1652:
long as each confines himself within his own lines, and both are careful, as St. Augustine warns us, "not to make rash assertions, or to assert what is not known as known". If dissension should arise between them, here is the rule also laid down by St. Augustine, for the theologian: "Whatever they can really demonstrate to be true of physical nature, we must show to be capable of reconciliation with our
Scriptures; and whatever they assert in their treatises which is contrary to these Scriptures of ours, that is to Catholic faith, we must either prove it as well as we can to be entirely false, or at all events we must, without the smallest hesitation, believe it to be so." To understand how just is the rule here formulated we must remember, first, that the sacred writers, or to speak more accurately, the Holy Ghost "Who spoke by them, did not intend to teach men these things (that is to say, the essential nature of the things of the visible universe), things in no way profitable unto salvation." Hence they did not seek to penetrate the secrets of nature, but rather described and dealt with things in more or less figurative language, or in terms which were commonly used at the time, and which in many instances are in daily use at this day, even by the most eminent men of science. Ordinary speech primarily and properly describes what comes under the senses; and somewhat in the same way the sacred writers-as the Angelic Doctor also reminds us – "went by what sensibly appeared", or put down what God, speaking to men, signified, in the way men could understand and were accustomed to.
1733:
and yearly motions, to His
Holiness through Divine Providence, Pope Pius VII. Previously, His Holiness had referred this request to the Supreme Sacred Congregation and concurrently to the consideration of the Most Eminent and Most Reverend General Cardinal Inquisitor. His Holiness has decreed that no obstacles exist for those who sustain Copernicus' affirmation regarding the Earth's movement in the manner in which it is affirmed today, even by Catholic authors. He has, moreover, suggested the insertion of several notations into this work, aimed at demonstrating that the above mentioned affirmation , as it has come to be understood, does not present any difficulties; difficulties that existed in times past, prior to the subsequent astronomical observations that have now occurred. has also recommended that the implementation be given to the Cardinal Secretary of the Supreme Sacred Congregation and Master of the Sacred Apostolic Palace. He is now appointed the task of bringing to an end any concerns and criticisms regarding the printing of this book, and, at the same time, ensuring that in the future, regarding the publication of such works, permission is sought from the Cardinal Vicar whose signature will not be given without the authorization of the Superior of his Order.
472:. The deferent is a circle whose center point, called the eccentric and marked in the diagram with an X, is distant from the Earth. The original purpose of the eccentric was to account for the difference in length of the seasons (northern autumn was about five days shorter than spring during this time period) by placing the Earth away from the center of rotation of the rest of the universe. Another sphere, the epicycle, is embedded inside the deferent sphere and is represented by the smaller dotted line to the right. A given planet then moves around the epicycle at the same time the epicycle moves along the path marked by the deferent. These combined movements cause the given planet to move closer to and further away from the Earth at different points in its orbit, and explained the observation that planets slowed down, stopped, and moved backward in
372:. Therefore, the Greeks chose the simpler of the two explanations. Another observation used in favor of the geocentric model at the time was the apparent consistency of Venus' luminosity, which implies that it is usually about the same distance from Earth, which in turn is more consistent with geocentrism than heliocentrism. (In fact, Venus' luminous consistency is due to any loss of light caused by its phases being compensated for by an increase in apparent size caused by its varying distance from Earth.) Objectors to heliocentrism noted that terrestrial bodies naturally tend to come to rest as near as possible to the center of the Earth. Further, barring the opportunity to fall closer the center, terrestrial bodies tend not to move unless forced by an outside object, or transformed to a different element by heat or moisture.
1792:
centrality of the Earth, was to think that our understanding of the physical world's structure was, in some way, imposed by the literal sense of Sacred
Scripture. Let us recall the celebrated saying attributed to Baronius "Spiritui Sancto mentem fuisse nos docere quomodo ad coelum eatur, non quomodo coelum gradiatur". In fact, the Bible does not concern itself with the details of the physical world, the understanding of which is the competence of human experience and reasoning. There exist two realms of knowledge, one which has its source in Revelation and one which reason can discover by its own power. To the latter belong especially the experimental sciences and philosophy. The distinction between the two realms of knowledge ought not to be understood as opposition.
451:
1473:], not only those moving uniformly, but also those moving quite arbitrarily, relative to each other? If this can be done, our difficulties will be over. We shall then be able to apply the laws of nature to any CS. The struggle, so violent in the early days of science, between the views of Ptolemy and Copernicus would then be quite meaningless. Either CS could be used with equal justification. The two sentences, 'the sun is at rest and the Earth moves', or 'the sun moves and the Earth is at rest', would simply mean two different conventions concerning two different CS. Could we build a real relativistic physics valid in all CS; a physics in which there would be no place for absolute, but only for relative, motion? This is indeed possible!"
1679:
as the
Angelic Doctor says, speaking either "in figurative language, or in terms which were commonly used at the time, and which in many instances are in daily use at this day, even among the most eminent men of science". For "the sacred writers, or to speak more accurately – the words are St. Augustine's – the Holy Spirit, Who spoke by them, did not intend to teach men these things – that is the essential nature of the things of the universe – things in no way profitable to salvation"; which principle "will apply to cognate sciences, and especially to history", that is, by refuting, "in a somewhat similar way the fallacies of the adversaries and defending the historical truth of Sacred Scripture from their attacks".
352:. He further described his system by explaining the natural tendencies of the terrestrial elements: earth, water, fire, air, as well as celestial aether. His system held that earth was the heaviest element, with the strongest movement towards the center, thus water formed a layer surrounding the sphere of Earth. The tendency of air and fire, on the other hand, was to move upwards, away from the center, with fire being lighter than air. Beyond the layer of fire, were the solid spheres of aether in which the celestial bodies were embedded. They were also entirely composed of aether.
1207:, and stated that they orbited around Jupiter, not Earth. This was a significant claim as it would mean not only that not everything revolved around Earth as stated in the Ptolemaic model, but also showed a secondary celestial body could orbit a moving celestial body, strengthening the heliocentric argument that a moving Earth could retain the Moon. Galileo's observations were verified by other astronomers of the time period who quickly adopted use of the telescope, including
262:
1233:
44:
504:. The resultant system, which eventually came to be widely accepted in the west, seems unwieldy to modern astronomers; each planet required an epicycle revolving on a deferent, offset by an equant which was different for each planet. It predicted various celestial motions, including the beginning and end of retrograde motion, to within a maximum error of 10 degrees, considerably better than without the equant.
1823:, which establishes that "when two bodies in space are in motion relative to one another, ... science declares with absolute certainty that from the scientific point of view both possibilities are equally valid, namely that the Earth revolves around the sun, or the sun revolves around the Earth", although he also went on to refer to people who believed in geocentrism as "remaining in the world of Copernicus".
389:
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500:. The equant was a point near the center of a planet's orbit where, if you were to stand there and watch, the center of the planet's epicycle would always appear to move at uniform speed; all other locations would see non-uniform speed, as on the Earth. By using an equant, Ptolemy claimed to keep motion which was uniform and circular, although it departed from the Platonic ideal of
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astronomers, as long as there are no other contrary indications, on the basis of the decrees of the Sacred
Congregation of the Index of 1757 and of this Supreme of 1820; and that those who would show themselves to be reluctant or would disobey, should be forced under punishments at the choice of Sacred Congregation, with derogation of claimed privileges, where necessary.
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1489:, the planets do indeed move around the Sun, which due to its much larger mass, moves far less than its own diameter and the gravity of which is dominant in determining the orbits of the planets (in other words, the center of mass of the Solar System is near the center of the Sun). The Earth and Moon are much closer to being a
1678:
The first and greatest care of Leo XIII was to set forth the teaching on the truth of the Sacred Books and to defend it from attack. Hence with grave words did he proclaim that there is no error whatsoever if the sacred writer, speaking of things of the physical order "went by what sensibly appeared"
1651:
we have to contend against those who, making an evil use of physical science, minutely scrutinize the Sacred Book in order to detect the writers in a mistake, and to take occasion to vilify its contents. ... There can never, indeed, be any real discrepancy between the theologian and the physicist, as
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This showed that with a
Ptolemaic cosmology, the Venus epicycle can be neither completely inside nor completely outside of the orbit of the Sun. As a result, Ptolemaics abandoned the idea that the epicycle of Venus was completely inside the Sun, and later 17th-century competition between astronomical
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has moons) called into question some of the tenets of geocentrism but did not seriously threaten it. Because he observed dark "spots" on the Moon, craters, he remarked that the moon was not a perfect celestial body as had been previously conceived. This was the first detailed observation by telescope
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was conceived to move uniformly) and produce alternative configurations to the
Ptolemaic model without abandoning geocentrism. They were more successful than their Andalusian predecessors in producing non-Ptolemaic configurations which eliminated the equant and eccentrics, were more accurate than the
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thought that the Earth was a sphere (in accordance with observations of eclipses), but not at the center; he believed that it was in motion around an unseen fire. Later these views were combined, so most educated Greeks from the 4th century BC onwards thought that the Earth was a sphere at the center
1732:
The
Assessor of the Holy Office has referred the request of Giuseppe Settele, Professor of Optics and Astronomy at La Sapienza University, regarding permission to publish his work Elements of Astronomy in which he espouses the common opinion of the astronomers of our time regarding the Earth’s daily
1480:
Relativity agrees with
Newtonian predictions that regardless of whether the Sun or the Earth are chosen arbitrarily as the center of the coordinate system describing the Solar System, the paths of the planets form (roughly) ellipses with respect to the Sun, not the Earth. With respect to the average
496:, even though it was an improvement over Hipparchus' system. Most noticeably the size of a planet's retrograde loop (especially that of Mars) would be smaller, or sometimes larger, than expected, resulting in positional errors of as much as 30 degrees. To alleviate the problem, Ptolemy developed the
441:
Ptolemy argued that the Earth was a sphere in the center of the universe, from the simple observation that half the stars were above the horizon and half were below the horizon at any time (stars on rotating stellar sphere), and the assumption that the stars were all at some modest distance from the
1826:
The Zohar states: "The entire world and those upon it, spin round in a circle like a ball, both those at the bottom of the ball and those at the top. All God's creatures, wherever they live on the different parts of the ball, look different (in color, in their features) because the air is different
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stated that, "though this Earth on which we live may not be the center of the universe as at one time was thought, it was the scene of the original happiness of our first ancestors, witness of their unhappy fall, as too of the
Redemption of mankind through the Passion and Death of Jesus Christ". In
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What the principle of relativity points out is that correct mathematical calculations can be made regardless of the reference frame chosen, and these will all agree with each other as to the predictions of actual motions of bodies with respect to each other. It is not necessary to choose the object
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entirely inside the sphere of the Sun (between the Sun and Mercury), but this was arbitrary; he could just as easily have swapped Venus and Mercury and put them on the other side of the Sun, or made any other arrangement of Venus and Mercury, as long as they were always near a line running from the
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Atmospheric explanations for many phenomena were preferred because the Eudoxan–Aristotelian model based on perfectly concentric spheres was not intended to explain changes in the brightness of the planets due to a change in distance. Eventually, perfectly concentric spheres were abandoned as it was
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All Islamic astronomers from Thabit ibn Qurra in the ninth century to Ibn al-Shatir in the fourteenth, and all natural philosophers from al-Kindi to Averroes and later, are known to have accepted ... the Greek picture of the world as consisting of two spheres of which one, the celestial sphere ...
1961:
Donald B. DeYoung, for example, states that "Similar terminology is often used today when we speak of the sun's rising and setting, even though the earth, not the sun, is doing the moving. Bible writers used the 'language of appearance,' just as people always have. Without it, the intended message
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could remove Ptolemy's epicycles because the retrograde motion could be seen to be the result of the combination of the movements and speeds of Earth and planets. Copernicus felt strongly that equants were a violation of Aristotelian purity, and proved that replacement of the equant with a pair of
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should change considerably over the course of a year. As they did not appear to move, either the stars are much farther away than the Sun and the planets than previously conceived, making their motion undetectable, or the Earth is not moving at all. Because the stars are actually much further away
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stated that, "Consequently, we cannot but deplore certain habits of mind, which are sometimes found too among Christians, which do not sufficiently attend to the rightful independence of science and which, from the arguments and controversies they spark, lead many minds to conclude that faith and
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for the year 1631. The change from circular orbits to elliptical planetary paths dramatically improved the accuracy of celestial observations and predictions. Because the heliocentric model devised by Copernicus was no more accurate than Ptolemy's system, new observations were needed to persuade
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The deferent-and-epicycle model had been used by Greek astronomers for centuries along with the idea of the eccentric (a deferent whose center is slightly away from the Earth), which was even older. In the illustration, the center of the deferent is not the Earth but the spot marked X, making it
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Cardinal Poupard has also reminded us that the sentence of 1633 was not irreformable, and that the debate which had not ceased to evolve thereafter, was closed in 1820 with the imprimatur given to the work of Canon Settele. ... The error of the theologians of the time, when they maintained the
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To summarize, Ptolemy conceived a system that was compatible with Aristotelian philosophy and succeeded in tracking actual observations and predicting future movement mostly to within the limits of the next 1000 years of observations. The observed motions and his mechanisms for explaining them
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The model with epicycles is in fact a very good model of an elliptical orbit with low eccentricity. The well-known ellipse shape does not appear to a noticeable extent when the eccentricity is less than 5%, but the offset distance of the "center" (in fact the focus occupied by the Sun) is very
339:
In the fully developed Aristotelian system, the spherical Earth is at the center of the universe, and all other heavenly bodies are attached to 47–55 transparent, rotating spheres surrounding the Earth, all concentric with it. (The number is so high because several spheres are needed for each
1545:, A. L. Graebner observed that the synod had no doctrinal position on geocentrism, heliocentrism, or any scientific model, unless it were to contradict Scripture. He stated that any possible declarations of geocentrists within the synod did not set the position of the church body as a whole.
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The most excellent have decreed that there must be no denial, by the present or by future Masters of the Sacred Apostolic Palace, of permission to print and to publish works which treat of the mobility of the Earth and of the immobility of the sun, according to the common opinion of modern
1476:
Despite giving more respectability to the geocentric view than Newtonian physics does, relativity is not geocentric. Rather, relativity states that the Sun, the Earth, the Moon, Jupiter, or any other point for that matter could be chosen as a center of the Solar System with equal validity.
1830:
While geocentrism is important in Maimonides' calendar calculations, the great majority of Jewish religious scholars, who accept the divinity of the Bible and accept many of his rulings as legally binding, do not believe that the Bible or Maimonides command a belief in geocentrism.
1167:), which posited that the Earth and the other planets instead revolved around the Sun. The geocentric system was still held for many years afterwards, as at the time the Copernican system did not offer better predictions than the geocentric system, and it posed problems for both
281:
proposed a cosmology with Earth shaped like a section of a pillar (a cylinder), held aloft at the center of everything. The Sun, Moon, and planets were holes in invisible wheels surrounding Earth; through the holes, humans could see concealed fire. About the same time,
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models provide identical results to identical inputs: they are computationally equivalent. It was not until Kepler demonstrated a physical observation that could show that the physical Sun is directly involved in determining an orbit that a new model was required.
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remains speculative, since there is no documentary evidence to prove it. The possibility that Copernicus independently developed the Tusi couple remains open, since no researcher has yet demonstrated that he knew about Tusi's work or that of the Maragha school.
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is most useful in those cases, galactic and extragalactic astronomy is easier if the Sun is treated as neither stationary nor the center of the universe, but rather rotating around the center of our galaxy, while in turn our galaxy is also not at rest in the
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successfully, and disproved Ptolemy's claim that parallax motion did not exist. This finally confirmed the assumptions made by Copernicus, providing accurate, dependable scientific observations, and conclusively displaying how distant stars are from Earth.
1322:
In this depiction of the Tychonic system, the objects on blue orbits (the Moon and the Sun) revolve around the Earth. The objects on orange orbits (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn) revolve around the Sun. Around all is a sphere of stars, which
1606:
quotes a 2006 survey that show currently some 20% of the U.S. population believe that the Sun goes around the Earth (geocentricism) rather than the Earth goes around the Sun (heliocentricism), while a further 9% claimed not to know. Polls conducted by
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as the force which both kept the Earth and planets moving through the universe and also kept the atmosphere from flying away. The theory of gravity allowed scientists to rapidly construct a plausible heliocentric model for the Solar System. In his
249:(1571–1630). There was much resistance to the transition between these two theories, since for a long time the geocentric postulate produced more accurate results. Additionally some felt that a new, unknown theory could not subvert an accepted
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based on a belief held by some of his contemporaries "that the motion we see is due to the Earth's movement and not to that of the sky." The prevalence of this view is further confirmed by a reference from the 13th century which states:
1493:; the center of mass around which they both rotate is still inside the Earth, but is about 4,624 km (2,873 mi) or 72.6% of the Earth's radius away from the centre of the Earth (thus closer to the surface than the center).
1665:
Maurice Finocchiaro, author of a book on the Galileo affair, notes that this is "a view of the relationship between biblical interpretation and scientific investigation that corresponds to the one advanced by Galileo in the
1556:, which, when taken literally, indicate that the daily apparent motions of the Sun and the Moon are due to their actual motions around the Earth rather than due to the rotation of the Earth about its axis. For example, in
1643:. In regards to the theological basis for such an argument, two Popes addressed the question of whether the use of phenomenological language would compel one to admit an error in Scripture. Both taught that it would not.
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in the Solar System with the largest gravitational field as the center of the coordinate system in order to predict the motions of planetary bodies, though doing so may make calculations easier to perform or interpret. A
1390:, Newton explained his theory of how gravity, previously thought to be a mysterious, unexplained occult force, directed the movements of celestial bodies, and kept our Solar System in working order. His descriptions of
1509:), or when calculating what the sky will look like when viewed from Earth (as opposed to an imaginary observer looking down on the entire Solar System, where a different coordinate system might be more convenient).
1715:
The position of the curia evolved slowly over the centuries towards permitting the heliocentric view. In 1757, during the papacy of Benedict XIV, the Congregation of the Index withdrew the decree which prohibited
1336:(in which the Earth was still at the center of the universe, and around it revolved the Sun, but all other planets revolved around the Sun in one massive set of epicycles), or variations on the Copernican system.
1405:
of Newton's theory, explaining the longer period of oscillation of a pendulum at the equator and the differing size of a degree of latitude, would gradually become available between 1673 and 1738. In addition,
1737:
In 1822, the Congregation of the Holy Office removed the prohibition on the publication of books treating of the Earth's motion in accordance with modern astronomy and Pope Pius VII ratified the decision:
1586:). These people subscribe to the view that a plain reading of the Bible contains an accurate account of the manner in which the universe was created and requires a geocentric worldview. Most contemporary
1131:
was the most radical. He correctly realized in the 4th century BC that the universe does not have any single center. This theory was widely accepted by the later Epicureans and was notably defended by
340:
planet.) These spheres, known as crystalline spheres, all moved at different uniform speeds to create the revolution of bodies around the Earth. They were composed of an incorruptible substance called
355:
Adherence to the geocentric model stemmed largely from several important observations. First of all, if the Earth did move, then one ought to be able to observe the shifting of the fixed stars due to
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in each place, but they stand erect as all other human beings, therefore, there are places in the world where, when some have light, others have darkness; when some have day, others have night."
873:), which some have interpreted to imply he was criticizing Ptolemy's geocentrism, but most agree that he was actually criticizing the details of Ptolemy's model rather than his geocentrism.
298:, wrote works based on the geocentric model. According to Plato, the Earth was a sphere, stationary at the center of the universe. The stars and planets were carried around the Earth on
1619:, an expert in the public understanding of science and technology, found that about 20%, or one in five, of American adults believe that the Sun orbits the Earth. According to 2011
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new epicycles was entirely equivalent. Astronomers often continued using the equants instead of the epicycles because the former was easier to calculate, and gave the same result.
404:
Although the basic tenets of Greek geocentrism were established by the time of Aristotle, the details of his system did not become standard. The Ptolemaic system, developed by the
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in the 4th century BC, believed that the Earth rotated on its axis but remained at the center of the universe. Such a system still qualifies as geocentric. It was revived in the
1441:
A geocentric frame is useful for many everyday activities and most laboratory experiments, but is a less appropriate choice for Solar System mechanics and space travel. While a
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impossible to develop a sufficiently accurate model under that ideal, with the mathematical methods then available. However, while providing for similar explanations, the later
302:, arranged in the order (outwards from the center): Moon, Sun, Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, fixed stars, with the fixed stars located on the celestial sphere. In his "
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Ptolemaic model in numerically predicting planetary positions, and were in better agreement with empirical observations. The most important of the Maragha astronomers included
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Earth through the Sun, such as placing the center of the Venus epicycle near the Sun. In this case, if the Sun is the source of all the light, under the Ptolemaic system:
1123:, saying that the Sun was at the center of the universe, while the Earth and other planets revolved around it. His theory was not popular, and he had one named follower,
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generally accepted the Ptolemaic system and the geocentric model, but by the 10th century texts appeared regularly whose subject matter was doubts concerning Ptolemy (
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930:) beyond this world such that each one of those worlds be bigger and more massive than this world as well as having the like of what this world has." To support his
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and a few other books continued to be explicitly included. In 1820, the Congregation of the Holy Office, with the pope's approval, decreed that Catholic astronomer
1111:. Heraclides Ponticus was once thought to have proposed that both Venus and Mercury went around the Sun rather than the Earth, but it is now known that he did not.
941:
The "Maragha Revolution" refers to the Maragha school's revolution against Ptolemaic astronomy. The "Maragha school" was an astronomical tradition beginning in the
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in 1609 and 1619, based on a heliocentric view where the planets move in elliptical paths. Using these laws, he was the first astronomer to successfully predict a
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mechanisms, though this resulted in a system that was mathematically less accurate. His alternative system spread through most of Europe during the 13th century.
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those who still adhered to the geocentric model. However, Kepler's laws based on Brahe's data became a problem which geocentrists could not easily overcome.
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Lattis, James L. (1995). Between Copernicus and Galileo: Christoph Clavius and the Collapse of Ptolemaic Cosmology, University of Chicago Press, pgs 186-190
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850:), the Earth is in constant circular motion, and what appears to be the motion of the heavens is actually due to the motion of the Earth and not the stars.
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in the 1990s found that 16% of Germans, 18% of Americans and 19% of Britons hold that the Sun revolves around the Earth. A study conducted in 2005 by
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center of the universe. If the Earth were substantially displaced from the center, this division into visible and invisible stars would not be equal.
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Two observations supported the idea that Earth was the center of the Universe. First, from anywhere on Earth, the Sun appears to revolve around Earth
1398:, finally replacing the previous schools of scientific thought, which had been dominated by Aristotle and Ptolemy. However, the process was gradual.
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Grant, Edward (1984-01-01). "In Defense of the Earth's Centrality and Immobility: Scholastic Reaction to Copernicanism in the Seventeenth Century".
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The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, Prehistory to A.D. 1450
821:). Several Muslim scholars questioned the Earth's apparent immobility and centrality within the universe. Some Muslim astronomers believed that the
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and scripture. The Copernican system was no more accurate than Ptolemy's system, because it still used circular orbits. This was not altered until
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assumed it was the correct cosmological model. Because of its influence, people sometimes wrongly think the Ptolemaic system is identical with the
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129:. While the Moon and the planets have their own motions, they also appear to revolve around Earth about once per day. The stars appeared to be
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1287:. He thought that while this observation was incompatible with the Ptolemaic system, it was a natural consequence of the heliocentric system.
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placing all of the then-known planets in their correct order around the Sun. The ancient Greeks believed that the motions of the planets were
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Prominent cases of modern geocentrism are very isolated. Very few individuals promoted a geocentric view of the universe. One of them was
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was allowed to treat the Earth's motion as an established fact and removed any obstacle for Catholics to hold to the motion of the Earth:
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meaning "center"), from which the spot takes its name. Unfortunately, the system that was available in Ptolemy's time did not quite match
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common to the major Eurasian religious traditions. It also follows the decreasing orbital periods of the Moon, Sun, planets and stars.
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3331:"Decree of Approval for the Work "Elements of Astronomy" by Giuseppe Settele, in support of the Heliocentric System | Inters.org"
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would be awkward at best and probably not understood clearly. When the Bible touches on scientific subjects, it is entirely accurate."
1866:. He rejected the heliocentric model and wrote a book that explains the movement of the sun, moon and other planets around the Earth.
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of Earth. Second, Earth seems to be unmoving from the perspective of an earthbound observer; it feels solid, stable, and stationary.
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Sabra, A. I. (1998). "Configuring the Universe: Aporetic, Problem Solving, and Kinematic Modeling as Themes of Arabic Astronomy".
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system has already been mentioned; some Pythagoreans believed the Earth to be one of several planets going around a central fire.
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344:. Aristotle believed that the Moon was in the innermost sphere and therefore touches the realm of Earth, causing the dark spots (
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3446:"Orthodox Jews & science: An empirical study of their attitudes toward evolution, the fossil record, and modern geology"
1708:) and attached the various decrees connected with those books, including those concerned with heliocentrism. He stated in a
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328:, who worked with Plato, developed a less mythical, more mathematical explanation of the planets' motion based on Plato's
7118:
5806:
1811:
leaders maintain a geocentric model of the universe based on the aforementioned Biblical verses and an interpretation of
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1498:
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7007:
6886:
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1700:
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805:
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Only ratio between radius of deferent and associated epicycle determined; absolute distances not determined in theory
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926:
notion of the Earth's centrality within the universe, but instead argues that there are "a thousand thousand worlds (
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2550:
911:
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4906:
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Another demonstration of the complexity of observed orbits when assuming a geocentric model of the Solar System
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1712:
that his purpose in doing so was that "the succession of things done from the beginning might be made known ".
1538:
1426:
1148:
709:
423:
6114:
5837:
1787:
in 1992. The Pope declared the incident to be based on a "tragic mutual miscomprehension". He further stated:
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6347:
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5948:
5887:
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can be more convenient when dealing only with bodies mostly influenced by the gravity of the Earth (such as
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6266:
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6165:
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5334:
5324:
4602:
4475:
4410:
4076:
3818:
3472:
Nussbaum, Alexander (January–April 2002). "Creationism and geocentrism among Orthodox Jewish scientists".
2374:
1771:
975:
692:
661:
35:
613:
Motion of epicycle in same direction as deferent. Period of epicycle is time between retrograde motions (
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6826:
6740:
6413:
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5579:
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1044:
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3655:
3015:"Excerpts from Frank Zindler's 'Report from the center of the universe' and 'Turtles all the way down'"
967:
826:
336:
in the heavens can be explained with uniform circular motion. Aristotle elaborated on Eudoxus' system.
4053:
3745:"From Geocentrism to Allocentrism: Teaching the Phases of the Moon in a Digital Full-Dome Planetarium"
1725:
7051:
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4480:
4385:
4335:
4310:
3018:
2720:
Eastwood, B. S. (1992-11-01). "Heraclides and heliocentrism – Texts diagrams and interpretations".
1919:
1863:
1820:
1402:
1100:
822:
308:
50:— An illustration of a non-Ptolemaic geocentric system by Portuguese cosmographer and cartographer
5201:
3690:
1525:; from the late 16th century onward it was gradually replaced as the consensus description by the
7168:
7156:
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1208:
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705:
679:
187:
119:
6627:
6286:
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1394:
were a breakthrough in scientific thought, using the newly developed mathematical discipline of
1195:
of the Moon's imperfections, which had previously been explained by Aristotle as the Moon being
265:
Illustration of Anaximander's models of the universe. On the left, summer; on the right, winter.
2591:
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2522:
2492:"Ptolemaic Astronomy, Islamic Planetary Theory, and Copernicus's Debt to the Maragha School".
2343:
2318:
2154:
2039:
2035:
2006:
2002:
1816:
1780:
1470:
1418:
over a period of ten years, finishing in 1680. However, it was not explained until 1729, when
1391:
1249:, despite remaining near the Sun in Earth's sky (first image). This proved that it orbits the
1112:
809:
547:
431:
325:
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5314:
5284:
5274:
5264:
5208:
5164:
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4782:
4735:
4688:
4658:
4597:
4572:
4190:
4027:
3850:
3764:
3717:
3627:
3422:
2861:
2821:
2737:
2673:
2579:
2466:
2431:
2265:"Fakhr Al-Din Al-Razi on physics and the nature of the physical world: A preliminary survey"
2234:
2187:
2117:
2080:
2027:
1994:
1883:
1882:
and geocentric models. In particular, the geocentric model is still used for projecting the
1808:
1766:
1756:
1569:
1549:
1356:
1232:
931:
885:
744:
600:
Eastward motion of deferents; period set by observation of planet going around the ecliptic
543:
460:
369:
365:
356:
134:
99:
51:
31:
3290:
1568:
says in part, "the world is established, firm and secure". Contemporary advocates for such
106:
Earth. The geocentric model was the predominant description of the cosmos in many European
7002:
6936:
6700:
6655:
6185:
6059:
6028:
5963:
5791:
5718:
5687:
5521:
5435:
5294:
5171:
5108:
5006:
4951:
4916:
4683:
4618:
4587:
4485:
4415:
4210:
4167:
4162:
3904:
3046:. St. Louis, MO: Lutheran Synod of Missouri, Ohio and other states, Concordia Publishing:
2391:
Rufus, W. C. (May 1939). "The influence of Islamic astronomy in Europe and the far east".
1775:
science are mutually opposed." The footnote on this statement is to Msgr. Pio Paschini's,
1573:
1518:
1458:
1344:
1333:
1280:
1272:
1246:
1242:
1212:
1203:
of the higher spheres. Galileo could also see the moons of Jupiter, which he dedicated to
1187:
1172:
1136:
919:
717:
686:
655:
270:
242:
199:
195:
160:
142:
107:
6018:
5978:
4028:
3822:
3624:
Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures
3213:
1529:. Geocentrism as a separate religious belief, however, never completely died out. In the
412:
in the 2nd century AD, finally standardised geocentrism. His main astronomical work, the
3760:
3684:
2733:
2462:
2427:
2400:
2230:
6846:
6821:
6607:
6470:
6124:
6099:
6084:
6069:
6033:
5902:
5682:
5644:
5420:
5395:
5390:
5187:
5131:
5094:
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4851:
4821:
4546:
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4340:
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4215:
4200:
4195:
3940:
3892:
3882:
3797:
1929:
1924:
1636:
1561:
1462:
1153:
In 1543, the geocentric system met its first serious challenge with the publication of
1088:
1001:
946:
938:
verse, "All praise belongs to God, Lord of the Worlds," emphasizing the term "Worlds."
889:
614:
539:
481:
419:
203:
191:
148:
138:
126:
2512:
2071:
Goldstein, Bernard R. (1967). "The Arabic version of Ptolemy's planetary hypothesis".
1548:
Articles arguing that geocentrism was the biblical perspective appeared in some early
1422:
provided an approximate explanation in terms of the Earth's revolution about the Sun.
43:
7190:
6966:
6876:
6750:
6620:
6613:
6312:
6180:
6155:
6094:
5564:
5469:
5450:
5080:
5073:
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4941:
4866:
4816:
4668:
4653:
4633:
4172:
4157:
4152:
4118:
4099:
3778:
3729:
3168:
3164:
2862:
2749:
2674:
2580:
2575:
2542:
2478:
2435:
2246:
2199:
2129:
2028:
1995:
1671:
1644:
1612:
1603:
1582:
1530:
1490:
1442:
1419:
1196:
1120:
979:
789:
780:
405:
360:
7144:
6796:
6690:
6403:
6337:
6190:
5933:
5897:
5475:
5240:
4986:
4921:
4806:
4516:
4365:
4220:
4147:
4133:
4128:
4123:
4113:
3631:
3330:
2497:
1914:
1887:
1879:
1875:
1411:
1372:
1364:
1108:
349:
230:
211:
152:
5462:
3014:
388:
4036:
3314:
3262:
3118:"Astronomy and the Bible: Selected questions and answers excerpted from the book"
2414:
Hartner, Willy (1955). "The Mercury horoscope of Marcantonio Michiel of Venice".
6971:
6961:
6926:
6735:
6715:
6594:
6434:
6170:
6119:
6079:
5847:
5445:
5339:
5224:
5023:
5001:
4936:
4871:
4831:
4811:
4355:
4300:
3878:
3319:(in Latin). Rome: Ex typographia Reurendae Camerae Apostolicae. 1664. p. v.
2547:
A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam
1587:
1486:
1415:
1380:
1348:
1329:
1284:
1104:
994:
774:
493:
278:
156:
130:
3117:
2741:
1469:(1938): "Can we formulate physical laws so that they are valid for all CS [
1379:
from the law of gravitation, thus helping to prove the latter. This introduced
1318:
1223:
724:
400:
point. The Green shaded area is the celestial sphere which the planet occupies.
6916:
6906:
6896:
6801:
6781:
6705:
6373:
6322:
6160:
6150:
5988:
5983:
5968:
5692:
5511:
5486:
5360:
5344:
5087:
4876:
4826:
4673:
4490:
4435:
4395:
4325:
3769:
3721:
3550:. Translated by Touger, Eliyahu. Chabad-Lubavitch Media Center. Halacha 13–14.
2449:
Goldstein, Bernard R. (1972). "Theory and observation in medieval astronomy".
2215:"Freeing astronomy from philosophy: An aspect of Islamic influence on science"
2191:
2174:
Ragep, F. Jamil (2001). "Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's motion in context".
1812:
1709:
1557:
1522:
1258:
1154:
1005:
983:
954:
923:
303:
283:
238:
226:
164:
3999:
3862:
1565:
1315:
But Galileo saw Venus at first small and full, and later large and crescent.
788:
Ptolemy did not invent or work out this order, which aligns with the ancient
364:
than Greek astronomers postulated (making angular movement extremely small),
214:
showed that elliptical orbits could be derived from his laws of gravitation.
17:
6951:
6891:
6670:
6449:
6393:
6064:
5998:
5973:
5857:
5672:
5667:
5501:
5496:
5491:
5269:
4881:
4856:
4801:
4796:
4577:
4430:
4420:
4405:
4350:
4345:
4290:
1802:
1602:, 26% of Americans surveyed believe that the Sun revolves around the Earth.
1183:
1132:
1096:
961:
problem (the circle around whose circumference a planet or the center of an
834:
830:
333:
295:
222:
168:
111:
59:
3492:
Mind over Matter: The Lubavitcher Rebbe on Science, Technology and Medicine
1307:
or all dark. If Venus is beyond the Sun, the phase of Venus must always be
935:
5460:
5055:
4243:
1847:
from Latin to Arabic, Muslims adopted and refined the geocentric model of
468:
In the Ptolemaic system, each planet is moved by a system of two spheres:
6976:
6946:
6911:
6901:
6841:
6660:
6175:
6145:
6089:
6023:
6013:
5938:
5852:
5707:
5657:
5526:
5506:
5415:
5031:
4996:
4678:
4506:
4370:
2797:
2121:
1844:
1624:
1434:
1430:
1304:
1303:
If Venus is between Earth and the Sun, the phase of Venus must always be
1295:
1291:
1128:
962:
559:
414:
393:
79:
1075:
6881:
6871:
6806:
6755:
6695:
6685:
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6008:
5677:
5652:
5365:
5329:
5289:
5279:
5231:
4966:
4886:
4582:
4445:
4440:
4390:
4380:
3870:
2092:
1848:
1640:
1308:
1191:
1092:
1080:
859:
855:
764:
728:
409:
115:
1815:
to the effect that he ruled that the Earth is orbited by the Sun. The
6856:
6851:
5702:
5697:
5425:
5309:
4911:
4693:
4643:
4592:
4465:
4315:
1620:
958:
897:
769:
595:
508:
noticeable even with low eccentricities as possessed by the planets.
497:
397:
329:
321:
246:
221:, developed in the 2nd century CE, served as the basis for preparing
3909:
The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe
3854:
3140:"1 In 4 Americans Thinks The Sun Goes Around The Earth, Survey Says"
2225:(Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions): 49–64, 66–71.
2084:
1265:
and disproved the then conventional geocentric model (second image).
7139:
4751:
2470:
2238:
1783:
regretted the treatment which Galileo received, in a speech to the
716:
It has been determined that the Copernican, Ptolemaic and even the
6921:
6786:
6710:
5531:
5440:
5304:
5216:
4891:
1859:
1553:
1317:
1276:
1254:
1074:
749:
449:
392:
The basic elements of Ptolemaic astronomy, showing a planet on an
387:
291:
260:
103:
83:
42:
3799:
Theories of the World from Antiquity to the Copernican Revolution
3264:'СОЛНЦЕ – СПУТНИК ЗЕМЛИ', ИЛИ РЕЙТИНГ НАУЧНЫХ ЗАБЛУЖДЕНИЙ РОССИЯН
2676:
A History of Ancient Philosophy: From the Beginnings to Augustine
1351:'s famously accurate observations and afterwards constructed his
667:
Size of epicycles set by these angles, proportional to distances
639:
Equants per planet (Copernicus used a pair of epicycles instead)
550:
with it; normally ignored; other spheres have additional motions
476:, and then again reversed to resume normal, or prograde, motion.
5542:
4068:
1506:
759:
739:
95:
91:
6506:
5760:
5722:
4755:
4247:
4072:
3620:"Almagest: Its Reception and Transmission in the Islamic World"
380:
model was already flexible enough to accommodate observations.
27:
Superseded description of the Universe with Earth at the center
6579:
5247:
2289:
Alessandro Bausani (1973). "Cosmology and Religion in Islam".
1851:, which they believed correlated with the teachings of Islam.
1375:
and others. His main achievement was to mathematically derive
1250:
1083:
manuscript dated around 1750 illustrates the geocentric model.
1016:
754:
229:
for over 1,500 years. The geocentric model held sway into the
87:
4054:
Geocentric Perspective animation of the Solar System in 150AD
2574:
Dallal, Ahmad (1999). "Science, Medicine and Technology". In
957:
predecessors, the Maragha astronomers attempted to solve the
233:
age, but from the late 16th century onward, it was gradually
3963:
From Eudoxus to Einstein—A History of Mathematical Astronomy
2888:
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
2620:
The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West
1819:
also explained that geocentrism is defensible based on the
1533:
between 1870 and 1920, for example, various members of the
290:
In the 4th century BC, two influential Greek philosophers,
1115:
definitely put Mercury and Venus in orbit around the Sun.
535:
Westward motion of entire sky in ~24 hrs ("first motion")
159:
philosophers usually combined the geocentric model with a
30:"Geocentric" redirects here. For orbits around Earth, see
3067:
The Creationists: The Evolution of Scientific Creationism
2938:(1966 ed.). New York: Simon & Schuster. p.
1004:
to heliocentrism. The influence of the Maragha school on
3269:'Sun-earth', or rating scientific fallacies of Russians
3097:"In this world view, the sun revolves around the earth"
1560:, the Sun and Moon are said to stop in the sky, and in
1040:
1199:
by Earth and its heavier elements, in contrast to the
735:
The Ptolemaic order of spheres from Earth outward is:
7116:
3581:
Science in the Light of Torah: A B'Or Ha'Torah Reader
3196:"New Poll Gauges Americans' General Knowledge Levels"
2992:. London: Heineman Educational Books Ltd. p. 1.
2767:(2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. p.
2315:
Religion, Learning and Science in the 'Abbasid Period
1087:
Not all Greeks agreed with the geocentric model. The
997:(died 1525), and Shams al-Din al-Khafri (died 1550).
273:
and philosophy at an early point; it can be found in
3474:
Reports of the National Center for Science Education
3289:. Berkeley: University of California Press. p.
2649:
Encyclopaedia of Islamic Science and Scientists: A-H
1948:
This argument is given in Book I, Chapter 5, of the
1631:
Historical positions of the Roman Catholic hierarchy
704:
The geocentric model was eventually replaced by the
7075:
7044:
6985:
6774:
6641:
6577:
6517:
6463:
6427:
6366:
6305:
6204:
6133:
6052:
5921:
5825:
5784:
5641:
5600:
5557:
5353:
5257:
5015:
4789:
4723:
4702:
4611:
4560:
4499:
4281:
4183:
4106:
3579:Branover, Herman; Attia, Ilana Coven, eds. (1994).
1513:
Religious and contemporary adherence to geocentrism
1414:in 1674, and tested in a series of observations by
3939:
3843:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society
3796:
3656:"How Islamic scholarship birthed modern astronomy"
3280:
3278:
3038:Graebner, A. L. (1902). "Science and the church".
2990:Nicolaus Copernicus: An Essay On His Life and Work
2965:Nicolaus Copernicus: An Essay On His Life and Work
2073:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society
1639:pitted the geocentric model against the claims of
575:Eccentric orbit (Sun's deferent center off Earth)
359:. Thus if the Earth was moving, the shapes of the
171:. However, the Greek astronomer and mathematician
3982:Relativity: An introduction to the special theory
2340:An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines
1674:(1939–1958) repeated his predecessor's teaching:
698:Radii of epicycles aligned to the Sun–Earth line
572:Non-uniform rate along ecliptic (uneven seasons)
430:astronomers. For over a millennium, European and
86:at the center. Under most geocentric models, the
2707:Ancient Science Through the Golden Age of Greece
1720:books teaching the Earth's motion, although the
1541:and promoting geocentrism. However, in the 1902
470:one called its deferent; the other, its epicycle
3467:
3465:
2134:
1789:
1740:
1730:
1676:
1649:
1301:
1175:postulated that they were elliptical (Kepler's
3544:"Sefer Zemanim: Kiddush HaChodesh: Chapter 11"
1598:According to a report released in 2014 by the
1099:, two Pythagoreans of the 5th century BC, and
896:proposed a planetary model that abandoned the
418:, was the culmination of centuries of work by
5734:
4767:
4259:
4084:
3834:The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy
3350:Galileo: For Copernicanism and For the Church
2794:Science in the Ancient World: An Encyclopedia
2647:Kirmani, M. Zaki; Singh, Nagendra Kr (2005).
1905:Earth-centered, Earth-fixed coordinate system
1552:newsletters pointing to some passages in the
1030:The examples and perspective in this article
202:postulated that orbits were heliocentric and
8:
3824:A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler
3170:Dark Ages America: The Final Phase of Empire
2395:. Vol. 47, no. 5. pp. 233–8.
2258:
2256:
564:Eastward motion of Sun's sphere in one year
3984:. Singapore Teaneck, NJ: World Scientific.
3533:Zohar, Book 3 (Vayikra), Page 10, folio: a.
2613:
2611:
2317:. Cambridge University Press. p. 413.
2030:Planetary Motions: A Historical Perspective
1890:in education and sometimes for navigation.
1000:However, the Maragha school never made the
6521:
6514:
6503:
5770:
5757:
5741:
5727:
5719:
5592:Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics
4774:
4760:
4752:
4266:
4252:
4244:
4091:
4077:
4069:
3070:. University of California Press. p.
2153:. Cambridge University Press. p. 60.
2151:The Cambridge Concise History of Astronomy
1165:On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
796:Persian and Arab astronomy and geocentrism
583:Monthly eastward motion compared to stars
3965:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3768:
3670:"Fauz e Mubeen Dar Radd e Harkat e Zamin"
3352:. University of Notre Dame. p. 475.
3316:Index librorum prohibitorum Alexandri VII
3287:The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History
1915:Hollow Earth § Concave Hollow Earths
1119:wrote a work, which has not survived, on
1063:Learn how and when to remove this message
945:and continuing with astronomers from the
731:thought the solar system looked like this
586:Monthly eastward motion of Moon's sphere
5195:Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era
3605:"Ptolemaic Astronomy in the Middle Ages"
2967:. New York: Harper and Row. p. 87.
2672:Johansen, K. F.; Rosenmeier, H. (1998).
2308:
2306:
2304:
1590:organizations reject such perspectives.
880:departed from the ancient Greek idea of
723:
678:Center their deferent centers along the
514:
70:, often exemplified specifically by the
7123:
5750:Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world
3946:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
3686:A General View of the Sciences and Arts
3376:. Rome. 1921-04-30. § 4. Archived from
3271:] (in Russian), ВЦИОМ , 2011-02-08.
1973:
1941:
1627:believe that the Sun orbits the Earth.
1371:, described earlier as a hypothesis by
625:Variations in speed through the zodiac
6547:Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity
5893:Khalid ibn Abd al‐Malik al‐Marwarrudhi
4064:The Galileo Project – Ptolemaic System
3411:"Faith can never conflict with reason"
2622:. Cambridge University Press. p.
118:in Roman Egypt, as well as during the
54:, 1568 (Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris)
6568:The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries
3239:"Scientific savvy? In U.S., not much"
2868:. Indianapolis, IL: Hackett. p.
2521:. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
2362:
2058:
1910:History of the center of the Universe
1668:Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina
1580:and the 2014 pseudo-documentary film
1328:cosmologies focused on variations of
218:
7:
3836:. New York: Oxford University Press.
2722:Journal for the History of Astronomy
1997:The Cosmos: A Historical Perspective
1980:
1564:the world is described as immobile.
312:, Plato describes the cosmos as the
194:, a view that was not challenged in
3803:. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications.
3138:Neuman, Scott (February 14, 2014).
2379:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2338:Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1993-01-01).
2313:Young, M. J. L., ed. (2006-11-02).
1779:, 2 volumes, Vatican Press (1964).
1519:Ptolemaic model of the solar system
1275:used his telescope to observe that
1160:De revolutionibus orbium coelestium
3444:Nussbaum, Alexander (2007-12-19).
2919:Selections from Newton's Principia
2518:Dictionary of Scientific Biography
2513:"Al-Bitruji Al-Ishbili, Abu Ishaq"
2137:concentrically envelops the other.
1843:which included the translation of
1034:include all significant viewpoints
396:with an eccentric deferent and an
25:
4007:Walker, Christopher, ed. (1996).
3116:DeYoung, Donald B. (1997-11-05).
3105:. Hendersonville, NC. p. 5A.
2026:Hetherington, Norriss S. (2006).
1747:The 1835 edition of the Catholic
1377:Kepler's laws of planetary motion
1245:observed with his telescope that
910:(1149–1209), in dealing with his
884:by hypothesizing that the planet
790:Seven Heavens religious cosmology
675:Limited to movement near the Sun
664:of 23° (Mercury) and 46° (Venus)
34:. For the coordinate system, see
7174:
7162:
7150:
7138:
7126:
4011:. London: British Museum Press.
3434:(Published English translation).
3409:Pope John Paul II (1992-11-04).
3285:Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (1989).
2860:Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (2008).
1231:
1222:
1021:
636:Variations in retrograde timing
594:General eastward motion through
348:) and the ability to go through
217:The astronomical predictions of
110:civilizations, such as those of
7202:Astronomical coordinate systems
6272:Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al‐Farisi
3961:Linton, Christopher M. (2004).
3827:. New York: Dover Publications.
3218:Northwestern University website
2921:. Green Lion Press. p. 12.
2827:A History of Western Philosophy
2034:. Bloomsbury Academic. p.
2001:. Bloomsbury Academic. p.
1777:Vita e opere di Galileo Galilei
1537:published articles disparaging
1290:However, Ptolemy placed Venus'
464:, showing the Ptolemaic system.
6761:Schema for horizontal sundials
6277:Abu Ali al-Hasan al-Marrakushi
5802:Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī
4009:Astronomy Before the Telescope
3683:Hort, William Jillard (1822).
3632:10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0_8988
3194:Crabtree, Steve (1999-07-06).
2149:Hoskin, Michael (1999-03-18).
1785:Pontifical Academy of Sciences
1535:Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod
1186:in 1609, observations made by
914:and the physical world in his
829:(d. circa 1020). According to
1:
4664:Inferior and superior planets
4059:Ptolemy’s system of astronomy
3749:Research in Science Education
3237:Dean, Cornelia (2005-08-30).
3173:. W.W. Norton & Company.
3013:Babinski, E. T., ed. (1995).
1751:for the first time omits the
1177:first law of planetary motion
1013:Geocentrism and rival systems
987:
867:
858:wrote a scathing critique of
846:According to the geometers (
823:Earth rotates around its axis
647:Size of deferents, epicycles
558:Eastward motion yearly along
269:The geocentric model entered
237:by the heliocentric model of
208:first law of planetary motion
198:until the 17th century, when
176:
137:rotating once each day about
48:Figure of the heavenly bodies
7212:Early scientific cosmologies
7019:Constantinople (Taqi al-Din)
5159:Rājamṛgāṅka (astronomy book)
4902:Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis
3488:Schneersohn, Menachem Mendel
2917:Densmore, Dana, ed. (2004).
2436:10.1016/0083-6656(55)90016-7
1499:geocentric coordinate system
1369:law of universal gravitation
7008:University of al-Qarawiyyin
6212:Ibn al-Banna' al-Marrakushi
5461:
5056:
4030:The Early History Of Heaven
2884:"Galileo and the Telescope"
2792:Lawson, Russell M. (2004).
2763:Lindberg, David C. (2010).
2582:The Oxford History of Islam
2342:. SUNY Press. p. 135.
2291:Scientia/Rivista di Scienza
1755:from the list. In his 1921
1701:Index Librorum Prohibitorum
1600:National Science Foundation
806:Astronomy in medieval Islam
488:meaning "from" and κέντρον
163:, in contrast to the older
7233:
6252:Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi
4847:Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
4741:Medieval Islamic astronomy
4538:On the Sizes and Distances
4034:. Oxford University Press.
4026:Wright, J. Edward (2000).
3887:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
3795:Crowe, Michael J. (1990).
3743:Chastenay, Pierre (2016).
3348:Fantoli, Annibale (1996).
3095:Sefton, Dru (2006-03-30).
2830:. Routledge. p. 215.
2742:10.1177/002182869202300401
2184:Cambridge University Press
1800:
1215:, and Giovan Paulo Lembo.
1182:With the invention of the
1146:
854:Early in the 11th century
799:
219:Ptolemy's geocentric model
29:
7093:Medieval European science
6524:
6513:
6502:
6353:Sadr al-Shari'a al-Asghar
6110:Ibrahim ibn Said al-Sahli
5773:
5769:
5756:
4932:Venkatraman Radhakrishnan
4731:Medieval European science
4461:Sosigenes the Peripatetic
3942:The Copernican Revolution
3770:10.1007/s11165-015-9460-3
3722:10.1163/18253911-03502005
3490:; Gotfryd, Arnie (2003).
2932:Einstein, Albert (1938).
2553:. pp. 233–234, 240.
2551:New York University Press
2192:10.1017/s0269889701000060
1993:Fraser, Craig G. (2006).
1576:(author of the 2006 book
1521:held sway into the early
277:. In the 6th century BC,
6343:Nizam al-Din al-Nisapuri
6237:Muhyi al-Din al-Maghribi
5878:Ali ibn Isa al-Asturlabi
3618:Kunitzsch, Paul (2008).
3561:Rabinowitz, Avi (1987).
3263:
2935:The Evolution of Physics
2511:Samsó, Julio (1970–80).
2213:Ragep, F. Jamil (2001).
1932:, Catholic mathematician
1749:List of Prohibited Books
1706:List of Prohibited Books
1467:The Evolution of Physics
1427:Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel
1149:Copernican heliocentrism
882:uniform circular motions
710:Copernican heliocentrism
320:and turned by the three
114:in Classical Greece and
7197:Ancient Greek astronomy
6445:Baha' al-din al-'Amili
6419:'Abd al-'Aziz al-Wafa'i
6297:Fakhr al-Din al-Akhlati
6217:Ibn al‐Ha'im al‐Ishbili
5613:Ancient Greek astronomy
4897:Madhava of Sangamagrama
4456:Sosigenes of Alexandria
4275:Ancient Greek astronomy
4231:Template:Exceptionalism
2705:Sarton, George (1953).
2588:Oxford University Press
2109:Perspectives on Science
1856:Ahmed Raza Khan Barelvi
1686:Divino afflante Spiritu
1617:Northwestern University
502:uniform circular motion
275:pre-Socratic philosophy
6726:Navigational astrolabe
6481:Al Achsasi al Mouakket
6247:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi
6166:Al-Samawal al-Maghribi
6115:Ibn Mu'adh al-Jayyani
6044:Abu al-Hasan al-Ahwazi
4528:On Sizes and Distances
3980:Qadir, Asghar (1989).
3704:Raposo, Pedro (2020).
3567:Science & Religion
3421:(1264). Archived from
3394:. § 36. Archived from
2618:Huff, Toby E. (2003).
2139:
1794:
1772:Second Vatican Council
1745:
1735:
1692:
1663:
1324:
1313:
1084:
976:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi
902:epicycle and eccentric
852:
732:
465:
401:
370:until the 19th century
266:
167:model implied in some
55:
36:Geocentric coordinates
7217:Copernican Revolution
7062:Hellenistic astronomy
7033:Samarkand (Ulugh Beg)
6827:Deferent and epicycle
6227:Alam al-Din al-Hanafi
6196:Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi
5838:Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi
5618:Hellenistic astronomy
5401:Deferent and epicycle
5125:Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta
4957:Jai Singh II of Amber
4639:Deferent and epicycle
4568:Antikythera mechanism
3832:Evans, James (1998).
3706:"Recounting the Orbs"
3144:National Public Radio
3040:Theological Quarterly
2864:The Essential Galileo
2680:. Routledge. p.
2494:Science and Its Times
1762:In praeclara summorum
1658:Providentissimus Deus
1543:Theological Quarterly
1503:artificial satellites
1396:differential calculus
1321:
1079:This drawing from an
1078:
951:Samarkand observatory
912:conception of physics
876:In the 12th century,
844:
727:
628:Eccentric per planet
540:Daily westward motion
516:The Ptolemaic system
453:
391:
378:deferent and epicycle
264:
46:
7052:Babylonian astronomy
6867:Gravitational energy
6242:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
6232:Najm al‐Din al‐Misri
5913:Yahya ibn Abi Mansur
5812:Mashallah ibn Athari
5797:Al-Fadl ibn Naubakht
5608:Babylonian astronomy
4842:Radhagobinda Chandra
4710:Babylonian astronomy
4401:Hippocrates of Chios
3884:Aristarchus of Samos
3626:. pp. 140–141.
3415:L'Osservatore Romano
3120:. Answers in Genesis
2988:Hoyle, Fred (1973).
2963:Hoyle, Fred (1973).
2122:10.1162/posc_a_00552
1900:Aristotelian physics
1841:translation movement
1821:theory of relativity
1539:Copernican astronomy
1425:In 1838, astronomer
1205:Cosimo II de' Medici
1125:Seleucus of Seleucia
1117:Aristarchus of Samos
972:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī
932:theological argument
908:Fakhr al-Din al-Razi
833:, Sijzi invented an
802:Maragheh observatory
480:eccentric (from the
314:Spindle of Necessity
306:", a section of the
173:Aristarchus of Samos
6993:Al-Azhar University
6812:Celestial mechanics
6602:Book of Fixed Stars
6561:The Book of Healing
6540:Aja'ib al-Makhluqat
6282:Ibn Ishaq al-Tunisi
6257:Zakariya al-Qazwini
5868:Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf
5863:Abu Hanifa Dinawari
5456:Hindu units of time
5179:Vasishtha Siddhanta
5153:Paitamaha Siddhanta
5047:Shatapatha Brahmana
4962:Nilakantha Somayaji
4481:Theon of Alexandria
3897:Nicolaus Copernicus
3761:2016RScEd..46...43C
3658:. 14 February 2017.
3494:. Shamir. pp.
3019:TalkOrigins Archive
2734:1992JHA....23..233E
2463:1972Isis...63...39G
2428:1955VA......1...84H
2416:Vistas in Astronomy
2401:1939PA.....47..233R
2375:Nicolaus Copernicus
2272:Islam & Science
2263:Setia, Adi (2004).
2231:2001Osir...16...49R
1920:Religious cosmology
1878:can switch between
1864:Indian subcontinent
1647:(1878–1903) wrote:
1247:Venus showed phases
1101:Heraclides Ponticus
1041:improve the article
943:Maragha observatory
691:Retrograde only at
527:Modeling mechanism
517:
432:Islamic astronomers
410:Claudius Ptolemaeus
227:astronomical charts
78:description of the
7057:Egyptian astronomy
6998:House of Knowledge
6676:Astronomical clock
6486:Muhammad al-Rudani
5883:Banū Mūsā brothers
5833:Abu Ali al-Khayyat
5633:European astronomy
5371:Cardinal direction
5300:Equatorial sundial
5139:Pancha-Siddhantika
4837:Sandip Chakrabarti
4715:Egyptian astronomy
4629:Circle of latitude
3398:on April 11, 2011.
3062:Numbers, Ronald L.
2850:Line 1067 onwards.
2176:Science in Context
1696:Pope Alexander VII
1527:heliocentric model
1471:coordinate systems
1443:heliocentric frame
1408:stellar aberration
1325:
1271:In December 1610,
1263:heliocentric model
1257:, as predicted by
1209:Christoph Scheiner
1169:natural philosophy
1085:
968:Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi
827:Abu Sa'id al-Sijzi
815:Muslim astronomers
733:
706:heliocentric model
515:
466:
402:
316:, attended by the
300:spheres or circles
267:
188:heliocentric model
120:Islamic Golden Age
56:
7207:Scientific models
7114:
7113:
7110:
7109:
7106:
7105:
7088:Chinese astronomy
7083:Byzantine science
6957:Temporal finitism
6887:Islamic cosmology
6817:Celestial spheres
6637:
6636:
6529:Arabic star names
6498:
6497:
6494:
6493:
6358:Fathullah Shirazi
6292:Al-Ashraf Umar II
6004:Ibrahim ibn Sinan
5807:Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī
5716:
5715:
5628:Chinese astronomy
5623:Islamic astronomy
5386:Celestial spheres
5376:Celestial equator
5146:Paulisa Siddhanta
5040:Aitareya Brahmana
4947:Jagannatha Samrat
4927:Achyuta Pisharati
4749:
4748:
4624:Celestial spheres
4241:
4240:
4184:Related phenomena
4107:Regional variants
3911:. Penguin Books.
3641:978-1-4020-4559-2
3583:. Jason Aronson.
2822:Russell, Bertrand
2651:. Global Vision.
2601:978-0-19-510799-9
2393:Popular Astronomy
2061:, pp. 60–62.
1817:Lubavitcher Rebbe
1781:Pope John Paul II
1578:Galileo Was Wrong
1570:religious beliefs
1448:cosmic background
1392:centripetal force
1143:Copernican system
1113:Martianus Capella
1073:
1072:
1065:
1045:discuss the issue
928:alfa alfi 'awalim
864:Doubts on Ptolemy
810:Islamic cosmology
702:
701:
695:, when brightest
672:Interior planets
660:Average greatest
609:Retrograde motion
474:retrograde motion
368:was not detected
332:stating that all
326:Eudoxus of Cnidus
287:of the universe.
253:for geocentrism.
245:(1564–1642), and
16:(Redirected from
7224:
7179:
7178:
7177:
7167:
7166:
7165:
7155:
7154:
7153:
7143:
7142:
7131:
7130:
7129:
7122:
7098:Indian astronomy
7067:Indian astronomy
7035:
7028:
7021:
6942:Sublunary sphere
6932:Specific gravity
6832:Earth's rotation
6721:Mural instrument
6666:Armillary sphere
6589:Alfonsine tables
6554:Tabula Rogeriana
6534:Islamic calendar
6522:
6515:
6504:
6399:Sibt al-Maridini
6384:Jamshid al-Kashi
6105:Said al-Andalusi
5908:Thābit ibn Qurra
5843:Abu Said Gorgani
5817:Yaʿqūb ibn Ṭāriq
5771:
5758:
5743:
5736:
5729:
5720:
5466:
5436:Geoheliocentrism
5406:Earth's rotation
5381:Celestial sphere
5315:Mural instrument
5265:Armillary sphere
5209:Vedanga Jyotisha
5165:Romaka Siddhanta
5061:
4992:Shankara Variyar
4783:Indian astronomy
4776:
4769:
4762:
4753:
4736:Indian astronomy
4689:Sublunary sphere
4659:Hipparchic cycle
4598:Mural instrument
4573:Armillary sphere
4552:
4542:
4532:
4522:
4512:
4268:
4261:
4254:
4245:
4191:Anthropocentrism
4093:
4086:
4079:
4070:
4035:
4033:
4022:
4003:
3976:
3957:
3945:
3922:
3905:Koestler, Arthur
3900:
3888:
3874:
3837:
3828:
3814:
3802:
3783:
3782:
3772:
3740:
3734:
3733:
3701:
3695:
3694:
3680:
3674:
3673:
3666:
3660:
3659:
3652:
3646:
3645:
3615:
3609:
3608:
3601:
3595:
3594:
3576:
3574:
3573:
3558:
3552:
3551:
3540:
3534:
3531:
3525:
3524:
3498:, cf. xvi-xvii,
3484:
3478:
3477:
3469:
3460:
3459:
3457:
3456:
3450:Skeptic Magazine
3441:
3435:
3433:
3431:
3430:
3406:
3400:
3399:
3388:
3382:
3381:
3370:
3364:
3363:
3345:
3339:
3338:
3327:
3321:
3320:
3311:
3305:
3304:
3282:
3273:
3272:
3259:
3253:
3252:
3250:
3249:
3234:
3228:
3227:
3225:
3224:
3210:
3204:
3203:
3191:
3185:
3184:
3161:
3155:
3154:
3152:
3150:
3135:
3129:
3128:
3126:
3125:
3113:
3107:
3106:
3092:
3086:
3085:
3058:
3052:
3051:
3035:
3029:
3028:
3026:
3025:
3010:
3004:
3003:
2985:
2979:
2978:
2960:
2954:
2953:
2929:
2923:
2922:
2914:
2908:
2905:
2899:
2898:
2896:
2894:
2880:
2874:
2873:
2867:
2857:
2851:
2848:
2842:
2841:
2818:
2812:
2811:
2789:
2783:
2782:
2760:
2754:
2753:
2717:
2711:
2710:
2702:
2696:
2695:
2679:
2669:
2663:
2662:
2644:
2638:
2637:
2615:
2606:
2605:
2585:
2571:
2565:
2564:
2539:
2533:
2532:
2508:
2502:
2501:
2489:
2483:
2482:
2446:
2440:
2439:
2411:
2405:
2404:
2388:
2382:
2372:
2366:
2360:
2354:
2353:
2335:
2329:
2328:
2310:
2299:
2298:
2286:
2280:
2279:
2269:
2260:
2251:
2250:
2210:
2204:
2203:
2171:
2165:
2164:
2146:
2140:
2133:
2103:
2097:
2096:
2068:
2062:
2056:
2050:
2049:
2033:
2023:
2017:
2016:
2000:
1990:
1984:
1983:, pp. 5–20.
1978:
1963:
1959:
1953:
1946:
1884:celestial sphere
1797:Orthodox Judaism
1767:Pope Benedict XV
1757:papal encyclical
1726:Giuseppe Settele
1698:republished the
1690:
1661:
1550:creation science
1410:was observed by
1357:transit of Venus
1235:
1226:
1068:
1061:
1057:
1054:
1048:
1025:
1024:
1017:
992:
989:
872:
869:
862:'s model in his
687:Exterior planets
656:Interior planets
518:
461:De sphaera mundi
458:on Sacrobosco's
454:Pages from 1550
446:Ptolemaic system
436:geocentric model
366:stellar parallax
357:stellar parallax
294:and his student
185:
181:
178:
143:geographic poles
135:celestial sphere
72:Ptolemaic system
64:geocentric model
52:Bartolomeu Velho
32:Geocentric orbit
21:
7232:
7231:
7227:
7226:
7225:
7223:
7222:
7221:
7187:
7186:
7185:
7175:
7173:
7163:
7161:
7151:
7149:
7137:
7127:
7125:
7117:
7115:
7102:
7071:
7040:
7031:
7024:
7017:
7003:House of Wisdom
6981:
6937:Spherical Earth
6770:
6701:Equatorial ring
6681:Celestial globe
6656:Analog computer
6633:
6628:Sullam al-sama'
6573:
6509:
6490:
6459:
6423:
6362:
6301:
6200:
6186:Jabir ibn Aflah
6129:
6060:Abu Nasr Mansur
6048:
6029:Abolfadl Harawi
5964:Ahmad ibn Yusuf
5917:
5821:
5792:Ahmad Nahavandi
5780:
5765:
5752:
5747:
5717:
5712:
5643:
5637:
5596:
5553:
5522:Spherical Earth
5349:
5295:Equatorial ring
5275:Celestial globe
5253:
5172:Surya Siddhanta
5109:Makarandasarini
5011:
5007:Pathani Samanta
4952:Bapudeva Sastri
4917:Jayant Narlikar
4867:M. K. Das Gupta
4785:
4780:
4750:
4745:
4719:
4698:
4684:Spherical Earth
4619:Callippic cycle
4607:
4588:Equatorial ring
4556:
4550:
4540:
4530:
4520:
4510:
4495:
4486:Theon of Smyrna
4277:
4272:
4242:
4237:
4211:Religiocentrism
4179:
4168:Hellenocentrism
4163:Germanocentrism
4102:
4097:
4045:
4025:
4019:
4006:
3992:
3979:
3973:
3960:
3954:
3936:Kuhn, Thomas S.
3934:
3919:
3903:
3891:
3877:
3855:10.2307/1006444
3840:
3831:
3817:
3811:
3794:
3791:
3786:
3742:
3741:
3737:
3703:
3702:
3698:
3682:
3681:
3677:
3668:
3667:
3663:
3654:
3653:
3649:
3642:
3617:
3616:
3612:
3603:
3602:
3598:
3591:
3578:
3571:
3569:
3560:
3559:
3555:
3542:
3541:
3537:
3532:
3528:
3521:
3486:
3485:
3481:
3471:
3470:
3463:
3454:
3452:
3443:
3442:
3438:
3428:
3426:
3408:
3407:
3403:
3390:
3389:
3385:
3372:
3371:
3367:
3360:
3347:
3346:
3342:
3329:
3328:
3324:
3313:
3312:
3308:
3301:
3284:
3283:
3276:
3265:
3261:
3260:
3256:
3247:
3245:
3236:
3235:
3231:
3222:
3220:
3214:"Jon D. Miller"
3212:
3211:
3207:
3193:
3192:
3188:
3181:
3163:
3162:
3158:
3148:
3146:
3137:
3136:
3132:
3123:
3121:
3115:
3114:
3110:
3094:
3093:
3089:
3082:
3060:
3059:
3055:
3037:
3036:
3032:
3023:
3021:
3012:
3011:
3007:
3000:
2987:
2986:
2982:
2975:
2962:
2961:
2957:
2950:
2931:
2930:
2926:
2916:
2915:
2911:
2906:
2902:
2892:
2890:
2882:
2881:
2877:
2859:
2858:
2854:
2849:
2845:
2838:
2820:
2819:
2815:
2808:
2791:
2790:
2786:
2779:
2762:
2761:
2757:
2719:
2718:
2714:
2704:
2703:
2699:
2692:
2671:
2670:
2666:
2659:
2646:
2645:
2641:
2634:
2617:
2616:
2609:
2602:
2573:
2572:
2568:
2561:
2541:
2540:
2536:
2529:
2510:
2509:
2505:
2491:
2490:
2486:
2448:
2447:
2443:
2413:
2412:
2408:
2390:
2389:
2385:
2373:
2369:
2365:, p. 5–10.
2361:
2357:
2350:
2337:
2336:
2332:
2325:
2312:
2311:
2302:
2288:
2287:
2283:
2267:
2262:
2261:
2254:
2212:
2211:
2207:
2173:
2172:
2168:
2161:
2148:
2147:
2143:
2116:(3): 288–330 .
2105:
2104:
2100:
2085:10.2307/1006040
2070:
2069:
2065:
2057:
2053:
2046:
2025:
2024:
2020:
2013:
1992:
1991:
1987:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1966:
1960:
1956:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1896:
1872:
1862:scholar of the
1837:
1809:Orthodox Jewish
1805:
1799:
1691:
1683:
1662:
1656:
1633:
1596:
1574:Robert Sungenis
1515:
1483:reference frame
1459:Albert Einstein
1456:
1403:empirical tests
1345:Johannes Kepler
1342:
1334:Tychonic system
1273:Galileo Galilei
1269:
1268:
1267:
1266:
1243:Galileo Galilei
1238:
1237:
1236:
1228:
1227:
1213:Johannes Kepler
1188:Galileo Galilei
1173:Johannes Kepler
1151:
1145:
1137:De rerum natura
1069:
1058:
1052:
1049:
1038:
1026:
1022:
1015:
990:
947:Damascus mosque
934:, he cites the
870:
812:
800:Main articles:
798:
784:("First Moved")
546:, carrying all
544:sphere of stars
448:
386:
384:Ptolemaic model
271:Greek astronomy
259:
200:Johannes Kepler
196:Western culture
183:
179:
161:spherical Earth
66:(also known as
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7230:
7228:
7220:
7219:
7214:
7209:
7204:
7199:
7189:
7188:
7184:
7183:
7171:
7159:
7147:
7135:
7112:
7111:
7108:
7107:
7104:
7103:
7101:
7100:
7095:
7090:
7085:
7079:
7077:
7073:
7072:
7070:
7069:
7064:
7059:
7054:
7048:
7046:
7042:
7041:
7039:
7038:
7037:
7036:
7029:
7022:
7010:
7005:
7000:
6995:
6989:
6987:
6983:
6982:
6980:
6979:
6974:
6969:
6964:
6959:
6954:
6949:
6944:
6939:
6934:
6929:
6924:
6919:
6914:
6909:
6904:
6899:
6894:
6889:
6884:
6879:
6874:
6869:
6864:
6859:
6854:
6849:
6847:Elliptic orbit
6844:
6839:
6834:
6829:
6824:
6822:Circular orbit
6819:
6814:
6809:
6804:
6799:
6794:
6789:
6784:
6778:
6776:
6772:
6771:
6769:
6768:
6763:
6758:
6753:
6748:
6743:
6738:
6733:
6728:
6723:
6718:
6713:
6708:
6703:
6698:
6693:
6688:
6683:
6678:
6673:
6668:
6663:
6658:
6653:
6647:
6645:
6639:
6638:
6635:
6634:
6632:
6631:
6624:
6617:
6610:
6608:Toledan Tables
6605:
6598:
6591:
6585:
6583:
6575:
6574:
6572:
6571:
6564:
6557:
6550:
6543:
6536:
6531:
6525:
6519:
6511:
6510:
6507:
6500:
6499:
6496:
6495:
6492:
6491:
6489:
6488:
6483:
6478:
6473:
6471:Yang Guangxian
6467:
6465:
6461:
6460:
6458:
6457:
6452:
6447:
6442:
6437:
6431:
6429:
6425:
6424:
6422:
6421:
6416:
6411:
6406:
6401:
6396:
6391:
6386:
6381:
6376:
6370:
6368:
6364:
6363:
6361:
6360:
6355:
6350:
6345:
6340:
6335:
6330:
6325:
6320:
6315:
6309:
6307:
6303:
6302:
6300:
6299:
6294:
6289:
6284:
6279:
6274:
6269:
6264:
6259:
6254:
6249:
6244:
6239:
6234:
6229:
6224:
6219:
6214:
6208:
6206:
6202:
6201:
6199:
6198:
6193:
6188:
6183:
6178:
6173:
6168:
6163:
6158:
6153:
6148:
6143:
6137:
6135:
6131:
6130:
6128:
6127:
6125:Ali ibn Khalaf
6122:
6117:
6112:
6107:
6102:
6100:Kushyar Gilani
6097:
6092:
6087:
6082:
6077:
6072:
6070:Ali ibn Ridwan
6067:
6062:
6056:
6054:
6050:
6049:
6047:
6046:
6041:
6036:
6034:Haseb-i Tabari
6031:
6026:
6021:
6016:
6011:
6006:
6001:
5996:
5991:
5986:
5981:
5976:
5971:
5966:
5961:
5956:
5951:
5946:
5941:
5936:
5931:
5925:
5923:
5919:
5918:
5916:
5915:
5910:
5905:
5903:Sahl ibn Bishr
5900:
5895:
5890:
5885:
5880:
5875:
5870:
5865:
5860:
5855:
5850:
5845:
5840:
5835:
5829:
5827:
5823:
5822:
5820:
5819:
5814:
5809:
5804:
5799:
5794:
5788:
5786:
5782:
5781:
5779:
5778:
5774:
5767:
5766:
5761:
5754:
5753:
5748:
5746:
5745:
5738:
5731:
5723:
5714:
5713:
5711:
5710:
5705:
5700:
5695:
5690:
5685:
5680:
5675:
5670:
5665:
5660:
5655:
5649:
5647:
5645:Vedic calendar
5639:
5638:
5636:
5635:
5630:
5625:
5620:
5615:
5610:
5604:
5602:
5598:
5597:
5595:
5594:
5589:
5588:
5587:
5582:
5577:
5572:
5561:
5559:
5555:
5554:
5552:
5551:
5546:
5539:
5534:
5529:
5524:
5519:
5514:
5509:
5504:
5499:
5494:
5489:
5484:
5479:
5472:
5467:
5458:
5453:
5448:
5443:
5438:
5433:
5428:
5423:
5421:Elliptic orbit
5418:
5413:
5408:
5403:
5398:
5396:Circular orbit
5393:
5391:Center of mass
5388:
5383:
5378:
5373:
5368:
5363:
5357:
5355:
5351:
5350:
5348:
5347:
5342:
5337:
5332:
5327:
5322:
5317:
5312:
5307:
5302:
5297:
5292:
5287:
5282:
5277:
5272:
5267:
5261:
5259:
5255:
5254:
5252:
5251:
5244:
5237:
5236:
5235:
5228:
5212:
5205:
5198:
5191:
5188:Tantrasangraha
5184:
5183:
5182:
5175:
5168:
5161:
5156:
5149:
5142:
5135:
5132:Maha-Siddhanta
5128:
5112:
5105:
5098:
5095:Khandakhadyaka
5091:
5084:
5077:
5070:
5063:
5052:
5051:
5050:
5043:
5027:
5019:
5017:
5013:
5012:
5010:
5009:
5004:
4999:
4994:
4989:
4984:
4979:
4974:
4969:
4964:
4959:
4954:
4949:
4944:
4939:
4934:
4929:
4924:
4919:
4914:
4909:
4904:
4899:
4894:
4889:
4884:
4879:
4874:
4869:
4864:
4862:Gautama Siddha
4859:
4854:
4852:Amil Kumar Das
4849:
4844:
4839:
4834:
4829:
4824:
4819:
4814:
4809:
4804:
4799:
4793:
4791:
4787:
4786:
4781:
4779:
4778:
4771:
4764:
4756:
4747:
4746:
4744:
4743:
4738:
4733:
4727:
4725:
4721:
4720:
4718:
4717:
4712:
4706:
4704:
4700:
4699:
4697:
4696:
4691:
4686:
4681:
4676:
4671:
4666:
4661:
4656:
4651:
4646:
4641:
4636:
4631:
4626:
4621:
4615:
4613:
4609:
4608:
4606:
4605:
4600:
4595:
4590:
4585:
4580:
4575:
4570:
4564:
4562:
4558:
4557:
4555:
4554:
4548:On the Heavens
4544:
4534:
4524:
4521:(Eratosthenes)
4514:
4503:
4501:
4497:
4496:
4494:
4493:
4488:
4483:
4478:
4473:
4468:
4463:
4458:
4453:
4448:
4443:
4438:
4433:
4428:
4426:Philip of Opus
4423:
4418:
4413:
4408:
4403:
4398:
4393:
4388:
4383:
4378:
4373:
4368:
4363:
4358:
4353:
4348:
4343:
4338:
4333:
4328:
4323:
4318:
4313:
4308:
4303:
4298:
4293:
4287:
4285:
4279:
4278:
4273:
4271:
4270:
4263:
4256:
4248:
4239:
4238:
4236:
4235:
4234:
4233:
4226:Exceptionalism
4223:
4218:
4216:Sentiocentrism
4213:
4208:
4203:
4201:Exceptionalism
4198:
4196:Chronocentrism
4193:
4187:
4185:
4181:
4180:
4178:
4177:
4176:
4175:
4170:
4165:
4160:
4155:
4145:
4144:
4143:
4142:
4141:
4131:
4121:
4116:
4110:
4108:
4104:
4103:
4098:
4096:
4095:
4088:
4081:
4073:
4067:
4066:
4061:
4056:
4051:
4044:
4043:External links
4041:
4040:
4039:
4023:
4017:
4004:
3990:
3977:
3971:
3958:
3952:
3932:
3923:1990 reprint:
3917:
3901:
3889:
3875:
3845:. New Series.
3838:
3829:
3819:Dreyer, J.L.E.
3815:
3809:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3784:
3735:
3716:(2): 274–299.
3696:
3675:
3661:
3647:
3640:
3610:
3596:
3589:
3553:
3535:
3526:
3519:
3479:
3461:
3436:
3401:
3383:
3380:on 2014-11-09.
3365:
3358:
3340:
3322:
3306:
3299:
3274:
3254:
3243:New York Times
3229:
3205:
3186:
3179:
3165:Berman, Morris
3156:
3130:
3108:
3087:
3080:
3053:
3030:
3005:
2998:
2980:
2973:
2955:
2948:
2924:
2909:
2900:
2875:
2852:
2843:
2836:
2813:
2806:
2800:. p. 19.
2784:
2777:
2755:
2728:(4): 233–260.
2712:
2709:. p. 290.
2697:
2690:
2664:
2657:
2639:
2632:
2607:
2600:
2576:Esposito, John
2566:
2559:
2543:Saliba, George
2534:
2527:
2503:
2484:
2471:10.1086/350839
2441:
2406:
2383:
2367:
2355:
2348:
2330:
2323:
2300:
2281:
2252:
2239:10.1086/649338
2221:. 2nd Series.
2205:
2166:
2159:
2141:
2098:
2063:
2051:
2044:
2018:
2011:
1985:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1964:
1954:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1934:
1933:
1930:Wolfgang Smith
1927:
1925:Sphere of fire
1922:
1917:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1895:
1892:
1871:
1868:
1836:
1833:
1798:
1795:
1681:
1654:
1637:Galileo affair
1632:
1629:
1595:
1592:
1514:
1511:
1463:Leopold Infeld
1455:
1452:
1341:
1338:
1240:
1239:
1230:
1229:
1221:
1220:
1219:
1218:
1217:
1190:(such as that
1147:Main article:
1144:
1141:
1071:
1070:
1029:
1027:
1020:
1014:
1011:
1002:paradigm shift
918:, rejects the
890:elliptic orbit
797:
794:
786:
785:
777:
772:
767:
762:
757:
752:
747:
742:
700:
699:
696:
689:
683:
682:
680:Sun–Earth line
676:
673:
669:
668:
665:
658:
652:
651:
648:
645:
641:
640:
637:
634:
630:
629:
626:
623:
619:
618:
615:synodic period
611:
606:
602:
601:
598:
592:
591:The 5 planets
588:
587:
584:
581:
577:
576:
573:
570:
566:
565:
562:
556:
552:
551:
536:
533:
529:
528:
525:
522:
447:
444:
385:
382:
361:constellations
258:
257:Ancient Greece
255:
186:) developed a
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7229:
7218:
7215:
7213:
7210:
7208:
7205:
7203:
7200:
7198:
7195:
7194:
7192:
7182:
7172:
7170:
7160:
7158:
7148:
7146:
7141:
7136:
7134:
7124:
7120:
7099:
7096:
7094:
7091:
7089:
7086:
7084:
7081:
7080:
7078:
7074:
7068:
7065:
7063:
7060:
7058:
7055:
7053:
7050:
7049:
7047:
7043:
7034:
7030:
7027:
7023:
7020:
7016:
7015:
7014:
7013:Observatories
7011:
7009:
7006:
7004:
7001:
6999:
6996:
6994:
6991:
6990:
6988:
6984:
6978:
6975:
6973:
6970:
6968:
6967:Triangulation
6965:
6963:
6960:
6958:
6955:
6953:
6950:
6948:
6945:
6943:
6940:
6938:
6935:
6933:
6930:
6928:
6925:
6923:
6920:
6918:
6915:
6913:
6910:
6908:
6905:
6903:
6900:
6898:
6895:
6893:
6890:
6888:
6885:
6883:
6880:
6878:
6877:Heliocentrism
6875:
6873:
6870:
6868:
6865:
6863:
6860:
6858:
6855:
6853:
6850:
6848:
6845:
6843:
6840:
6838:
6835:
6833:
6830:
6828:
6825:
6823:
6820:
6818:
6815:
6813:
6810:
6808:
6805:
6803:
6800:
6798:
6795:
6793:
6790:
6788:
6785:
6783:
6780:
6779:
6777:
6773:
6767:
6764:
6762:
6759:
6757:
6754:
6752:
6751:Shadow square
6749:
6747:
6744:
6742:
6739:
6737:
6734:
6732:
6729:
6727:
6724:
6722:
6719:
6717:
6714:
6712:
6709:
6707:
6704:
6702:
6699:
6697:
6694:
6692:
6689:
6687:
6684:
6682:
6679:
6677:
6674:
6672:
6669:
6667:
6664:
6662:
6659:
6657:
6654:
6652:
6649:
6648:
6646:
6644:
6640:
6630:
6629:
6625:
6623:
6622:
6621:Zij-i Sultani
6618:
6616:
6615:
6614:Zij-i Ilkhani
6611:
6609:
6606:
6604:
6603:
6599:
6597:
6596:
6592:
6590:
6587:
6586:
6584:
6582:
6581:
6576:
6570:
6569:
6565:
6563:
6562:
6558:
6556:
6555:
6551:
6549:
6548:
6544:
6542:
6541:
6537:
6535:
6532:
6530:
6527:
6526:
6523:
6520:
6516:
6512:
6505:
6501:
6487:
6484:
6482:
6479:
6477:
6474:
6472:
6469:
6468:
6466:
6462:
6456:
6453:
6451:
6448:
6446:
6443:
6441:
6438:
6436:
6433:
6432:
6430:
6426:
6420:
6417:
6415:
6412:
6410:
6407:
6405:
6402:
6400:
6397:
6395:
6392:
6390:
6389:Kadızade Rumi
6387:
6385:
6382:
6380:
6377:
6375:
6372:
6371:
6369:
6365:
6359:
6356:
6354:
6351:
6349:
6346:
6344:
6341:
6339:
6336:
6334:
6331:
6329:
6326:
6324:
6321:
6319:
6316:
6314:
6313:Ibn al-Shatir
6311:
6310:
6308:
6304:
6298:
6295:
6293:
6290:
6288:
6287:Ibn al‐Raqqam
6285:
6283:
6280:
6278:
6275:
6273:
6270:
6268:
6265:
6263:
6260:
6258:
6255:
6253:
6250:
6248:
6245:
6243:
6240:
6238:
6235:
6233:
6230:
6228:
6225:
6223:
6220:
6218:
6215:
6213:
6210:
6209:
6207:
6203:
6197:
6194:
6192:
6189:
6187:
6184:
6182:
6181:Ibn al-Kammad
6179:
6177:
6174:
6172:
6169:
6167:
6164:
6162:
6159:
6157:
6154:
6152:
6149:
6147:
6144:
6142:
6139:
6138:
6136:
6132:
6126:
6123:
6121:
6118:
6116:
6113:
6111:
6108:
6106:
6103:
6101:
6098:
6096:
6095:Ibn al-Saffar
6093:
6091:
6088:
6086:
6083:
6081:
6078:
6076:
6073:
6071:
6068:
6066:
6063:
6061:
6058:
6057:
6055:
6051:
6045:
6042:
6040:
6037:
6035:
6032:
6030:
6027:
6025:
6022:
6020:
6017:
6015:
6012:
6010:
6007:
6005:
6002:
6000:
5997:
5995:
5992:
5990:
5987:
5985:
5982:
5980:
5977:
5975:
5972:
5970:
5967:
5965:
5962:
5960:
5957:
5955:
5952:
5950:
5947:
5945:
5942:
5940:
5937:
5935:
5932:
5930:
5927:
5926:
5924:
5920:
5914:
5911:
5909:
5906:
5904:
5901:
5899:
5896:
5894:
5891:
5889:
5886:
5884:
5881:
5879:
5876:
5874:
5871:
5869:
5866:
5864:
5861:
5859:
5856:
5854:
5851:
5849:
5846:
5844:
5841:
5839:
5836:
5834:
5831:
5830:
5828:
5824:
5818:
5815:
5813:
5810:
5808:
5805:
5803:
5800:
5798:
5795:
5793:
5790:
5789:
5787:
5783:
5776:
5775:
5772:
5768:
5764:
5759:
5755:
5751:
5744:
5739:
5737:
5732:
5730:
5725:
5724:
5721:
5709:
5706:
5704:
5701:
5699:
5696:
5694:
5691:
5689:
5686:
5684:
5681:
5679:
5676:
5674:
5671:
5669:
5666:
5664:
5661:
5659:
5656:
5654:
5651:
5650:
5648:
5646:
5642:Months of the
5640:
5634:
5631:
5629:
5626:
5624:
5621:
5619:
5616:
5614:
5611:
5609:
5606:
5605:
5603:
5601:Other regions
5599:
5593:
5590:
5586:
5583:
5581:
5578:
5576:
5573:
5571:
5568:
5567:
5566:
5565:Jantar Mantar
5563:
5562:
5560:
5556:
5550:
5549:Zodiacal sign
5547:
5545:
5544:
5540:
5538:
5535:
5533:
5530:
5528:
5525:
5523:
5520:
5518:
5515:
5513:
5510:
5508:
5505:
5503:
5500:
5498:
5495:
5493:
5490:
5488:
5485:
5483:
5480:
5478:
5477:
5473:
5471:
5470:Kali ahargaṇa
5468:
5465:
5464:
5459:
5457:
5454:
5452:
5451:Heliocentrism
5449:
5447:
5444:
5442:
5439:
5437:
5434:
5432:
5429:
5427:
5424:
5422:
5419:
5417:
5414:
5412:
5409:
5407:
5404:
5402:
5399:
5397:
5394:
5392:
5389:
5387:
5384:
5382:
5379:
5377:
5374:
5372:
5369:
5367:
5364:
5362:
5359:
5358:
5356:
5352:
5346:
5343:
5341:
5338:
5336:
5333:
5331:
5328:
5326:
5323:
5321:
5318:
5316:
5313:
5311:
5308:
5306:
5303:
5301:
5298:
5296:
5293:
5291:
5288:
5286:
5283:
5281:
5278:
5276:
5273:
5271:
5268:
5266:
5263:
5262:
5260:
5256:
5250:
5249:
5245:
5243:
5242:
5238:
5234:
5233:
5229:
5227:
5226:
5222:
5221:
5220:
5219:
5218:
5213:
5211:
5210:
5206:
5204:
5203:
5199:
5197:
5196:
5192:
5190:
5189:
5185:
5181:
5180:
5176:
5174:
5173:
5169:
5167:
5166:
5162:
5160:
5157:
5155:
5154:
5150:
5148:
5147:
5143:
5141:
5140:
5136:
5134:
5133:
5129:
5127:
5126:
5122:
5121:
5120:
5119:
5118:
5113:
5111:
5110:
5106:
5104:
5103:
5099:
5097:
5096:
5092:
5090:
5089:
5085:
5083:
5082:
5081:Shulba Sutras
5078:
5076:
5075:
5074:Jyotirmimamsa
5071:
5069:
5068:
5067:Ganitagannadi
5064:
5062:
5060:
5059:
5058:Bṛhat Saṃhitā
5053:
5049:
5048:
5044:
5042:
5041:
5037:
5036:
5035:
5034:
5033:
5028:
5026:
5025:
5021:
5020:
5018:
5014:
5008:
5005:
5003:
5000:
4998:
4995:
4993:
4990:
4988:
4985:
4983:
4980:
4978:
4977:Govind Swarup
4975:
4973:
4972:Mahendra Suri
4970:
4968:
4965:
4963:
4960:
4958:
4955:
4953:
4950:
4948:
4945:
4943:
4942:Megh Nad Saha
4940:
4938:
4935:
4933:
4930:
4928:
4925:
4923:
4920:
4918:
4915:
4913:
4910:
4908:
4905:
4903:
4900:
4898:
4895:
4893:
4890:
4888:
4885:
4883:
4880:
4878:
4875:
4873:
4870:
4868:
4865:
4863:
4860:
4858:
4855:
4853:
4850:
4848:
4845:
4843:
4840:
4838:
4835:
4833:
4830:
4828:
4825:
4823:
4820:
4818:
4815:
4813:
4810:
4808:
4805:
4803:
4800:
4798:
4795:
4794:
4792:
4788:
4784:
4777:
4772:
4770:
4765:
4763:
4758:
4757:
4754:
4742:
4739:
4737:
4734:
4732:
4729:
4728:
4726:
4722:
4716:
4713:
4711:
4708:
4707:
4705:
4701:
4695:
4692:
4690:
4687:
4685:
4682:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4672:
4670:
4669:Metonic cycle
4667:
4665:
4662:
4660:
4657:
4655:
4654:Heliocentrism
4652:
4650:
4647:
4645:
4642:
4640:
4637:
4635:
4634:Counter-Earth
4632:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4616:
4614:
4610:
4604:
4601:
4599:
4596:
4594:
4591:
4589:
4586:
4584:
4581:
4579:
4576:
4574:
4571:
4569:
4566:
4565:
4563:
4559:
4553:
4549:
4545:
4543:
4541:(Aristarchus)
4539:
4535:
4533:
4529:
4525:
4523:
4519:
4515:
4513:
4509:
4505:
4504:
4502:
4498:
4492:
4489:
4487:
4484:
4482:
4479:
4477:
4474:
4472:
4469:
4467:
4464:
4462:
4459:
4457:
4454:
4452:
4449:
4447:
4444:
4442:
4439:
4437:
4434:
4432:
4429:
4427:
4424:
4422:
4419:
4417:
4414:
4412:
4409:
4407:
4404:
4402:
4399:
4397:
4394:
4392:
4389:
4387:
4384:
4382:
4379:
4377:
4374:
4372:
4369:
4367:
4364:
4362:
4359:
4357:
4354:
4352:
4349:
4347:
4344:
4342:
4339:
4337:
4334:
4332:
4329:
4327:
4324:
4322:
4319:
4317:
4314:
4312:
4309:
4307:
4304:
4302:
4299:
4297:
4294:
4292:
4289:
4288:
4286:
4284:
4280:
4276:
4269:
4264:
4262:
4257:
4255:
4250:
4249:
4246:
4232:
4229:
4228:
4227:
4224:
4222:
4219:
4217:
4214:
4212:
4209:
4207:
4204:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4189:
4188:
4186:
4182:
4174:
4173:Italocentrism
4171:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4161:
4159:
4158:Gallocentrism
4156:
4154:
4153:Anglocentrism
4151:
4150:
4149:
4146:
4140:
4137:
4136:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4127:
4126:
4125:
4122:
4120:
4119:Americentrism
4117:
4115:
4112:
4111:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4100:Ethnocentrism
4094:
4089:
4087:
4082:
4080:
4075:
4074:
4071:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4055:
4052:
4050:
4047:
4046:
4042:
4038:
4032:
4031:
4024:
4020:
4014:
4010:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3993:
3991:9971-5-0612-2
3987:
3983:
3978:
3974:
3972:9780521827508
3968:
3964:
3959:
3955:
3949:
3944:
3943:
3937:
3933:
3930:
3926:
3920:
3914:
3910:
3906:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3886:
3885:
3880:
3879:Heath, Thomas
3876:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3848:
3844:
3839:
3835:
3830:
3826:
3825:
3820:
3816:
3812:
3806:
3801:
3800:
3793:
3792:
3788:
3780:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3754:
3750:
3746:
3739:
3736:
3731:
3727:
3723:
3719:
3715:
3711:
3707:
3700:
3697:
3692:
3688:
3687:
3679:
3676:
3671:
3665:
3662:
3657:
3651:
3648:
3643:
3637:
3633:
3629:
3625:
3621:
3614:
3611:
3606:
3600:
3597:
3592:
3590:9781568210346
3586:
3582:
3577:Published in
3568:
3564:
3557:
3554:
3549:
3548:Mishneh Torah
3545:
3539:
3536:
3530:
3527:
3522:
3520:9789652930804
3516:
3513:
3509:
3505:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3489:
3483:
3480:
3475:
3468:
3466:
3462:
3451:
3447:
3440:
3437:
3425:on 2017-02-02
3424:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3405:
3402:
3397:
3393:
3387:
3384:
3379:
3375:
3369:
3366:
3361:
3355:
3351:
3344:
3341:
3336:
3332:
3326:
3323:
3318:
3317:
3310:
3307:
3302:
3300:9780520066625
3296:
3292:
3288:
3281:
3279:
3275:
3270:
3266:
3258:
3255:
3244:
3240:
3233:
3230:
3219:
3215:
3209:
3206:
3201:
3197:
3190:
3187:
3182:
3180:9780393058666
3176:
3172:
3171:
3166:
3160:
3157:
3145:
3141:
3134:
3131:
3119:
3112:
3109:
3104:
3103:
3098:
3091:
3088:
3083:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3068:
3063:
3057:
3054:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3034:
3031:
3020:
3016:
3009:
3006:
3001:
2999:0-435-54425-X
2995:
2991:
2984:
2981:
2976:
2974:0-06-011971-3
2970:
2966:
2959:
2956:
2951:
2949:0-671-20156-5
2945:
2941:
2937:
2936:
2928:
2925:
2920:
2913:
2910:
2904:
2901:
2889:
2885:
2879:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2865:
2856:
2853:
2847:
2844:
2839:
2837:9781134343676
2833:
2829:
2828:
2823:
2817:
2814:
2809:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2788:
2785:
2780:
2778:9780226482040
2774:
2770:
2766:
2759:
2756:
2751:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2716:
2713:
2708:
2701:
2698:
2693:
2691:9780415127387
2687:
2683:
2678:
2677:
2668:
2665:
2660:
2658:9788182200586
2654:
2650:
2643:
2640:
2635:
2633:9780521529945
2629:
2625:
2621:
2614:
2612:
2608:
2603:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2584:
2583:
2577:
2570:
2567:
2562:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2538:
2535:
2530:
2528:0-684-10114-9
2524:
2520:
2519:
2514:
2507:
2504:
2499:
2495:
2488:
2485:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2445:
2442:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2422:(1): 118–22.
2421:
2417:
2410:
2407:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2387:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2371:
2368:
2364:
2359:
2356:
2351:
2349:9781438414195
2345:
2341:
2334:
2331:
2326:
2324:9780521028875
2320:
2316:
2309:
2307:
2305:
2301:
2296:
2292:
2285:
2282:
2277:
2273:
2266:
2259:
2257:
2253:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2209:
2206:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2170:
2167:
2162:
2160:9780521576000
2156:
2152:
2145:
2142:
2138:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2110:
2102:
2099:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2067:
2064:
2060:
2055:
2052:
2047:
2045:9780313332418
2041:
2037:
2032:
2031:
2022:
2019:
2014:
2012:9780313332180
2008:
2004:
1999:
1998:
1989:
1986:
1982:
1977:
1974:
1968:
1958:
1955:
1951:
1945:
1942:
1936:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1897:
1893:
1891:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1869:
1867:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1852:
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1810:
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1758:
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1739:
1734:
1729:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1713:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1702:
1697:
1688:
1687:
1680:
1675:
1673:
1672:Pope Pius XII
1669:
1659:
1653:
1648:
1646:
1645:Pope Leo XIII
1642:
1638:
1630:
1628:
1626:
1623:poll, 32% of
1622:
1618:
1614:
1613:Jon D. Miller
1610:
1605:
1604:Morris Berman
1601:
1593:
1591:
1589:
1585:
1584:
1583:The Principle
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1546:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1531:United States
1528:
1524:
1520:
1512:
1510:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1494:
1492:
1491:binary planet
1488:
1484:
1478:
1474:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1453:
1451:
1449:
1444:
1439:
1436:
1432:
1429:measured the
1428:
1423:
1421:
1420:James Bradley
1417:
1413:
1409:
1404:
1399:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1388:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1361:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1339:
1337:
1335:
1331:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1310:
1306:
1300:
1297:
1293:
1288:
1286:
1285:like the Moon
1282:
1278:
1274:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1234:
1225:
1216:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1180:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1161:
1156:
1150:
1142:
1140:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1121:heliocentrism
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1082:
1077:
1067:
1064:
1056:
1046:
1042:
1036:
1035:
1028:
1019:
1018:
1012:
1010:
1007:
1003:
998:
996:
985:
982:(1304–1375),
981:
980:Ibn al-Shatir
978:(1236–1311),
977:
974:(1201–1274),
973:
970:(died 1266),
969:
964:
960:
956:
953:. Like their
952:
948:
944:
939:
937:
933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
879:
874:
865:
861:
857:
851:
849:
843:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
811:
807:
803:
795:
793:
791:
783:
782:
781:Primum Mobile
778:
776:
773:
771:
768:
766:
763:
761:
758:
756:
753:
751:
748:
746:
743:
741:
738:
737:
736:
730:
726:
722:
719:
714:
711:
707:
697:
694:
690:
688:
685:
684:
681:
677:
674:
671:
670:
666:
663:
659:
657:
654:
653:
649:
646:
643:
642:
638:
635:
632:
631:
627:
624:
621:
620:
616:
612:
610:
607:
604:
603:
599:
597:
593:
590:
589:
585:
582:
579:
578:
574:
571:
568:
567:
563:
561:
557:
554:
553:
549:
548:other spheres
545:
541:
537:
534:
531:
530:
526:
523:
520:
519:
513:
509:
505:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
477:
475:
471:
463:
462:
457:
452:
445:
443:
439:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
416:
411:
407:
399:
395:
390:
383:
381:
379:
373:
371:
367:
362:
358:
353:
351:
347:
343:
337:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
310:
305:
301:
297:
293:
288:
285:
280:
276:
272:
263:
256:
254:
252:
248:
244:
241:(1473–1543),
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
215:
213:
209:
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
184: 230 BC
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
153:ancient Roman
150:
149:Ancient Greek
146:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
123:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
18:Geocentricity
7181:Solar System
6986:Institutions
6861:
6837:Eccentricity
6797:Astrophysics
6691:Compass rose
6626:
6619:
6612:
6600:
6593:
6578:
6566:
6559:
6552:
6545:
6538:
6404:Ibn al-Majdi
6379:Abd al‐Wajid
6338:Al-Wabkanawi
6333:Abū al‐ʿUqūl
6222:Jamal ad-Din
6191:Omar Khayyam
6019:Al-ʻIjliyyah
5994:Aṣ-Ṣaidanānī
5979:Ibn al-A'lam
5898:Al-Khwarizmi
5693:Margashirsha
5541:
5474:
5430:
5411:Eccentricity
5246:
5241:Yavanajataka
5239:
5230:
5223:
5215:
5214:
5207:
5200:
5193:
5186:
5177:
5170:
5163:
5151:
5144:
5137:
5130:
5123:
5115:
5114:
5107:
5100:
5093:
5086:
5079:
5072:
5065:
5054:
5045:
5038:
5030:
5029:
5022:
4987:Varahamihira
4922:Parameshvara
4807:Aryabhata II
4648:
4547:
4537:
4531:(Hipparchus)
4527:
4518:Catasterismi
4517:
4507:
4366:Eratosthenes
4221:Xenocentrism
4205:
4148:Eurocentrism
4139:Little China
4134:Sinocentrism
4129:Indocentrism
4124:Asiacentrism
4114:Afrocentrism
4037:Google Books
4029:
4008:
3981:
3962:
3941:
3908:
3896:
3883:
3846:
3842:
3833:
3823:
3798:
3789:Bibliography
3752:
3748:
3738:
3713:
3709:
3699:
3685:
3678:
3664:
3650:
3623:
3613:
3599:
3580:
3570:. Retrieved
3566:
3556:
3547:
3538:
3529:
3491:
3482:
3473:
3453:. Retrieved
3449:
3439:
3427:. Retrieved
3423:the original
3418:
3414:
3404:
3396:the original
3386:
3378:the original
3368:
3349:
3343:
3334:
3325:
3315:
3309:
3286:
3268:
3257:
3246:. Retrieved
3242:
3232:
3221:. Retrieved
3217:
3208:
3189:
3169:
3159:
3147:. Retrieved
3143:
3133:
3122:. Retrieved
3111:
3100:
3090:
3066:
3056:
3043:
3039:
3033:
3022:. Retrieved
3008:
2989:
2983:
2964:
2958:
2934:
2927:
2918:
2912:
2903:
2891:. Retrieved
2887:
2878:
2863:
2855:
2846:
2826:
2816:
2793:
2787:
2764:
2758:
2725:
2721:
2715:
2706:
2700:
2675:
2667:
2648:
2642:
2619:
2586:. New York:
2581:
2569:
2546:
2537:
2516:
2506:
2498:Thomson Gale
2493:
2487:
2454:
2450:
2444:
2419:
2415:
2409:
2392:
2386:
2370:
2358:
2339:
2333:
2314:
2294:
2290:
2284:
2275:
2271:
2222:
2218:
2208:
2179:
2175:
2169:
2150:
2144:
2135:
2113:
2107:
2101:
2079:(pt. 4): 6.
2076:
2072:
2066:
2054:
2029:
2021:
1996:
1988:
1976:
1957:
1949:
1944:
1888:lunar phases
1880:heliocentric
1876:planetariums
1873:
1870:Planetariums
1853:
1838:
1829:
1825:
1806:
1790:
1776:
1760:
1752:
1748:
1746:
1741:
1736:
1731:
1721:
1717:
1714:
1705:
1699:
1693:
1684:
1677:
1664:
1650:
1634:
1597:
1581:
1577:
1558:Joshua 10:12
1547:
1542:
1516:
1495:
1479:
1475:
1466:
1457:
1440:
1433:of the star
1424:
1412:Robert Hooke
1400:
1385:
1373:Robert Hooke
1365:Isaac Newton
1362:
1343:
1326:
1314:
1302:
1289:
1270:
1197:contaminated
1181:
1164:
1158:
1152:
1135:in his poem
1109:Jean Buridan
1086:
1059:
1050:
1031:
999:
940:
927:
920:Aristotelian
915:
906:
888:moves in an
875:
863:
853:
847:
845:
838:
818:
813:
787:
779:
734:
715:
703:
524:Observation
510:
506:
494:observations
489:
485:
478:
467:
459:
455:
440:
435:
413:
403:
374:
354:
350:lunar phases
338:
307:
289:
268:
231:early modern
223:astrological
216:
210:). In 1687,
147:
141:through the
127:once per day
124:
71:
67:
63:
57:
47:
40:
7169:Outer space
7157:Spaceflight
6972:Tusi couple
6962:Trepidation
6927:Salah times
6862:Geocentrism
6736:Planisphere
6716:Graph paper
6643:Instruments
6595:Huihui Lifa
6476:Ehmedê Xanî
6435:Al-Birjandi
6414:al-Kubunani
6171:Abu al-Salt
6120:Al-Isfizari
6080:Ibn al-Samh
5959:Abu al-Wafa
5944:al-Khojandi
5848:Al-Farghani
5763:Astronomers
5431:Geocentrism
5340:Water clock
5285:Cross-staff
5258:Instruments
5225:Atharvaveda
5202:Vākyakaraṇa
5024:Aryabhatiya
5002:Yajnavalkya
4937:J. J. Rawal
4872:Jyesthadeva
4832:Brahmagupta
4822:Bhāskara II
4812:Vainu Bappu
4802:Aryabhata I
4790:Astronomers
4649:Geocentrism
4561:Instruments
4551:(Aristotle)
4356:Cleostratus
4321:Aristarchus
4301:Anaximander
4283:Astronomers
4206:Geocentrism
3893:Hoyle, Fred
3849:(4): 1–69.
2186:: 145–163.
1635:The famous
1588:creationist
1566:Psalms 93:1
1487:fixed stars
1416:Jean Picard
1381:gravitation
1367:stated the
1349:Tycho Brahe
1340:Gravitation
1330:Tycho Brahe
1279:showed all
1105:Middle Ages
1089:Pythagorean
995:Al-Birjandi
991: 1474
894:Alpetragius
871: 1028
775:Fixed Stars
662:elongations
456:Annotazione
424:Hellenistic
408:astronomer
406:Hellenistic
279:Anaximander
68:geocentrism
7191:Categories
7076:Influenced
7045:Influences
6917:Precession
6897:Multiverse
6802:Axial tilt
6782:Almucantar
6766:Triquetrum
6706:Equatorium
6455:Takiyüddin
6328:al-Battiwi
6323:Ibn Shuayb
6318:Al-Khalili
6161:Al-Khazini
6156:Al-Kharaqī
6151:Ibn Tufail
6141:Al-Bitruji
6075:Al-Zarqālī
6039:al-Majriti
5989:Al-Saghani
5984:Al-Nayrizi
5969:al-Battani
5888:Iranshahri
5873:Al-Marwazi
5777:by century
5678:Bhadrapada
5512:Precession
5487:Manvantara
5361:Axial tilt
5345:Yantraraja
5335:Triquetrum
5117:Siddhantas
5088:Panchangam
4877:Kamalakara
4857:P. Devadas
4827:Baudhayana
4817:Bhāskara I
4724:Influenced
4703:Influences
4674:Octaeteris
4603:Triquetrum
4491:Timocharis
4476:Theodosius
4436:Posidonius
4396:Hipparchus
4386:Heraclides
4326:Aristyllus
4311:Apollonius
4306:Andronicus
4018:0714117463
3953:0674171039
3929:0140192468
3918:014055212X
3810:0486261735
3689:. p.
3572:2013-12-01
3455:2008-12-18
3429:2012-10-18
3359:0268010323
3335:inters.org
3248:2007-07-19
3223:2007-07-19
3124:2013-12-01
3102:Times-News
3081:0520083938
3024:2013-12-01
2893:17 October
2807:1851095349
2590:. p.
2560:0814780237
2363:Qadir 1989
2297:(67): 762.
2059:Crowe 1990
1969:References
1839:After the
1813:Maimonides
1801:See also:
1710:papal bull
1523:modern age
1454:Relativity
1353:three laws
1259:Copernicus
1155:Copernicus
1006:Copernicus
984:Ali Qushji
955:Andalusian
924:Avicennian
848:muhandisīn
825:, such as
693:opposition
521:Object(s)
428:Babylonian
304:Myth of Er
284:Pythagoras
239:Copernicus
235:superseded
206:(Kepler's
204:elliptical
182: – c.
180: 310
165:flat-Earth
76:superseded
7133:Astronomy
6952:Supernova
6907:Obliquity
6892:Moonlight
6792:Astrology
6671:Astrolabe
6450:Piri Reis
6440:al-Khafri
6409:al-Wafa'i
6394:Ulugh Beg
6374:Ali Kuşçu
6348:al-Jadiri
6267:al-Abhari
6065:al-Biruni
5999:Ibn Yunus
5974:Al-Qabisi
5949:al-Khazin
5858:Al-Mahani
5673:Shraavana
5668:Aashaadha
5575:New Delhi
5502:Nityayoga
5497:Nakshatra
5492:Moonlight
5270:Astrolabe
5032:Brahmanas
4882:Katyayana
4797:Apastamba
4578:Astrolabe
4511:(Ptolemy)
4431:Philolaus
4421:Oenopides
4406:Hypsicles
4351:Cleomedes
4346:Callippus
4336:Autolycus
4291:Aglaonice
4000:841809663
3907:(1986) .
3863:0065-9746
3779:254983499
3755:(1): 43.
3730:225198696
2824:(2013) .
2750:118643709
2479:120700705
2457:(1): 41.
2247:142586786
2200:145372613
2130:117426616
1981:Kuhn 1957
1803:Firmament
1770:1965 the
1694:In 1664,
1465:wrote in
1387:Principia
1363:In 1687,
1347:analysed
1184:telescope
1133:Lucretius
1097:Ecphantus
1081:Icelandic
1053:June 2015
839:al-zūraqī
835:astrolabe
831:al-Biruni
512:include:
334:phenomena
296:Aristotle
251:consensus
169:mythology
112:Aristotle
60:astronomy
7026:Maragheh
6977:Universe
6947:Sunlight
6912:Parallax
6902:Muwaqqit
6842:Ecliptic
6775:Concepts
6741:Quadrant
6661:Aperture
6176:Averroes
6146:Avempace
6090:Avicenna
6024:Nastulus
6014:al-Sijzi
5939:Al-Adami
5853:Al-Kindi
5708:Phalguna
5658:Vaisakha
5585:Varanasi
5527:Sunlight
5507:Parallax
5416:Ecliptic
5354:Concepts
5320:Quadrant
5102:Mahādevī
4997:Vasistha
4907:Mahavira
4679:Solstice
4612:Concepts
4508:Almagest
4451:Seleucus
4411:Menelaus
4371:Euctemon
3938:(1957).
3895:(1973).
3881:(1913).
3821:(1953).
3476:: 38–43.
3167:(2006).
3064:(1993).
2798:ABC-CLIO
2545:(1994).
1950:Almagest
1894:See also
1845:Almagest
1753:Dialogue
1722:Dialogue
1682:—
1655:—
1625:Russians
1572:include
1505:and the
1435:61 Cygni
1431:parallax
1401:Several
1323:rotates.
1311:or full.
1305:crescent
1296:epicycle
1292:deferent
1253:and not
1241:In 1610
1129:Epicurus
1032:may not
963:epicycle
936:Qur'anic
892:, while
878:Arzachel
718:Tychonic
644:Planets
633:Planets
622:Planets
605:Planets
560:ecliptic
420:Hellenic
415:Almagest
394:epicycle
309:Republic
192:circular
157:medieval
80:Universe
7119:Portals
6882:Inertia
6872:Gravity
6807:Azimuth
6756:Sundial
6746:Sextant
6696:Dioptra
6686:Compass
6651:Alidade
6262:al-Urdi
6085:Alhazen
6009:Ma Yize
5954:al-Qūhī
5929:al-Sufi
5663:Jyeshta
5653:Chaitra
5558:Centres
5463:Jyotiṣa
5446:Gravity
5366:Azimuth
5330:Sundial
5325:Sextant
5290:Dioptra
5280:Compass
5232:Rigveda
4967:Sripati
4887:Lagadha
4583:Dioptra
4446:Pytheas
4441:Ptolemy
4391:Hicetas
4381:Geminus
4376:Eudoxus
4331:Attalus
4296:Agrippa
3871:1006444
3757:Bibcode
3710:Nuncius
3149:May 24,
2730:Bibcode
2578:(ed.).
2500:. 2006.
2459:Bibcode
2424:Bibcode
2397:Bibcode
2381:(2004).
2227:Bibcode
2182:(1–2).
2093:1006040
1849:Ptolemy
1641:Galileo
1485:of the
1309:gibbous
1283:, just
1192:Jupiter
1093:Hicetas
1039:Please
916:Matalib
886:Mercury
860:Ptolemy
856:Alhazen
837:called
765:Jupiter
745:Mercury
729:Ptolemy
538:Stars:
490:kentron
346:maculae
243:Galileo
139:an axis
116:Ptolemy
108:ancient
100:planets
74:) is a
6857:Galaxy
6852:Equant
6787:Apogee
6731:Octant
6508:Topics
5703:Maagha
5698:Pausha
5688:Kartik
5683:Ashvin
5580:Ujjain
5570:Jaipur
5482:Karana
5426:Equant
5310:Gnomon
4982:Utpala
4912:Manava
4694:Zodiac
4644:Equant
4593:Gnomon
4471:Thales
4466:Strabo
4316:Aratus
4015:
3998:
3988:
3969:
3950:
3927:
3915:
3869:
3861:
3807:
3777:
3728:
3638:
3587:
3517:
3512:408ff.
3356:
3297:
3200:Gallup
3177:
3078:
2996:
2971:
2946:
2834:
2804:
2775:
2748:
2688:
2655:
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