758:
and a gene–environment interaction between turnout and the serotonin transporter (5HTT) gene among those who frequently participated in religious activities. In other research scholars have also found an association between voter turnout and a dopamine receptor (DRD2) gene that is mediated by a significant association between that gene and the tendency to affiliate with a political party. More recent studies show an interaction between friendships and the dopamine receptor (DRD4) gene that is associated with political ideology. Although this work is preliminary and needs replication, it suggests that neurotransmitter function has an important effect on political behavior.
582:
2375:
757:
Scholars therefore recently turned their attention to specific genes that might be associated with political behaviors and attitudes. In the first-ever research to link specific genes to political phenotypes, a direct association was established between voter turnout and monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A)
788:
Associations between genetic markers and political behavior are often assumed to predict a causal connection between the two. Scholars have little incentive to be skeptical of this presumed causal link. Yet it is possible that a confounding factor exists which makes the genetic relationship with
767:, which argued that many of the candidate genes identified in the above research are associated with innumerable traits and behaviors. The degree to which these genes are associated with so many outcomes thus undermines the apparent important of evidence linking a gene to any particular outcome.
779:
analysis to identify chromosomal regions associated with political attitudes assessed using scores on a liberalism-conservativism scale. Their analysis identified several significant linkage peaks and the associated chromosomal regions implicate a possible role for NMDA and glutamate related
718:
Initial twin studies suggested that predispositions toward espousal of certain political ideas are heritable, but they said little about political behavior (patterns of voting and/or activism) or predispositions toward it. A 2008 article published in the
789:
politics purely correlative. For instance work on Irish parties, which shows some evidence of a genetic basis for the otherwise inexplicable distinction between the historically two main parties there, is also and more easily explained by socialization.
706:
published a reanalysis of political questions on Martin's social attitude survey of twins in that the suggested liberal and conservative ideology is heritable. The article sparked considerable debate between critics, the authors and their defenders.
699:
However, this early work did not specifically analyze whether or not political orientations were heritable, and political scientists remained mostly unaware of the heritability of social attitudes until 2005. In that year, the
681:
Psychologists and behavior geneticists began using twin studies in the 1980s to study variation in social attitudes, and these studies suggested that both genes and environment played a role. In particular,
2213:
642:(the study of the neural basis of political attitudes and behavior) and political physiology (the study of biophysical correlates of political attitudes and behavior).
734:
1124:
692:
744:
However, other studies showed that the decision to affiliate with any political party and the strength of this attachment are significantly influenced by genes.
868:
1180:
2238:
610:
661:. Critics of genopolitics have argued that it is "a fundamentally misguided undertaking", and that it is inconsistent with evidence in the fields of
2360:
1337:
780:
receptors in forming political attitudes. However, this role is speculative as linkage analysis cannot identify the effect of individual genes.
1634:
1446:
2218:
1696:
1512:
2062:
1578:
2233:
2027:
807:
763:
721:
702:
647:
478:
1685:
Charney, Evan, and
English, William. (2012). Candidate Genes and Political Behavior. American Political Science Review 106(1):1-34.
84:
1807:
603:
473:
251:
99:
657:
included genopolitics in its "Eighth Annual Year in Ideas" for the same year, noting that the term was originally coined by
1271:
1075:
833:
798:
651:
reported on the increase in academicians' recognition of and engagement in genopolitics as a discrete field of study, and
488:
1155:
2319:
237:
69:
40:
1211:
2399:
1402:
Hatemi, Peter K.; John
Hibbing; John Alford; Nicholas Martin; Lindon Eaves (2009). "Is There a Party in Your Genes?".
541:
710:
A more recent analysis of multiple twin studies finds that political views are approximately 40 percent heritable.
2409:
2067:
74:
45:
2223:
2208:
596:
201:
761:
The candidate genes approach to genopolitics received substantial criticism in a 2012 article, published in the
2228:
2047:
741:. In all three cases, both genes and environment contributed significantly to variation in political behavior.
316:
206:
1229:
849:
738:
683:
653:
246:
2020:
1711:
1527:
1461:
1352:
1087:
1003:
483:
425:
371:
1633:
Settle, Jaime E.; Christopher T. Dawes; Peter K. Hatemi; Nicholas A. Christakis; James H. Fowler (2008).
2355:
2189:
2154:
1659:
994:
Alford, John; Carolyn Funk; John
Hibbing (2005). "Are Political Orientations Genetically Transmitted?".
303:
136:
1941:
Hatemi, P. K.; McDermott, R. (2012). "The genetics of politics: Discovery, challenges, and progress".
1378:
927:
Martin, N. G.; Eaves, L. J.; Heath, A. C.; Jardine, R.; Feingold, L. M.; Eysenck, H. J. (1986-06-01).
2254:
2072:
1822:
1309:
Dawes, Christopher T.; Weinschenk, Aaron C. (2020). "On the genetic basis of political orientation".
940:
670:
413:
284:
274:
259:
186:
104:
1716:
1466:
1357:
1092:
2334:
2324:
2284:
2184:
2164:
2057:
2052:
1641:
1532:
1487:
1008:
525:
435:
289:
191:
141:
79:
2294:
2179:
2174:
2149:
1994:
1909:
1846:
1777:
1601:
1545:
1479:
1419:
1370:
1291:
1252:
1203:
1147:
1105:
1056:
1021:
909:
563:
156:
828:
1897:
1729:
1553:
2404:
2378:
2309:
2299:
2289:
2123:
2013:
1958:
1838:
1431:
1427:
1272:"Twin Studies, Molecular Genetics, Politics, and Tolerance: A Response to Beckwith and Morris"
976:
958:
901:
635:
627:
558:
232:
94:
89:
50:
23:
2339:
2314:
1986:
1950:
1830:
1769:
1721:
1635:"Friendships Moderate an Association Between a Dopamine Gene Variant and Political Ideology"
1609:
1593:
1537:
1471:
1411:
1362:
1318:
1283:
1244:
1195:
1139:
1097:
1048:
1013:
966:
948:
891:
883:
508:
264:
118:
2199:
1672:
776:
658:
586:
568:
393:
378:
1922:
1885:
1826:
944:
2329:
2269:
2169:
464:
383:
337:
279:
1971:
1754:
971:
928:
581:
2393:
1990:
1850:
1773:
1605:
1207:
730:
726:
639:
388:
366:
341:
171:
1998:
1873:
1854:
1781:
1549:
1483:
1423:
1295:
1256:
1151:
1060:
913:
2279:
2159:
1374:
1025:
666:
626:
is the study of the genetic basis of political behavior and attitudes. It combines
151:
1109:
1322:
2259:
802:
455:
420:
323:
311:
176:
2264:
2133:
2113:
2088:
1954:
1725:
1597:
1541:
1366:
1287:
1248:
1199:
1143:
1101:
1052:
1017:
887:
687:
631:
545:
535:
530:
269:
131:
1475:
1415:
962:
905:
1834:
953:
430:
328:
211:
166:
146:
1962:
1842:
980:
2304:
2274:
2118:
2108:
2036:
1125:"The Threat of Genes: A Comment on Evan Charney's "Genes and Ideologies""
1076:"Beyond Liberals and Conservatives to Political Genotypes and Phenotypes"
662:
553:
513:
196:
181:
161:
30:
1972:"Politics with Hidden Bases: Unearthing the Deep Roots of Party Systems"
1755:"Politics with Hidden Bases: Unearthing the Deep Roots of Party Systems"
896:
468:
126:
1697:"Genome-Wide Analysis of Liberal and Conservative Political Attitudes"
2128:
2103:
1270:
Alford, John R.; Funk, Carolyn L.; Hibbing, John R. (December 2008).
518:
460:
358:
1336:
Fowler, James H.; Laura A. Baker; Christopher T. Dawes (May 2008).
1074:
Alford, John R.; Funk, Carolyn L.; Hibbing, John R. (June 2008).
1445:
Settle, Jaime E.; Christopher T. Dawes; James H. Fowler (2009).
775:
Employing a more general approach, researchers used genome-wide
2009:
2098:
2093:
1808:"Biology, Politics, and the Emerging Science of Human Nature"
1230:"Twin Studies of Political Behavior: Untenable Assumptions?"
2005:
725:
matched publicly available voter registration records to a
16:
Study of genetic basis of political behavior and attitudes
1579:"Partisanship, Voting, and the Dopamine D2 Receptor Gene"
1979:
British
Journal of Politics and International Relations
1762:
British
Journal of Politics and International Relations
1806:
Fowler, James H.; Darren
Schreiber (7 November 2008).
829:"The Body Politic: Biology May Shape Political Views"
1511:
Fowler, James H.; Christopher T. Dawes (July 2008).
1123:
Hannagan, Rebecca J.; Hatemi, Peter K. (June 2008).
638:
and it is closely related to the emerging fields of
2348:
2247:
2198:
2142:
2081:
1039:Charney, Evan (June 2008). "Genes and Ideologies".
1228:Beckwith, Jon; Morris, Corey A. (December 2008).
735:National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health
1577:Dawes, Christopher T.; James H. Fowler (2008).
1181:"Politics, Genetics, and "Greedy Reductionism""
933:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
693:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1338:"Genetic Variation in Political Participation"
2021:
604:
8:
867:Charney, Evan; English, William (May 2013).
686:and his colleagues published an influential
1695:Hatemi, P. K.; et al. (January 2011).
827:Monastersky, Richard (September 19, 2008).
2028:
2014:
2006:
1923:"Some Politics May Be Etched in the Genes"
869:"Genopolitics and the Science of Genetics"
611:
597:
18:
1715:
1531:
1465:
1447:"The Heritability of Partisan Attachment"
1356:
1091:
1007:
970:
952:
895:
737:(Add Health), and studied other forms of
2361:List of genetics research organizations
1970:Byrne, Kevin P.; Eoin O’Malley (2012).
819:
729:in Los Angeles, analyzed self-reported
29:
1668:
1657:
1311:Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences
7:
1910:"Are Politics Rooted in Your Genes?"
677:Twin studies of political attitudes
929:"Transmission of social attitudes"
848:Biuso, Emily (December 12, 2008).
714:Twin studies of political behavior
14:
1921:Carey, Benedict (June 21, 2005).
1513:"Two Genes Predict Voter Turnout"
1345:American Political Science Review
996:American Political Science Review
876:American Political Science Review
808:Biology and political orientation
764:American Political Science Review
722:American Political Science Review
703:American Political Science Review
648:The Chronicle of Higher Education
479:Biology and political orientation
2374:
2373:
1991:10.1111/j.1467-856X.2011.00478.x
1774:10.1111/j.1467-856X.2011.00478.x
580:
474:Theories of political behavior
100:Political history of the world
1:
834:Chronicle of Higher Education
799:Biology and political science
489:Critique of political economy
2320:Missing heritability problem
1454:Political Research Quarterly
1404:Political Research Quarterly
1323:10.1016/j.cobeha.2020.03.012
70:Outline of political science
1179:Charney, Evan (June 2008).
2426:
1898:"The Genetics of Politics"
75:Index of politics articles
2369:
2043:
1955:10.1016/j.tig.2012.07.004
1874:"The Biology of Ideology"
1726:10.1017/S0022381610001015
1598:10.1017/S002238160909094X
1542:10.1017/S0022381608080638
1367:10.1017/S0003055408080209
1288:10.1017/S1537592708081929
1249:10.1017/S1537592708081917
1200:10.1017/S1537592708080651
1144:10.1017/S153759270808064X
1102:10.1017/S1537592708080638
1053:10.1017/S1537592708080626
1018:10.1017/s0003055405051579
888:10.1017/S0003055413000099
1753:Byrne, Kevin P. (2012).
1476:10.1177/1065912908327607
1416:10.1177/1065912908327606
1276:Perspectives on Politics
1237:Perspectives on Politics
1188:Perspectives on Politics
1132:Perspectives on Politics
1080:Perspectives on Politics
1041:Perspectives on Politics
748:Gene association studies
1886:"It's the Genes Stupid"
1835:10.1126/science.1158188
1704:The Journal of Politics
1586:The Journal of Politics
954:10.1073/pnas.83.12.4364
854:New York Times Magazine
739:political participation
690:of social attitudes in
654:New York Times Magazine
484:Political organisations
247:International relations
85:Politics by subdivision
1667:Cite journal requires
2356:List of genetic codes
564:Political campaigning
304:Public administration
137:Collective leadership
2255:Behavioural genetics
1916:. February 11, 2008.
671:evolutionary biology
414:Separation of powers
285:Political psychology
260:Comparative politics
238:political scientists
225:Academic disciplines
105:Political philosophy
2335:Population genomics
2325:Molecular evolution
2285:Genetic engineering
1902:Scientific American
1878:Wall Street Journal
1827:2008Sci...322..912F
1520:Journal of Politics
945:1986PNAS...83.4364M
801:, sometimes called
587:Politics portal
436:Election commission
407:Government branches
290:Political sociology
142:Confessional system
80:Politics by country
2400:Applied psychology
2295:Genetic monitoring
1943:Trends in Genetics
784:Other explanations
270:Political analysis
202:Semi-parliamentary
2410:Political science
2387:
2386:
2310:He Jiankui affair
2300:Genetic genealogy
2290:Genetic diversity
2219:the British Isles
2124:Genetic variation
1821:(5903): 912–914.
939:(12): 4364–4368.
636:political science
628:behavior genetics
621:
620:
569:Political parties
509:Electoral systems
233:Political science
207:Semi-presidential
119:Political systems
95:Political history
90:Political economy
2417:
2377:
2376:
2340:Reverse genetics
2315:Medical genetics
2030:
2023:
2016:
2007:
2002:
1976:
1966:
1937:
1935:
1933:
1917:
1905:
1904:. November 2007.
1893:
1881:
1869:
1867:
1865:
1860:on 25 March 2009
1859:
1853:. Archived from
1812:
1793:
1792:
1790:
1788:
1759:
1750:
1744:
1743:
1741:
1740:
1734:
1728:. Archived from
1719:
1701:
1692:
1686:
1683:
1677:
1676:
1670:
1665:
1663:
1655:
1653:
1652:
1646:
1640:. Archived from
1639:
1630:
1624:
1623:
1621:
1620:
1614:
1608:. Archived from
1592:(3): 1157–1171.
1583:
1574:
1568:
1567:
1565:
1564:
1558:
1552:. Archived from
1535:
1517:
1508:
1502:
1501:
1499:
1498:
1492:
1486:. Archived from
1469:
1451:
1442:
1436:
1435:
1399:
1393:
1392:
1390:
1389:
1383:
1377:. Archived from
1360:
1342:
1333:
1327:
1326:
1306:
1300:
1299:
1267:
1261:
1260:
1234:
1225:
1219:
1218:
1216:
1210:. Archived from
1185:
1176:
1170:
1169:
1167:
1166:
1160:
1154:. Archived from
1129:
1120:
1114:
1113:
1095:
1071:
1065:
1064:
1036:
1030:
1029:
1011:
991:
985:
984:
974:
956:
924:
918:
917:
899:
873:
864:
858:
857:
845:
839:
838:
824:
771:Linkage analysis
613:
606:
599:
585:
584:
375:
320:
275:Political theory
265:Election science
255:
241:
19:
2425:
2424:
2420:
2419:
2418:
2416:
2415:
2414:
2390:
2389:
2388:
2383:
2365:
2344:
2243:
2234:the Middle East
2200:Archaeogenetics
2194:
2138:
2077:
2039:
2034:
1974:
1969:
1949:(10): 525–533.
1940:
1931:
1929:
1920:
1908:
1896:
1884:
1880:. May 27, 2008.
1872:
1863:
1861:
1857:
1810:
1805:
1802:
1800:Further reading
1797:
1796:
1786:
1784:
1757:
1752:
1751:
1747:
1738:
1736:
1732:
1717:10.1.1.662.2987
1699:
1694:
1693:
1689:
1684:
1680:
1666:
1656:
1650:
1648:
1644:
1637:
1632:
1631:
1627:
1618:
1616:
1612:
1581:
1576:
1575:
1571:
1562:
1560:
1556:
1515:
1510:
1509:
1505:
1496:
1494:
1490:
1467:10.1.1.315.1396
1449:
1444:
1443:
1439:
1401:
1400:
1396:
1387:
1385:
1381:
1358:10.1.1.165.4773
1340:
1335:
1334:
1330:
1308:
1307:
1303:
1269:
1268:
1264:
1232:
1227:
1226:
1222:
1214:
1183:
1178:
1177:
1173:
1164:
1162:
1158:
1127:
1122:
1121:
1117:
1093:10.1.1.458.5986
1073:
1072:
1068:
1038:
1037:
1033:
993:
992:
988:
926:
925:
921:
871:
866:
865:
861:
847:
846:
842:
826:
825:
821:
816:
795:
786:
773:
755:
753:Candidate genes
750:
716:
679:
617:
579:
574:
573:
504:
503:
494:
493:
451:
450:
441:
440:
409:
408:
399:
398:
394:Public interest
379:Domestic policy
369:
362:
361:
350:
349:
314:
307:
306:
295:
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256:
249:
242:
235:
227:
226:
217:
216:
122:
121:
110:
109:
65:
64:
55:
24:Politics series
17:
12:
11:
5:
2423:
2421:
2413:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2392:
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2385:
2384:
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2358:
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2337:
2332:
2330:Plant genetics
2327:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2270:Genome editing
2267:
2262:
2257:
2251:
2249:
2248:Related topics
2245:
2244:
2242:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2226:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2205:
2203:
2196:
2195:
2193:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2170:Immunogenetics
2167:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2146:
2144:
2140:
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2137:
2136:
2131:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2101:
2096:
2091:
2085:
2083:
2082:Key components
2079:
2078:
2076:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2044:
2041:
2040:
2035:
2033:
2032:
2025:
2018:
2010:
2004:
2003:
1985:(4): 613–629.
1967:
1938:
1927:New York Times
1918:
1906:
1894:
1892:. Sep 4, 2008.
1890:New York Times
1882:
1870:
1801:
1798:
1795:
1794:
1768:(4): 613–629.
1745:
1710:(1): 271–285.
1687:
1678:
1669:|journal=
1625:
1569:
1533:10.1.1.168.456
1526:(3): 579–594.
1503:
1460:(3): 601–613.
1437:
1410:(3): 584–600.
1394:
1351:(2): 233–248.
1328:
1301:
1282:(4): 793–797.
1262:
1243:(4): 785–791.
1220:
1217:on 2012-03-08.
1194:(2): 337–343.
1171:
1138:(2): 329–335.
1115:
1086:(2): 321–328.
1066:
1047:(2): 299–319.
1031:
1009:10.1.1.622.476
1002:(2): 153–167.
986:
919:
882:(2): 382–395.
859:
850:"Genopolitics"
840:
818:
817:
815:
812:
811:
810:
805:
794:
791:
785:
782:
772:
769:
754:
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715:
712:
678:
675:
619:
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576:
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572:
571:
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556:
551:
550:
549:
533:
528:
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511:
505:
501:
500:
499:
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495:
492:
491:
486:
481:
476:
471:
458:
452:
449:Related topics
448:
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428:
423:
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410:
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405:
404:
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396:
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386:
384:Foreign policy
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280:Policy studies
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2280:Genetic code
2214:the Americas
2190:Quantitative
2160:Cytogenetics
2155:Conservation
2048:Introduction
1982:
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667:neuroscience
659:James Fowler
652:
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624:Genopolitics
623:
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317:street-level
192:Presidential
152:Dictatorship
22:Part of the
2260:Epigenetics
1864:16 December
1787:18 November
1317:: 173–178.
897:10161/12548
803:biopolitics
684:Nick Martin
456:Sovereignty
421:Legislature
324:Technocracy
312:Bureaucracy
177:Meritocracy
157:Directorial
2394:Categories
2265:Geneticist
2239:South Asia
2185:Population
2165:Ecological
2134:Amino acid
2114:Nucleotide
2089:Chromosome
1739:2012-07-22
1651:2008-12-16
1619:2008-12-16
1563:2008-12-16
1497:2008-12-16
1388:2008-12-16
1165:2012-07-22
688:twin study
632:psychology
546:Governance
536:Government
531:Federalism
132:City-state
2180:Molecular
2175:Microbial
2150:Classical
1851:206512952
1712:CiteSeerX
1606:203452977
1528:CiteSeerX
1462:CiteSeerX
1353:CiteSeerX
1208:143243333
1088:CiteSeerX
1004:CiteSeerX
963:0027-8424
906:0003-0554
696:in 1986.
645:In 2008,
526:Unitarism
514:Elections
502:Subseries
431:Judiciary
426:Executive
329:Adhocracy
212:Theocracy
167:Feudalism
147:Democracy
2405:Genetics
2379:Category
2305:Heredity
2275:Genomics
2119:Mutation
2109:Heredity
2073:Glossary
2063:Timeline
2037:Genetics
1999:49524008
1963:22951140
1843:18988845
1782:49524008
1550:11408064
1484:16489393
1424:12902201
1296:15466249
1257:55630117
1152:12421116
1061:56304983
914:10854801
793:See also
663:genetics
554:Ideology
372:doctrine
333:Service
197:Republic
182:Monarchy
162:Federacy
51:Category
31:Politics
2058:History
2053:Outline
1823:Bibcode
1815:Science
1432:1276482
1375:1984498
1026:3820911
981:3459179
941:Bibcode
777:linkage
733:in the
559:Culture
469:Country
127:Anarchy
41:Outline
2224:Europe
2209:Africa
2143:Fields
2129:Allele
2104:Genome
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1961:
1932:May 3,
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669:, and
634:, and
519:voting
461:Polity
359:Policy
338:Public
252:theory
2349:Lists
2229:Italy
2068:Index
1995:S2CID
1975:(PDF)
1858:(PDF)
1847:S2CID
1811:(PDF)
1778:S2CID
1758:(PDF)
1733:(PDF)
1700:(PDF)
1645:(PDF)
1638:(PDF)
1613:(PDF)
1602:S2CID
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1128:(PDF)
1106:S2CID
1057:S2CID
1022:S2CID
910:S2CID
872:(PDF)
814:Notes
542:forms
465:State
342:Civil
46:Index
1959:PMID
1934:2010
1866:2008
1839:PMID
1789:2014
1673:help
1428:SSRN
977:PMID
959:ISSN
902:ISSN
2099:RNA
2094:DNA
1987:doi
1951:doi
1914:CNN
1831:doi
1819:322
1770:doi
1722:doi
1594:doi
1538:doi
1472:doi
1412:doi
1363:doi
1349:102
1319:doi
1284:doi
1245:doi
1196:doi
1140:doi
1098:doi
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