomers postulated (making angular movement extremely small),

203:

showed that elliptical orbits could be derived from his laws of gravitation.

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problem (the circle around whose circumference a planet or the center of an

823: 819: 322: 284: 211: 157: 100: 48: 3481:

Mind over Matter: The Lubavitcher Rebbe on Science, Technology and Medicine

1296:

or all dark. If Venus is beyond the Sun, the phase of Venus must always be

924: 5449: 5044: 4232: 1836:

from Latin to Arabic, Muslims adopted and refined the geocentric model of

457:

In the Ptolemaic system, each planet is moved by a system of two spheres:

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If Venus is between Earth and the Sun, the phase of Venus must always be

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to the effect that he ruled that the Earth is orbited by the Sun. The

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noticeable even with low eccentricities as possessed by the planets.

486: 386: 318: 310: 235: 210:, developed in the 2nd century CE, served as the basis for preparing 3898:

The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe

3843: 3129:"1 In 4 Americans Thinks The Sun Goes Around The Earth, Survey Says" 2214:(Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions): 49–64, 66–71. 2073: 1254:

and disproved the then conventional geocentric model (second image).

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regretted the treatment which Galileo received, in a speech to the

705:

It has been determined that the Copernican, Ptolemaic and even the

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The basic elements of Ptolemaic astronomy, showing a planet on an

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Theories of the World from Antiquity to the Copernican Revolution

3253:'СОЛНЦЕ – СПУТНИК ЗЕМЛИ', ИЛИ РЕЙТИНГ НАУЧНЫХ ЗАБЛУЖДЕНИЙ РОССИЯН 2665:

A History of Ancient Philosophy: From the Beginnings to Augustine

1340:'s famously accurate observations and afterwards constructed his 656:

Size of epicycles set by these angles, proportional to distances

628:

Equants per planet (Copernicus used a pair of epicycles instead)

539:

with it; normally ignored; other spheres have additional motions

465:, and then again reversed to resume normal, or prograde, motion. 5531: 4057: 1495: 748: 728: 84: 80: 6495: 5749: 5711: 4744: 4236: 4061: 3609:"Almagest: Its Reception and Transmission in the Islamic World" 369:

model was already flexible enough to accommodate observations.

16:

Superseded description of the Universe with Earth at the center

6568: 5236: 2278:

Alessandro Bausani (1973). "Cosmology and Religion in Islam".

1840:, which they believed correlated with the teachings of Islam. 1364:

and others. His main achievement was to mathematically derive

1239: 1072:

manuscript dated around 1750 illustrates the geocentric model.

1005: 743: 218:

for over 1,500 years. The geocentric model held sway into the

76: 4043:

Geocentric Perspective animation of the Solar System in 150AD

2563:

Dallal, Ahmad (1999). "Science, Medicine and Technology". In

946:

predecessors, the Maragha astronomers attempted to solve the

222:

age, but from the late 16th century onward, it was gradually

3952:

From Eudoxus to Einstein—A History of Mathematical Astronomy

2877:

Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation

2609:

The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West

1808:

also explained that geocentrism is defensible based on the

1522:

between 1870 and 1920, for example, various members of the

279:

In the 4th century BC, two influential Greek philosophers,

1104:

definitely put Mercury and Venus in orbit around the Sun.

524:

Westward motion of entire sky in ~24 hrs ("first motion")

148:

philosophers usually combined the geocentric model with a

19:"Geocentric" redirects here. For orbits around Earth, see 3056:

The Creationists: The Evolution of Scientific Creationism

2927:(1966 ed.). New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 993:

to heliocentrism. The influence of the Maragha school on

3258:'Sun-earth', or rating scientific fallacies of Russians 3086:"In this world view, the sun revolves around the earth" 1549:, the Sun and Moon are said to stop in the sky, and in 1029: 1188:

by Earth and its heavier elements, in contrast to the

724:

The Ptolemaic order of spheres from Earth outward is:

7105: 3570:

Science in the Light of Torah: A B'Or Ha'Torah Reader

3185:"New Poll Gauges Americans' General Knowledge Levels" 2981:. London: Heineman Educational Books Ltd. p. 1. 2756:(2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 2304:

Religion, Learning and Science in the 'Abbasid Period

1076:

Not all Greeks agreed with the geocentric model. The

986:(died 1525), and Shams al-Din al-Khafri (died 1550). 262:

and philosophy at an early point; it can be found in

3463:

Reports of the National Center for Science Education

3278:. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 2638:

Encyclopaedia of Islamic Science and Scientists: A-H

1937:

This argument is given in Book I, Chapter 5, of the

1620:

Historical positions of the Roman Catholic hierarchy

693:

The geocentric model was eventually replaced by the

7064: 7033: 6974: 6763: 6630: 6566: 6506: 6452: 6416: 6355: 6294: 6193: 6122: 6041: 5910: 5814: 5773: 5630: 5589: 5546: 5342: 5246: 5004: 4778: 4712: 4691: 4600: 4549: 4488: 4270: 4172: 4095: 3568:Branover, Herman; Attia, Ilana Coven, eds. (1994). 1502:

Religious and contemporary adherence to geocentrism

1403:in 1674, and tested in a series of observations by 3928: 3832:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 3785: 3645:"How Islamic scholarship birthed modern astronomy" 3269: 3267: 3027:Graebner, A. L. (1902). "Science and the church". 2979:Nicolaus Copernicus: An Essay On His Life and Work 2954:Nicolaus Copernicus: An Essay On His Life and Work 2062:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 1628:pitted the geocentric model against the claims of 564:Eccentric orbit (Sun's deferent center off Earth) 348:. Thus if the Earth was moving, the shapes of the 160:. However, the Greek astronomer and mathematician 3971:Relativity: An introduction to the special theory 2329:An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines 1663:(1939–1958) repeated his predecessor's teaching: 687:Radii of epicycles aligned to the Sun–Earth line 561:Non-uniform rate along ecliptic (uneven seasons) 419:astronomers. For over a millennium, European and 75:at the center. Under most geocentric models, the 2696:Ancient Science Through the Golden Age of Greece 1709:books teaching the Earth's motion, although the 1530:and promoting geocentrism. However, in the 1902 459:one called its deferent; the other, its epicycle 3456: 3454: 2123: 1778: 1729: 1719: 1665: 1638: 1290: 1164:postulated that they were elliptical (Kepler's 3533:"Sefer Zemanim: Kiddush HaChodesh: Chapter 11" 1587:According to a report released in 2014 by the 1088:, two Pythagoreans of the 5th century BC, and 885:proposed a planetary model that abandoned the 407:, was the culmination of centuries of work by 5723: 4756: 4248: 4073: 3823:The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy 3339:Galileo: For Copernicanism and For the Church 2783:Science in the Ancient World: An Encyclopedia 2636:Kirmani, M. Zaki; Singh, Nagendra Kr (2005). 1894:Earth-centered, Earth-fixed coordinate system 1541:newsletters pointing to some passages in the 1019:The examples and perspective in this article 191:postulated that orbits were heliocentric and 8: 3813:A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler 3159:Dark Ages America: The Final Phase of Empire 2384:. Vol. 47, no. 5. pp. 233–8. 2247: 2245: 553:Eastward motion of Sun's sphere in one year 3973:. Singapore Teaneck, NJ: World Scientific. 3522:Zohar, Book 3 (Vayikra), Page 10, folio: a. 2602: 2600: 2306:. Cambridge University Press. p. 413. 2019:Planetary Motions: A Historical Perspective 1879:in education and sometimes for navigation. 989:However, the Maragha school never made the 6510: 6503: 6492: 5759: 5746: 5730: 5716: 5708: 5581:Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics 4763: 4749: 4741: 4255: 4241: 4233: 4080: 4066: 4058: 3059:. University of California Press. p. 2142:. Cambridge University Press. p. 60. 2140:The Cambridge Concise History of Astronomy 1154:On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres 785:Persian and Arab astronomy and geocentrism 572:Monthly eastward motion compared to stars 3954:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3757: 3659:"Fauz e Mubeen Dar Radd e Harkat e Zamin" 3341:. University of Notre Dame. p. 475. 3305:Index librorum prohibitorum Alexandri VII 3276:The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History 1904:Hollow Earth § Concave Hollow Earths 1108:wrote a work, which has not survived, on 1052:Learn how and when to remove this message 934:and continuing with astronomers from the 720:thought the solar system looked like this 575:Monthly eastward motion of Moon's sphere 5184:Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era 3594:"Ptolemaic Astronomy in the Middle Ages" 2956:. New York: Harper and Row. p. 87. 2661:Johansen, K. F.; Rosenmeier, H. (1998). 2297: 2295: 2293: 1579:organizations reject such perspectives. 869:departed from the ancient Greek idea of 712: 667:Center their deferent centers along the 503: 59:, often exemplified specifically by the 7112: 5739:Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world 3935:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 3675:A General View of the Sciences and Arts 3365:. Rome. 1921-04-30. § 4. Archived from 3260:] (in Russian), ВЦИОМ , 2011-02-08. 1962: 1930: 1616:believe that the Sun orbits the Earth. 1360:, described earlier as a hypothesis by 614:Variations in speed through the zodiac 6536:Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity 5882:Khalid ibn Abd al‐Malik al‐Marwarrudhi 4053:The Galileo Project – Ptolemaic System 3400:"Faith can never conflict with reason" 2611:. Cambridge University Press. p. 107:in Roman Egypt, as well as during the 43:, 1568 (Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris) 6557:The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries 3228:"Scientific savvy? In U.S., not much" 2857:. Indianapolis, IL: Hackett. p. 2510:. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 2351: 2047: 1899:History of the center of the Universe 1657:Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina 1569:and the 2014 pseudo-documentary film 1317:cosmologies focused on variations of 207: 7: 3825:. New York: Oxford University Press. 2711:Journal for the History of Astronomy 1986:The Cosmos: A Historical Perspective 1969: 1553:the world is described as immobile. 301:, Plato describes the cosmos as the 183:, a view that was not challenged in 3792:. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. 3127:Neuman, Scott (February 14, 2014). 2368:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2327:Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1993-01-01). 2302:Young, M. J. L., ed. (2006-11-02). 1768:, 2 volumes, Vatican Press (1964). 1508:Ptolemaic model of the solar system 1264:used his telescope to observe that 1149:De revolutionibus orbium coelestium 3433:Nussbaum, Alexander (2007-12-19). 2908:Selections from Newton's Principia 2507:Dictionary of Scientific Biography 2502:"Al-Bitruji Al-Ishbili, Abu Ishaq" 2126:concentrically envelops the other. 1832:which included the translation of 1023:include all significant viewpoints 385:with an eccentric deferent and an 14: 3996:Walker, Christopher, ed. (1996). 3105:DeYoung, Donald B. (1997-11-05). 3094:. Hendersonville, NC. p. 5A. 2015:Hetherington, Norriss S. (2006). 1736:The 1835 edition of the Catholic 1366:Kepler's laws of planetary motion 1234:observed with his telescope that 899:(1149–1209), in dealing with his 873:by hypothesizing that the planet 779:Seven Heavens religious cosmology 664:Limited to movement near the Sun 653:of 23° (Mercury) and 46° (Venus) 23:. For the coordinate system, see 7163: 7151: 7139: 7127: 7115: 4000:. London: British Museum Press. 3423:(Published English translation). 3398:Pope John Paul II (1992-11-04). 3274:Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (1989). 2849:Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (2008). 1220: 1211: 1010: 625:Variations in retrograde timing 583:General eastward motion through 337:) and the ability to go through 206:The astronomical predictions of 99:civilizations, such as those of 7191:Astronomical coordinate systems 6261:Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al‐Farisi 3950:Linton, Christopher M. (2004). 3816:. New York: Dover Publications. 3207:Northwestern University website 2910:. Green Lion Press. p. 12. 2816:A History of Western Philosophy 2023:. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 1990:. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 1766:Vita e opere di Galileo Galilei 1526:published articles disparaging 1279:However, Ptolemy placed Venus' 453:, showing the Ptolemaic system. 6750:Schema for horizontal sundials 6266:Abu Ali al-Hasan al-Marrakushi 5791:Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī 3998:Astronomy Before the Telescope 3672:Hort, William Jillard (1822). 3621:10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0_8988 3183:Crabtree, Steve (1999-07-06). 2138:Hoskin, Michael (1999-03-18). 1774:Pontifical Academy of Sciences 1524:Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod 1175:in 1609, observations made by 903:and the physical world in his 818:(d. circa 1020). According to 1: 4653:Inferior and superior planets 4048:Ptolemy’s system of astronomy 3738:Research in Science Education 3226:Dean, Cornelia (2005-08-30). 3162:. W.W. Norton & Company. 3002:Babinski, E. T., ed. (1995). 1740:for the first time omits the 1166:first law of planetary motion 1002:Geocentrism and rival systems 976: 856: 847:wrote a scathing critique of 835:According to the geometers ( 812:Earth rotates around its axis 636:Size of deferents, epicycles 547:Eastward motion yearly along 258:The geocentric model entered 226:by the heliocentric model of 197:first law of planetary motion 187:until the 17th century, when 165: 126:rotating once each day about 37:Figure of the heavenly bodies 7201:Early scientific cosmologies 7008:Constantinople (Taqi al-Din) 5148:Rājamṛgāṅka (astronomy book) 4891:Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis 3477:Schneersohn, Menachem Mendel 2906:Densmore, Dana, ed. (2004). 2425:10.1016/0083-6656(55)90016-7 1488:geocentric coordinate system 1358:law of universal gravitation 6997:University of al-Qarawiyyin 6201:Ibn al-Banna' al-Marrakushi 5450: 5045: 4019:The Early History Of Heaven 2873:"Galileo and the Telescope" 2781:Lawson, Russell M. (2004). 2752:Lindberg, David C. (2010). 2571:The Oxford History of Islam 2331:. SUNY Press. p. 135. 2280:Scientia/Rivista di Scienza 1744:from the list. In his 1921 1690:Index Librorum Prohibitorum 1589:National Science Foundation 795:Astronomy in medieval Islam 477:meaning "from" and κέντρον 152:, in contrast to the older 7222: 6241:Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi 4836:Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar 4730:Medieval Islamic astronomy 4527:On the Sizes and Distances 4023:. Oxford University Press. 4015:Wright, J. Edward (2000). 3876:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 3784:Crowe, Michael J. (1990). 3732:Chastenay, Pierre (2016). 3337:Fantoli, Annibale (1996). 3084:Sefton, Dru (2006-03-30). 2819:. Routledge. p. 215. 2731:10.1177/002182869202300401 2173:Cambridge University Press 1789: 1204:, and Giovan Paulo Lembo. 1171:With the invention of the 1135: 843:Early in the 11th century 788: 208:Ptolemy's geocentric model 18: 7082:Medieval European science 6513: 6502: 6491: 6342:Sadr al-Shari'a al-Asghar 6099:Ibrahim ibn Said al-Sahli 5762: 5758: 5745: 4921:Venkatraman Radhakrishnan 4720:Medieval European science 4450:Sosigenes the Peripatetic 3931:The Copernican Revolution 3759:10.1007/s11165-015-9460-3 3711:10.1163/18253911-03502005 3479:; Gotfryd, Arnie (2003). 2921:Einstein, Albert (1938). 2542:. pp. 233–234, 240. 2540:New York University Press 2181:10.1017/s0269889701000060 1982:Fraser, Craig G. (2006). 1565:(author of the 2006 book 1510:held sway into the early 266:. In the 6th century BC, 6332:Nizam al-Din al-Nisapuri 6226:Muhyi al-Din al-Maghribi 5867:Ali ibn Isa al-Asturlabi 3607:Kunitzsch, Paul (2008). 3550:Rabinowitz, Avi (1987). 3252: 2924:The Evolution of Physics 2500:Samsó, Julio (1970–80). 2202:Ragep, F. Jamil (2001). 1921:, Catholic mathematician 1738:List of Prohibited Books 1695:List of Prohibited Books 1456:The Evolution of Physics 1416:Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel 1138:Copernican heliocentrism 871:uniform circular motions 699:Copernican heliocentrism 309:and turned by the three 103:in Classical Greece and 7186:Ancient Greek astronomy 6434:Baha' al-din al-'Amili 6408:'Abd al-'Aziz al-Wafa'i 6286:Fakhr al-Din al-Akhlati 6206:Ibn al‐Ha'im al‐Ishbili 5602:Ancient Greek astronomy 4886:Madhava of Sangamagrama 4445:Sosigenes of Alexandria 4264:Ancient Greek astronomy 4220:Template:Exceptionalism 2694:Sarton, George (1953). 2577:Oxford University Press 2098:Perspectives on Science 1845:Ahmed Raza Khan Barelvi 1675:Divino afflante Spiritu 1606:Northwestern University 491:uniform circular motion 264:pre-Socratic philosophy 6715:Navigational astrolabe 6470:Al Achsasi al Mouakket 6236:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi 6155:Al-Samawal al-Maghribi 6104:Ibn Mu'adh al-Jayyani 6033:Abu al-Hasan al-Ahwazi 4517:On Sizes and Distances 3969:Qadir, Asghar (1989). 3693:Raposo, Pedro (2020). 3556:Science & Religion 3410:(1264). Archived from 3383:. § 36. Archived from 2607:Huff, Toby E. (2003). 2128: 1783: 1761:Second Vatican Council 1734: 1724: 1681: 1652: 1313: 1302: 1073: 965:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi 891:epicycle and eccentric 841: 721: 454: 390: 359:until the 19th century 255: 156:model implied in some 44: 25:Geocentric coordinates 7206:Copernican Revolution 7051:Hellenistic astronomy 7022:Samarkand (Ulugh Beg) 6816:Deferent and epicycle 6216:Alam al-Din al-Hanafi 6185:Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi 5827:Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi 5607:Hellenistic astronomy 5390:Deferent and epicycle 5114:Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta 4946:Jai Singh II of Amber 4628:Deferent and epicycle 4557:Antikythera mechanism 3821:Evans, James (1998). 3695:"Recounting the Orbs" 3133:National Public Radio 3029:Theological Quarterly 2853:The Essential Galileo 2669:. Routledge. p. 2483:Science and Its Times 1751:In praeclara summorum 1647:Providentissimus Deus 1532:Theological Quarterly 1492:artificial satellites 1385:differential calculus 1310: 1068:This drawing from an 1067: 940:Samarkand observatory 901:conception of physics 865:In the 12th century, 833: 716: 617:Eccentric per planet 529:Daily westward motion 505:The Ptolemaic system 442: 380: 367:deferent and epicycle 253: 35: 7041:Babylonian astronomy 6856:Gravitational energy 6231:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi 6221:Najm al‐Din al‐Misri 5902:Yahya ibn Abi Mansur 5801:Mashallah ibn Athari 5786:Al-Fadl ibn Naubakht 5597:Babylonian astronomy 4831:Radhagobinda Chandra 4699:Babylonian astronomy 4390:Hippocrates of Chios 3873:Aristarchus of Samos 3615:. pp. 140–141. 3404:L'Osservatore Romano 3109:. Answers in Genesis 2977:Hoyle, Fred (1973). 2952:Hoyle, Fred (1973). 2111:10.1162/posc_a_00552 1889:Aristotelian physics 1830:translation movement 1810:theory of relativity 1528:Copernican astronomy 1414:In 1838, astronomer 1194:Cosimo II de' Medici 1114:Seleucus of Seleucia 1106:Aristarchus of Samos 961:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī 921:theological argument 897:Fakhr al-Din al-Razi 822:, Sijzi invented an 791:Maragheh observatory 469:eccentric (from the 303:Spindle of Necessity 295:", a section of the 162:Aristarchus of Samos 6982:Al-Azhar University 6801:Celestial mechanics 6591:Book of Fixed Stars 6550:The Book of Healing 6529:Aja'ib al-Makhluqat 6271:Ibn Ishaq al-Tunisi 6246:Zakariya al-Qazwini 5857:Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf 5852:Abu Hanifa Dinawari 5445:Hindu units of time 5168:Vasishtha Siddhanta 5142:Paitamaha Siddhanta 5036:Shatapatha Brahmana 4951:Nilakantha Somayaji 4470:Theon of Alexandria 3886:Nicolaus Copernicus 3750:2016RScEd..46...43C 3647:. 14 February 2017. 3483:. Shamir. pp. 3008:TalkOrigins Archive 2723:1992JHA....23..233E 2452:1972Isis...63...39G 2417:1955VA......1...84H 2405:Vistas in Astronomy 2390:1939PA.....47..233R 2364:Nicolaus Copernicus 2261:Islam & Science 2252:Setia, Adi (2004). 2220:2001Osir...16...49R 1909:Religious cosmology 1867:can switch between 1853:Indian subcontinent 1636:(1878–1903) wrote: 1236:Venus showed phases 1090:Heraclides Ponticus 1030:improve the article 932:Maragha observatory 680:Retrograde only at 516:Modeling mechanism 506: 421:Islamic astronomers 399:Claudius Ptolemaeus 216:astronomical charts 67:description of the 7046:Egyptian astronomy 6987:House of Knowledge 6665:Astronomical clock 6475:Muhammad al-Rudani 5872:Banū Mūsā brothers 5822:Abu Ali al-Khayyat 5622:European astronomy 5360:Cardinal direction 5289:Equatorial sundial 5128:Pancha-Siddhantika 4826:Sandip Chakrabarti 4704:Egyptian astronomy 4618:Circle of latitude 3387:on April 11, 2011. 3051:Numbers, Ronald L. 2839:Line 1067 onwards. 2165:Science in Context 1685:Pope Alexander VII 1516:heliocentric model 1460:coordinate systems 1432:heliocentric frame 1397:stellar aberration 1314: 1260:In December 1610, 1252:heliocentric model 1246:, as predicted by 1198:Christoph Scheiner 1158:natural philosophy 1074: 957:Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi 816:Abu Sa'id al-Sijzi 804:Muslim astronomers 722: 695:heliocentric model 504: 455: 391: 305:, attended by the 289:spheres or circles 256: 177:heliocentric model 109:Islamic Golden Age 45: 7196:Scientific models 7103: 7102: 7099: 7098: 7095: 7094: 7077:Chinese astronomy 7072:Byzantine science 6946:Temporal finitism 6876:Islamic cosmology 6806:Celestial spheres 6626: 6625: 6518:Arabic star names 6487: 6486: 6483: 6482: 6347:Fathullah Shirazi 6281:Al-Ashraf Umar II 5993:Ibrahim ibn Sinan 5796:Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī 5705: 5704: 5617:Chinese astronomy 5612:Islamic astronomy 5375:Celestial spheres 5365:Celestial equator 5135:Paulisa Siddhanta 5029:Aitareya Brahmana 4936:Jagannatha Samrat 4916:Achyuta Pisharati 4738: 4737: 4613:Celestial spheres 4230: 4229: 4173:Related phenomena 4096:Regional variants 3900:. Penguin Books. 3630:978-1-4020-4559-2 3572:. Jason Aronson. 2811:Russell, Bertrand 2640:. Global Vision. 2590:978-0-19-510799-9 2382:Popular Astronomy 2050:, pp. 60–62. 1806:Lubavitcher Rebbe 1770:Pope John Paul II 1567:Galileo Was Wrong 1559:religious beliefs 1437:cosmic background 1381:centripetal force 1132:Copernican system 1102:Martianus Capella 1062: 1061: 1054: 1034:discuss the issue 917:alfa alfi 'awalim 853:Doubts on Ptolemy 799:Islamic cosmology 691: 690: 684:, when brightest 661:Interior planets 649:Average greatest 598:Retrograde motion 463:retrograde motion 357:was not detected 321:stating that all 315:Eudoxus of Cnidus 276:of the universe. 242:for geocentrism. 234:(1564–1642), and 7213: 7168: 7167: 7166: 7156: 7155: 7154: 7144: 7143: 7142: 7132: 7131: 7120: 7119: 7118: 7111: 7087:Indian astronomy 7056:Indian astronomy 7024: 7017: 7010: 6931:Sublunary sphere 6921:Specific gravity 6821:Earth's rotation 6710:Mural instrument 6655:Armillary sphere 6578:Alfonsine tables 6543:Tabula Rogeriana 6523:Islamic calendar 6511: 6504: 6493: 6388:Sibt al-Maridini 6373:Jamshid al-Kashi 6094:Said al-Andalusi 5897:Thābit ibn Qurra 5832:Abu Said Gorgani 5806:Yaʿqūb ibn Ṭāriq 5760: 5747: 5732: 5725: 5718: 5709: 5455: 5425:Geoheliocentrism 5395:Earth's rotation 5370:Celestial sphere 5304:Mural instrument 5254:Armillary sphere 5198:Vedanga Jyotisha 5154:Romaka Siddhanta 5050: 4981:Shankara Variyar 4772:Indian astronomy 4765: 4758: 4751: 4742: 4725:Indian astronomy 4678:Sublunary sphere 4648:Hipparchic cycle 4587:Mural instrument 4562:Armillary sphere 4541: 4531: 4521: 4511: 4501: 4257: 4250: 4243: 4234: 4180:Anthropocentrism 4082: 4075: 4068: 4059: 4024: 4022: 4011: 3992: 3965: 3946: 3934: 3911: 3894:Koestler, Arthur 3889: 3877: 3863: 3826: 3817: 3803: 3791: 3772: 3771: 3761: 3729: 3723: 3722: 3690: 3684: 3683: 3669: 3663: 3662: 3655: 3649: 3648: 3641: 3635: 3634: 3604: 3598: 3597: 3590: 3584: 3583: 3565: 3563: 3562: 3547: 3541: 3540: 3529: 3523: 3520: 3514: 3513: 3487:, cf. xvi-xvii, 3473: 3467: 3466: 3458: 3449: 3448: 3446: 3445: 3439:Skeptic Magazine 3430: 3424: 3422: 3420: 3419: 3395: 3389: 3388: 3377: 3371: 3370: 3359: 3353: 3352: 3334: 3328: 3327: 3316: 3310: 3309: 3300: 3294: 3293: 3271: 3262: 3261: 3248: 3242: 3241: 3239: 3238: 3223: 3217: 3216: 3214: 3213: 3199: 3193: 3192: 3180: 3174: 3173: 3150: 3144: 3143: 3141: 3139: 3124: 3118: 3117: 3115: 3114: 3102: 3096: 3095: 3081: 3075: 3074: 3047: 3041: 3040: 3024: 3018: 3017: 3015: 3014: 2999: 2993: 2992: 2974: 2968: 2967: 2949: 2943: 2942: 2918: 2912: 2911: 2903: 2897: 2894: 2888: 2887: 2885: 2883: 2869: 2863: 2862: 2856: 2846: 2840: 2837: 2831: 2830: 2807: 2801: 2800: 2778: 2772: 2771: 2749: 2743: 2742: 2706: 2700: 2699: 2691: 2685: 2684: 2668: 2658: 2652: 2651: 2633: 2627: 2626: 2604: 2595: 2594: 2574: 2560: 2554: 2553: 2528: 2522: 2521: 2497: 2491: 2490: 2478: 2472: 2471: 2435: 2429: 2428: 2400: 2394: 2393: 2377: 2371: 2361: 2355: 2349: 2343: 2342: 2324: 2318: 2317: 2299: 2288: 2287: 2275: 2269: 2268: 2258: 2249: 2240: 2239: 2199: 2193: 2192: 2160: 2154: 2153: 2135: 2129: 2122: 2092: 2086: 2085: 2057: 2051: 2045: 2039: 2038: 2022: 2012: 2006: 2005: 1989: 1979: 1973: 1972:, pp. 5–20. 1967: 1952: 1948: 1942: 1935: 1873:celestial sphere 1786:Orthodox Judaism 1756:Pope Benedict XV 1746:papal encyclical 1715:Giuseppe Settele 1687:republished the 1679: 1650: 1539:creation science 1399:was observed by 1346:transit of Venus 1224: 1215: 1057: 1050: 1046: 1043: 1037: 1014: 1013: 1006: 981: 978: 861: 858: 851:'s model in his 676:Exterior planets 645:Interior planets 507: 450:De sphaera mundi 447:on Sacrobosco's 443:Pages from 1550 435:Ptolemaic system 425:geocentric model 355:stellar parallax 346:stellar parallax 283:and his student 174: 170: 167: 132:geographic poles 124:celestial sphere 61:Ptolemaic system 53:geocentric model 41:Bartolomeu Velho 21:Geocentric orbit 7221: 7220: 7216: 7215: 7214: 7212: 7211: 7210: 7176: 7175: 7174: 7164: 7162: 7152: 7150: 7140: 7138: 7126: 7116: 7114: 7106: 7104: 7091: 7060: 7029: 7020: 7013: 7006: 6992:House of Wisdom 6970: 6926:Spherical Earth 6759: 6690:Equatorial ring 6670:Celestial globe 6645:Analog computer 6622: 6617:Sullam al-sama' 6562: 6498: 6479: 6448: 6412: 6351: 6290: 6189: 6175:Jabir ibn Aflah 6118: 6049:Abu Nasr Mansur 6037: 6018:Abolfadl Harawi 5953:Ahmad ibn Yusuf 5906: 5810: 5781:Ahmad Nahavandi 5769: 5754: 5741: 5736: 5706: 5701: 5632: 5626: 5585: 5542: 5511:Spherical Earth 5338: 5284:Equatorial ring 5264:Celestial globe 5242: 5161:Surya Siddhanta 5098:Makarandasarini 5000: 4996:Pathani Samanta 4941:Bapudeva Sastri 4906:Jayant Narlikar 4856:M. K. Das Gupta 4774: 4769: 4739: 4734: 4708: 4687: 4673:Spherical Earth 4608:Callippic cycle 4596: 4577:Equatorial ring 4545: 4539: 4529: 4519: 4509: 4499: 4484: 4475:Theon of Smyrna 4266: 4261: 4231: 4226: 4200:Religiocentrism 4168: 4133:Hellenocentrism 4128:Germanocentrism 4091: 4086: 4034: 4014: 4008: 3995: 3981: 3968: 3962: 3949: 3943: 3925:Kuhn, Thomas S. 3923: 3908: 3892: 3880: 3866: 3844:10.2307/1006444 3829: 3820: 3806: 3800: 3783: 3780: 3775: 3731: 3730: 3726: 3692: 3691: 3687: 3671: 3670: 3666: 3657: 3656: 3652: 3643: 3642: 3638: 3631: 3606: 3605: 3601: 3592: 3591: 3587: 3580: 3567: 3560: 3558: 3549: 3548: 3544: 3531: 3530: 3526: 3521: 3517: 3510: 3475: 3474: 3470: 3460: 3459: 3452: 3443: 3441: 3432: 3431: 3427: 3417: 3415: 3397: 3396: 3392: 3379: 3378: 3374: 3361: 3360: 3356: 3349: 3336: 3335: 3331: 3318: 3317: 3313: 3302: 3301: 3297: 3290: 3273: 3272: 3265: 3254: 3250: 3249: 3245: 3236: 3234: 3225: 3224: 3220: 3211: 3209: 3203:"Jon D. Miller" 3201: 3200: 3196: 3182: 3181: 3177: 3170: 3152: 3151: 3147: 3137: 3135: 3126: 3125: 3121: 3112: 3110: 3104: 3103: 3099: 3083: 3082: 3078: 3071: 3049: 3048: 3044: 3026: 3025: 3021: 3012: 3010: 3001: 3000: 2996: 2989: 2976: 2975: 2971: 2964: 2951: 2950: 2946: 2939: 2920: 2919: 2915: 2905: 2904: 2900: 2895: 2891: 2881: 2879: 2871: 2870: 2866: 2848: 2847: 2843: 2838: 2834: 2827: 2809: 2808: 2804: 2797: 2780: 2779: 2775: 2768: 2751: 2750: 2746: 2708: 2707: 2703: 2693: 2692: 2688: 2681: 2660: 2659: 2655: 2648: 2635: 2634: 2630: 2623: 2606: 2605: 2598: 2591: 2562: 2561: 2557: 2550: 2530: 2529: 2525: 2518: 2499: 2498: 2494: 2480: 2479: 2475: 2437: 2436: 2432: 2402: 2401: 2397: 2379: 2378: 2374: 2362: 2358: 2354:, p. 5–10. 2350: 2346: 2339: 2326: 2325: 2321: 2314: 2301: 2300: 2291: 2277: 2276: 2272: 2256: 2251: 2250: 2243: 2201: 2200: 2196: 2162: 2161: 2157: 2150: 2137: 2136: 2132: 2105:(3): 288–330 . 2094: 2093: 2089: 2074:10.2307/1006040 2059: 2058: 2054: 2046: 2042: 2035: 2014: 2013: 2009: 2002: 1981: 1980: 1976: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1955: 1949: 1945: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1885: 1861: 1851:scholar of the 1826: 1798:Orthodox Jewish 1794: 1788: 1680: 1672: 1651: 1645: 1622: 1585: 1563:Robert Sungenis 1504: 1472:reference frame 1448:Albert Einstein 1445: 1392:empirical tests 1334:Johannes Kepler 1331: 1323:Tychonic system 1262:Galileo Galilei 1258: 1257: 1256: 1255: 1232:Galileo Galilei 1227: 1226: 1225: 1217: 1216: 1202:Johannes Kepler 1177:Galileo Galilei 1162:Johannes Kepler 1140: 1134: 1126:De rerum natura 1058: 1047: 1041: 1038: 1027: 1015: 1011: 1004: 979: 936:Damascus mosque 923:, he cites the 859: 801: 789:Main articles: 787: 773:("First Moved") 535:, carrying all 533:sphere of stars 437: 375: 373:Ptolemaic model 260:Greek astronomy 248: 189:Johannes Kepler 185:Western culture 172: 168: 150:spherical Earth 55:(also known as 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7219: 7217: 7209: 7208: 7203: 7198: 7193: 7188: 7178: 7177: 7173: 7172: 7160: 7148: 7136: 7124: 7101: 7100: 7097: 7096: 7093: 7092: 7090: 7089: 7084: 7079: 7074: 7068: 7066: 7062: 7061: 7059: 7058: 7053: 7048: 7043: 7037: 7035: 7031: 7030: 7028: 7027: 7026: 7025: 7018: 7011: 6999: 6994: 6989: 6984: 6978: 6976: 6972: 6971: 6969: 6968: 6963: 6958: 6953: 6948: 6943: 6938: 6933: 6928: 6923: 6918: 6913: 6908: 6903: 6898: 6893: 6888: 6883: 6878: 6873: 6868: 6863: 6858: 6853: 6848: 6843: 6838: 6836:Elliptic orbit 6833: 6828: 6823: 6818: 6813: 6811:Circular orbit 6808: 6803: 6798: 6793: 6788: 6783: 6778: 6773: 6767: 6765: 6761: 6760: 6758: 6757: 6752: 6747: 6742: 6737: 6732: 6727: 6722: 6717: 6712: 6707: 6702: 6697: 6692: 6687: 6682: 6677: 6672: 6667: 6662: 6657: 6652: 6647: 6642: 6636: 6634: 6628: 6627: 6624: 6623: 6621: 6620: 6613: 6606: 6599: 6597:Toledan Tables 6594: 6587: 6580: 6574: 6572: 6564: 6563: 6561: 6560: 6553: 6546: 6539: 6532: 6525: 6520: 6514: 6508: 6500: 6499: 6496: 6489: 6488: 6485: 6484: 6481: 6480: 6478: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6462: 6460:Yang Guangxian 6456: 6454: 6450: 6449: 6447: 6446: 6441: 6436: 6431: 6426: 6420: 6418: 6414: 6413: 6411: 6410: 6405: 6400: 6395: 6390: 6385: 6380: 6375: 6370: 6365: 6359: 6357: 6353: 6352: 6350: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6334: 6329: 6324: 6319: 6314: 6309: 6304: 6298: 6296: 6292: 6291: 6289: 6288: 6283: 6278: 6273: 6268: 6263: 6258: 6253: 6248: 6243: 6238: 6233: 6228: 6223: 6218: 6213: 6208: 6203: 6197: 6195: 6191: 6190: 6188: 6187: 6182: 6177: 6172: 6167: 6162: 6157: 6152: 6147: 6142: 6137: 6132: 6126: 6124: 6120: 6119: 6117: 6116: 6114:Ali ibn Khalaf 6111: 6106: 6101: 6096: 6091: 6089:Kushyar Gilani 6086: 6081: 6076: 6071: 6066: 6061: 6059:Ali ibn Ridwan 6056: 6051: 6045: 6043: 6039: 6038: 6036: 6035: 6030: 6025: 6023:Haseb-i Tabari 6020: 6015: 6010: 6005: 6000: 5995: 5990: 5985: 5980: 5975: 5970: 5965: 5960: 5955: 5950: 5945: 5940: 5935: 5930: 5925: 5920: 5914: 5912: 5908: 5907: 5905: 5904: 5899: 5894: 5892:Sahl ibn Bishr 5889: 5884: 5879: 5874: 5869: 5864: 5859: 5854: 5849: 5844: 5839: 5834: 5829: 5824: 5818: 5816: 5812: 5811: 5809: 5808: 5803: 5798: 5793: 5788: 5783: 5777: 5775: 5771: 5770: 5768: 5767: 5763: 5756: 5755: 5750: 5743: 5742: 5737: 5735: 5734: 5727: 5720: 5712: 5703: 5702: 5700: 5699: 5694: 5689: 5684: 5679: 5674: 5669: 5664: 5659: 5654: 5649: 5644: 5638: 5636: 5634:Vedic calendar 5628: 5627: 5625: 5624: 5619: 5614: 5609: 5604: 5599: 5593: 5591: 5587: 5586: 5584: 5583: 5578: 5577: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5561: 5550: 5548: 5544: 5543: 5541: 5540: 5535: 5528: 5523: 5518: 5513: 5508: 5503: 5498: 5493: 5488: 5483: 5478: 5473: 5468: 5461: 5456: 5447: 5442: 5437: 5432: 5427: 5422: 5417: 5412: 5410:Elliptic orbit 5407: 5402: 5397: 5392: 5387: 5385:Circular orbit 5382: 5380:Center of mass 5377: 5372: 5367: 5362: 5357: 5352: 5346: 5344: 5340: 5339: 5337: 5336: 5331: 5326: 5321: 5316: 5311: 5306: 5301: 5296: 5291: 5286: 5281: 5276: 5271: 5266: 5261: 5256: 5250: 5248: 5244: 5243: 5241: 5240: 5233: 5226: 5225: 5224: 5217: 5201: 5194: 5187: 5180: 5177:Tantrasangraha 5173: 5172: 5171: 5164: 5157: 5150: 5145: 5138: 5131: 5124: 5121:Maha-Siddhanta 5117: 5101: 5094: 5087: 5084:Khandakhadyaka 5080: 5073: 5066: 5059: 5052: 5041: 5040: 5039: 5032: 5016: 5008: 5006: 5002: 5001: 4999: 4998: 4993: 4988: 4983: 4978: 4973: 4968: 4963: 4958: 4953: 4948: 4943: 4938: 4933: 4928: 4923: 4918: 4913: 4908: 4903: 4898: 4893: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4858: 4853: 4851:Gautama Siddha 4848: 4843: 4841:Amil Kumar Das 4838: 4833: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4808: 4803: 4798: 4793: 4788: 4782: 4780: 4776: 4775: 4770: 4768: 4767: 4760: 4753: 4745: 4736: 4735: 4733: 4732: 4727: 4722: 4716: 4714: 4710: 4709: 4707: 4706: 4701: 4695: 4693: 4689: 4688: 4686: 4685: 4680: 4675: 4670: 4665: 4660: 4655: 4650: 4645: 4640: 4635: 4630: 4625: 4620: 4615: 4610: 4604: 4602: 4598: 4597: 4595: 4594: 4589: 4584: 4579: 4574: 4569: 4564: 4559: 4553: 4551: 4547: 4546: 4544: 4543: 4537:On the Heavens 4533: 4523: 4513: 4510:(Eratosthenes) 4503: 4492: 4490: 4486: 4485: 4483: 4482: 4477: 4472: 4467: 4462: 4457: 4452: 4447: 4442: 4437: 4432: 4427: 4422: 4417: 4415:Philip of Opus 4412: 4407: 4402: 4397: 4392: 4387: 4382: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4362: 4357: 4352: 4347: 4342: 4337: 4332: 4327: 4322: 4317: 4312: 4307: 4302: 4297: 4292: 4287: 4282: 4276: 4274: 4268: 4267: 4262: 4260: 4259: 4252: 4245: 4237: 4228: 4227: 4225: 4224: 4223: 4222: 4215:Exceptionalism 4212: 4207: 4205:Sentiocentrism 4202: 4197: 4192: 4190:Exceptionalism 4187: 4185:Chronocentrism 4182: 4176: 4174: 4170: 4169: 4167: 4166: 4165: 4164: 4163: 4162: 4152: 4142: 4141: 4140: 4135: 4130: 4125: 4120: 4110: 4105: 4099: 4097: 4093: 4092: 4087: 4085: 4084: 4077: 4070: 4062: 4056: 4055: 4050: 4045: 4040: 4033: 4032:External links 4030: 4029: 4028: 4012: 4006: 3993: 3979: 3966: 3960: 3947: 3941: 3921: 3912:1990 reprint: 3906: 3890: 3878: 3864: 3834:. New Series. 3827: 3818: 3808:Dreyer, J.L.E. 3804: 3798: 3779: 3776: 3774: 3773: 3724: 3705:(2): 274–299. 3685: 3664: 3650: 3636: 3629: 3599: 3585: 3578: 3542: 3524: 3515: 3508: 3468: 3450: 3425: 3390: 3372: 3369:on 2014-11-09. 3354: 3347: 3329: 3311: 3295: 3288: 3263: 3243: 3232:New York Times 3218: 3194: 3175: 3168: 3154:Berman, Morris 3145: 3119: 3097: 3076: 3069: 3042: 3019: 2994: 2987: 2969: 2962: 2944: 2937: 2913: 2898: 2889: 2864: 2841: 2832: 2825: 2802: 2795: 2789:. p. 19. 2773: 2766: 2744: 2717:(4): 233–260. 2701: 2698:. p. 290. 2686: 2679: 2653: 2646: 2628: 2621: 2596: 2589: 2565:Esposito, John 2555: 2548: 2532:Saliba, George 2523: 2516: 2492: 2473: 2460:10.1086/350839 2430: 2395: 2372: 2356: 2344: 2337: 2319: 2312: 2289: 2270: 2241: 2228:10.1086/649338 2210:. 2nd Series. 2194: 2155: 2148: 2130: 2087: 2052: 2040: 2033: 2007: 2000: 1974: 1961: 1959: 1956: 1954: 1953: 1943: 1929: 1927: 1924: 1923: 1922: 1919:Wolfgang Smith 1916: 1914:Sphere of fire 1911: 1906: 1901: 1896: 1891: 1884: 1881: 1860: 1857: 1825: 1822: 1787: 1784: 1670: 1643: 1626:Galileo affair 1621: 1618: 1584: 1581: 1503: 1500: 1452:Leopold Infeld 1444: 1441: 1330: 1327: 1229: 1228: 1219: 1218: 1210: 1209: 1208: 1207: 1206: 1179:(such as that 1136:Main article: 1133: 1130: 1060: 1059: 1018: 1016: 1009: 1003: 1000: 991:paradigm shift 907:, rejects the 879:elliptic orbit 786: 783: 775: 774: 766: 761: 756: 751: 746: 741: 736: 731: 689: 688: 685: 678: 672: 671: 669:Sun–Earth line 665: 662: 658: 657: 654: 647: 641: 640: 637: 634: 630: 629: 626: 623: 619: 618: 615: 612: 608: 607: 604:synodic period 600: 595: 591: 590: 587: 581: 580:The 5 planets 577: 576: 573: 570: 566: 565: 562: 559: 555: 554: 551: 545: 541: 540: 525: 522: 518: 517: 514: 511: 436: 433: 374: 371: 350:constellations 247: 246:Ancient Greece 244: 175:) developed a 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7218: 7207: 7204: 7202: 7199: 7197: 7194: 7192: 7189: 7187: 7184: 7183: 7181: 7171: 7161: 7159: 7149: 7147: 7137: 7135: 7130: 7125: 7123: 7113: 7109: 7088: 7085: 7083: 7080: 7078: 7075: 7073: 7070: 7069: 7067: 7063: 7057: 7054: 7052: 7049: 7047: 7044: 7042: 7039: 7038: 7036: 7032: 7023: 7019: 7016: 7012: 7009: 7005: 7004: 7003: 7002:Observatories 7000: 6998: 6995: 6993: 6990: 6988: 6985: 6983: 6980: 6979: 6977: 6973: 6967: 6964: 6962: 6959: 6957: 6956:Triangulation 6954: 6952: 6949: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6939: 6937: 6934: 6932: 6929: 6927: 6924: 6922: 6919: 6917: 6914: 6912: 6909: 6907: 6904: 6902: 6899: 6897: 6894: 6892: 6889: 6887: 6884: 6882: 6879: 6877: 6874: 6872: 6869: 6867: 6866:Heliocentrism 6864: 6862: 6859: 6857: 6854: 6852: 6849: 6847: 6844: 6842: 6839: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6819: 6817: 6814: 6812: 6809: 6807: 6804: 6802: 6799: 6797: 6794: 6792: 6789: 6787: 6784: 6782: 6779: 6777: 6774: 6772: 6769: 6768: 6766: 6762: 6756: 6753: 6751: 6748: 6746: 6743: 6741: 6740:Shadow square 6738: 6736: 6733: 6731: 6728: 6726: 6723: 6721: 6718: 6716: 6713: 6711: 6708: 6706: 6703: 6701: 6698: 6696: 6693: 6691: 6688: 6686: 6683: 6681: 6678: 6676: 6673: 6671: 6668: 6666: 6663: 6661: 6658: 6656: 6653: 6651: 6648: 6646: 6643: 6641: 6638: 6637: 6635: 6633: 6629: 6619: 6618: 6614: 6612: 6611: 6610:Zij-i Sultani 6607: 6605: 6604: 6603:Zij-i Ilkhani 6600: 6598: 6595: 6593: 6592: 6588: 6586: 6585: 6581: 6579: 6576: 6575: 6573: 6571: 6570: 6565: 6559: 6558: 6554: 6552: 6551: 6547: 6545: 6544: 6540: 6538: 6537: 6533: 6531: 6530: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6515: 6512: 6509: 6505: 6501: 6494: 6490: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6463: 6461: 6458: 6457: 6455: 6451: 6445: 6442: 6440: 6437: 6435: 6432: 6430: 6427: 6425: 6422: 6421: 6419: 6415: 6409: 6406: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6386: 6384: 6381: 6379: 6378:Kadızade Rumi 6376: 6374: 6371: 6369: 6366: 6364: 6361: 6360: 6358: 6354: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6338: 6335: 6333: 6330: 6328: 6325: 6323: 6320: 6318: 6315: 6313: 6310: 6308: 6305: 6303: 6302:Ibn al-Shatir 6300: 6299: 6297: 6293: 6287: 6284: 6282: 6279: 6277: 6276:Ibn al‐Raqqam 6274: 6272: 6269: 6267: 6264: 6262: 6259: 6257: 6254: 6252: 6249: 6247: 6244: 6242: 6239: 6237: 6234: 6232: 6229: 6227: 6224: 6222: 6219: 6217: 6214: 6212: 6209: 6207: 6204: 6202: 6199: 6198: 6196: 6192: 6186: 6183: 6181: 6178: 6176: 6173: 6171: 6170:Ibn al-Kammad 6168: 6166: 6163: 6161: 6158: 6156: 6153: 6151: 6148: 6146: 6143: 6141: 6138: 6136: 6133: 6131: 6128: 6127: 6125: 6121: 6115: 6112: 6110: 6107: 6105: 6102: 6100: 6097: 6095: 6092: 6090: 6087: 6085: 6084:Ibn al-Saffar 6082: 6080: 6077: 6075: 6072: 6070: 6067: 6065: 6062: 6060: 6057: 6055: 6052: 6050: 6047: 6046: 6044: 6040: 6034: 6031: 6029: 6026: 6024: 6021: 6019: 6016: 6014: 6011: 6009: 6006: 6004: 6001: 5999: 5996: 5994: 5991: 5989: 5986: 5984: 5981: 5979: 5976: 5974: 5971: 5969: 5966: 5964: 5961: 5959: 5956: 5954: 5951: 5949: 5946: 5944: 5941: 5939: 5936: 5934: 5931: 5929: 5926: 5924: 5921: 5919: 5916: 5915: 5913: 5909: 5903: 5900: 5898: 5895: 5893: 5890: 5888: 5885: 5883: 5880: 5878: 5875: 5873: 5870: 5868: 5865: 5863: 5860: 5858: 5855: 5853: 5850: 5848: 5845: 5843: 5840: 5838: 5835: 5833: 5830: 5828: 5825: 5823: 5820: 5819: 5817: 5813: 5807: 5804: 5802: 5799: 5797: 5794: 5792: 5789: 5787: 5784: 5782: 5779: 5778: 5776: 5772: 5765: 5764: 5761: 5757: 5753: 5748: 5744: 5740: 5733: 5728: 5726: 5721: 5719: 5714: 5713: 5710: 5698: 5695: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5665: 5663: 5660: 5658: 5655: 5653: 5650: 5648: 5645: 5643: 5640: 5639: 5637: 5635: 5631:Months of the 5629: 5623: 5620: 5618: 5615: 5613: 5610: 5608: 5605: 5603: 5600: 5598: 5595: 5594: 5592: 5590:Other regions 5588: 5582: 5579: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5560: 5557: 5556: 5555: 5554:Jantar Mantar 5552: 5551: 5549: 5545: 5539: 5538:Zodiacal sign 5536: 5534: 5533: 5529: 5527: 5524: 5522: 5519: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5497: 5494: 5492: 5489: 5487: 5484: 5482: 5479: 5477: 5474: 5472: 5469: 5467: 5466: 5462: 5460: 5459:Kali ahargaṇa 5457: 5454: 5453: 5448: 5446: 5443: 5441: 5440:Heliocentrism 5438: 5436: 5433: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5398: 5396: 5393: 5391: 5388: 5386: 5383: 5381: 5378: 5376: 5373: 5371: 5368: 5366: 5363: 5361: 5358: 5356: 5353: 5351: 5348: 5347: 5345: 5341: 5335: 5332: 5330: 5327: 5325: 5322: 5320: 5317: 5315: 5312: 5310: 5307: 5305: 5302: 5300: 5297: 5295: 5292: 5290: 5287: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5277: 5275: 5272: 5270: 5267: 5265: 5262: 5260: 5257: 5255: 5252: 5251: 5249: 5245: 5239: 5238: 5234: 5232: 5231: 5227: 5223: 5222: 5218: 5216: 5215: 5211: 5210: 5209: 5208: 5207: 5202: 5200: 5199: 5195: 5193: 5192: 5188: 5186: 5185: 5181: 5179: 5178: 5174: 5170: 5169: 5165: 5163: 5162: 5158: 5156: 5155: 5151: 5149: 5146: 5144: 5143: 5139: 5137: 5136: 5132: 5130: 5129: 5125: 5123: 5122: 5118: 5116: 5115: 5111: 5110: 5109: 5108: 5107: 5102: 5100: 5099: 5095: 5093: 5092: 5088: 5086: 5085: 5081: 5079: 5078: 5074: 5072: 5071: 5070:Shulba Sutras 5067: 5065: 5064: 5063:Jyotirmimamsa 5060: 5058: 5057: 5056:Ganitagannadi 5053: 5051: 5049: 5048: 5047:Bṛhat Saṃhitā 5042: 5038: 5037: 5033: 5031: 5030: 5026: 5025: 5024: 5023: 5022: 5017: 5015: 5014: 5010: 5009: 5007: 5003: 4997: 4994: 4992: 4989: 4987: 4984: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4974: 4972: 4969: 4967: 4966:Govind Swarup 4964: 4962: 4961:Mahendra Suri 4959: 4957: 4954: 4952: 4949: 4947: 4944: 4942: 4939: 4937: 4934: 4932: 4931:Megh Nad Saha 4929: 4927: 4924: 4922: 4919: 4917: 4914: 4912: 4909: 4907: 4904: 4902: 4899: 4897: 4894: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4874: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4859: 4857: 4854: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4812: 4809: 4807: 4804: 4802: 4799: 4797: 4794: 4792: 4789: 4787: 4784: 4783: 4781: 4777: 4773: 4766: 4761: 4759: 4754: 4752: 4747: 4746: 4743: 4731: 4728: 4726: 4723: 4721: 4718: 4717: 4715: 4711: 4705: 4702: 4700: 4697: 4696: 4694: 4690: 4684: 4681: 4679: 4676: 4674: 4671: 4669: 4666: 4664: 4661: 4659: 4658:Metonic cycle 4656: 4654: 4651: 4649: 4646: 4644: 4643:Heliocentrism 4641: 4639: 4636: 4634: 4631: 4629: 4626: 4624: 4623:Counter-Earth 4621: 4619: 4616: 4614: 4611: 4609: 4606: 4605: 4603: 4599: 4593: 4590: 4588: 4585: 4583: 4580: 4578: 4575: 4573: 4570: 4568: 4565: 4563: 4560: 4558: 4555: 4554: 4552: 4548: 4542: 4538: 4534: 4532: 4530:(Aristarchus) 4528: 4524: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4493: 4491: 4487: 4481: 4478: 4476: 4473: 4471: 4468: 4466: 4463: 4461: 4458: 4456: 4453: 4451: 4448: 4446: 4443: 4441: 4438: 4436: 4433: 4431: 4428: 4426: 4423: 4421: 4418: 4416: 4413: 4411: 4408: 4406: 4403: 4401: 4398: 4396: 4393: 4391: 4388: 4386: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4366: 4363: 4361: 4358: 4356: 4353: 4351: 4348: 4346: 4343: 4341: 4338: 4336: 4333: 4331: 4328: 4326: 4323: 4321: 4318: 4316: 4313: 4311: 4308: 4306: 4303: 4301: 4298: 4296: 4293: 4291: 4288: 4286: 4283: 4281: 4278: 4277: 4275: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4258: 4253: 4251: 4246: 4244: 4239: 4238: 4235: 4221: 4218: 4217: 4216: 4213: 4211: 4208: 4206: 4203: 4201: 4198: 4196: 4193: 4191: 4188: 4186: 4183: 4181: 4178: 4177: 4175: 4171: 4161: 4158: 4157: 4156: 4153: 4151: 4148: 4147: 4146: 4143: 4139: 4138:Italocentrism 4136: 4134: 4131: 4129: 4126: 4124: 4123:Gallocentrism 4121: 4119: 4118:Anglocentrism 4116: 4115: 4114: 4111: 4109: 4108:Americentrism 4106: 4104: 4101: 4100: 4098: 4094: 4090: 4089:Ethnocentrism 4083: 4078: 4076: 4071: 4069: 4064: 4063: 4060: 4054: 4051: 4049: 4046: 4044: 4041: 4039: 4036: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4021: 4020: 4013: 4009: 4003: 3999: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3980:9971-5-0612-2 3976: 3972: 3967: 3963: 3961:9780521827508 3957: 3953: 3948: 3944: 3938: 3933: 3932: 3926: 3922: 3919: 3915: 3909: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3874: 3869: 3868:Heath, Thomas 3865: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3828: 3824: 3819: 3815: 3814: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3795: 3790: 3789: 3782: 3781: 3777: 3769: 3765: 3760: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3728: 3725: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3689: 3686: 3681: 3677: 3676: 3668: 3665: 3660: 3654: 3651: 3646: 3640: 3637: 3632: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3603: 3600: 3595: 3589: 3586: 3581: 3579:9781568210346 3575: 3571: 3566:Published in 3557: 3553: 3546: 3543: 3538: 3537:Mishneh Torah 3534: 3528: 3525: 3519: 3516: 3511: 3509:9789652930804 3505: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3472: 3469: 3464: 3457: 3455: 3451: 3440: 3436: 3429: 3426: 3414:on 2017-02-02 3413: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3394: 3391: 3386: 3382: 3376: 3373: 3368: 3364: 3358: 3355: 3350: 3344: 3340: 3333: 3330: 3325: 3321: 3315: 3312: 3307: 3306: 3299: 3296: 3291: 3289:9780520066625 3285: 3281: 3277: 3270: 3268: 3264: 3259: 3255: 3247: 3244: 3233: 3229: 3222: 3219: 3208: 3204: 3198: 3195: 3190: 3186: 3179: 3176: 3171: 3169:9780393058666 3165: 3161: 3160: 3155: 3149: 3146: 3134: 3130: 3123: 3120: 3108: 3101: 3098: 3093: 3092: 3087: 3080: 3077: 3072: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3057: 3052: 3046: 3043: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3023: 3020: 3009: 3005: 2998: 2995: 2990: 2988:0-435-54425-X 2984: 2980: 2973: 2970: 2965: 2963:0-06-011971-3 2959: 2955: 2948: 2945: 2940: 2938:0-671-20156-5 2934: 2930: 2926: 2925: 2917: 2914: 2909: 2902: 2899: 2893: 2890: 2878: 2874: 2868: 2865: 2860: 2855: 2854: 2845: 2842: 2836: 2833: 2828: 2826:9781134343676 2822: 2818: 2817: 2812: 2806: 2803: 2798: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2777: 2774: 2769: 2767:9780226482040 2763: 2759: 2755: 2748: 2745: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2712: 2705: 2702: 2697: 2690: 2687: 2682: 2680:9780415127387 2676: 2672: 2667: 2666: 2657: 2654: 2649: 2647:9788182200586 2643: 2639: 2632: 2629: 2624: 2622:9780521529945 2618: 2614: 2610: 2603: 2601: 2597: 2592: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2573: 2572: 2566: 2559: 2556: 2551: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2527: 2524: 2519: 2517:0-684-10114-9 2513: 2509: 2508: 2503: 2496: 2493: 2488: 2484: 2477: 2474: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2434: 2431: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2411:(1): 118–22. 2410: 2406: 2399: 2396: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2376: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2360: 2357: 2353: 2348: 2345: 2340: 2338:9781438414195 2334: 2330: 2323: 2320: 2315: 2313:9780521028875 2309: 2305: 2298: 2296: 2294: 2290: 2285: 2281: 2274: 2271: 2266: 2262: 2255: 2248: 2246: 2242: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2198: 2195: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2159: 2156: 2151: 2149:9780521576000 2145: 2141: 2134: 2131: 2127: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2099: 2091: 2088: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2056: 2053: 2049: 2044: 2041: 2036: 2034:9780313332418 2030: 2026: 2021: 2020: 2011: 2008: 2003: 2001:9780313332180 1997: 1993: 1988: 1987: 1978: 1975: 1971: 1966: 1963: 1957: 1947: 1944: 1940: 1934: 1931: 1925: 1920: 1917: 1915: 1912: 1910: 1907: 1905: 1902: 1900: 1897: 1895: 1892: 1890: 1887: 1886: 1882: 1880: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1858: 1856: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1841: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1823: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1793: 1785: 1782: 1777: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1762: 1757: 1753: 1752: 1747: 1743: 1739: 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Rawal 4861:Jyesthadeva 4821:Brahmagupta 4811:Bhāskara II 4801:Vainu Bappu 4791:Aryabhata I 4779:Astronomers 4638:Geocentrism 4550:Instruments 4540:(Aristotle) 4345:Cleostratus 4310:Aristarchus 4290:Anaximander 4272:Astronomers 4195:Geocentrism 3882:Hoyle, Fred 3838:(4): 1–69. 2175:: 145–163. 1624:The famous 1577:creationist 1555:Psalms 93:1 1476:fixed stars 1405:Jean Picard 1370:gravitation 1356:stated the 1338:Tycho Brahe 1329:Gravitation 1319:Tycho Brahe 1268:showed all 1094:Middle Ages 1078:Pythagorean 984:Al-Birjandi 980: 1474 883:Alpetragius 860: 1028 764:Fixed Stars 651:elongations 445:Annotazione 413:Hellenistic 397:astronomer 395:Hellenistic 268:Anaximander 57:geocentrism 7180:Categories 7065:Influenced 7034:Influences 6906:Precession 6886:Multiverse 6791:Axial tilt 6771:Almucantar 6755:Triquetrum 6695:Equatorium 6444:Takiyüddin 6317:al-Battiwi 6312:Ibn Shuayb 6307:Al-Khalili 6150:Al-Khazini 6145:Al-Kharaqī 6140:Ibn Tufail 6130:Al-Bitruji 6064:Al-Zarqālī 6028:al-Majriti 5978:Al-Saghani 5973:Al-Nayrizi 5958:al-Battani 5877:Iranshahri 5862:Al-Marwazi 5766:by century 5667:Bhadrapada 5501:Precession 5476:Manvantara 5350:Axial tilt 5334:Yantraraja 5324:Triquetrum 5106:Siddhantas 5077:Panchangam 4866:Kamalakara 4846:P. 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310 154:flat-Earth 65:superseded 7122:Astronomy 6941:Supernova 6896:Obliquity 6881:Moonlight 6781:Astrology 6660:Astrolabe 6439:Piri Reis 6429:al-Khafri 6398:al-Wafa'i 6383:Ulugh Beg 6363:Ali Kuşçu 6337:al-Jadiri 6256:al-Abhari 6054:al-Biruni 5988:Ibn Yunus 5963:Al-Qabisi 5938:al-Khazin 5847:Al-Mahani 5662:Shraavana 5657:Aashaadha 5564:New Delhi 5491:Nityayoga 5486:Nakshatra 5481:Moonlight 5259:Astrolabe 5021:Brahmanas 4871:Katyayana 4786:Apastamba 4567:Astrolabe 4500:(Ptolemy) 4420:Philolaus 4410:Oenopides 4395:Hypsicles 4340:Cleomedes 4335:Callippus 4325:Autolycus 4280:Aglaonice 3989:841809663 3896:(1986) . 3852:0065-9746 3768:254983499 3744:(1): 43. 3719:225198696 2813:(2013) . 2739:118643709 2468:120700705 2446:(1): 41. 2236:142586786 2189:145372613 2119:117426616 1970:Kuhn 1957 1792:Firmament 1759:1965 the 1683:In 1664, 1454:wrote in 1376:Principia 1352:In 1687, 1336:analysed 1173:telescope 1122:Lucretius 1086:Ecphantus 1070:Icelandic 1042:June 2015 828:al-zūraqī 824:astrolabe 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