789:(CDC). Other studies that decontextualized partner violence included labeling aggregate findings of motivations for violence that included the desire to coerce or control the partner or being angry with the partner as "striking back" when such questions revealed that women scored equal to or higher than men in desires to use violence out of simple anger or to coerce and control the partner. This, however, is contradicted by other reviews which found women's primary motivation were triggered by anger or self-defense while men's motivation was more about control. Some studies have also postulated that when other factors such as allowing both or neither gender to claim self-defense, or simply including male victims and female perpetrators in the sample, the results were at or near parity for perpetrators and victims, with the results near parity sometimes favoring females and sometimes favoring males. Another large study reveals that women are between two and three times as likely to be the offender in non-reciprocal partner violence. The study suggests that while women are far more prone to be the sole offender, reciprocal violence where both partners use violence has higher frequency of serious injuries, and that these injuries more often have female victims than male.
514:(1998) retrieved data from 555 people aged eighteen and older in the Cincinnati, Ohio, area. Early results from the study indicated that low self-control was highly positively correlated to criminal behavior in both genders, but was especially significant for males. For females, the relationship became significant when opportunity was introduced and considered with level of self-control. Opportunity was not a significant indicator of male criminal behavior, which the authors attribute to the assumption that opportunity for criminal behavior is ubiquitous for men. In this study, opportunity was measured by the number of nights per week individuals go out for recreation purposes. Similarly, the authors conclude that women are less likely to be exposed to opportunities for criminal behavior, speculating that "constraints often placed on females, and that accompany their lifestyles" contribute to less opportunity for crime. With self-control being significant for males but not for females, the conclusions of this study pointed toward the notion that men and women commit crimes for different reasons. The notion that self-control was only significant for women when combined with opportunity helps account for the gender gap seen in crime rates.
547:
temperament and behavior problems. On the other hand, adolescent-onset delinquents did not encounter similar childhood problems. This study showed an male-to-female ratio of 10:1 for those experiencing childhood-onset delinquency and 15:1 for adolescent-onset delinquency. Moffitt and Caspi hypothesized that "'life-course-persistent' antisocial behavior originates early in life, when the difficult behavior of a high-risk young child is exacerbated by a high-risk social environment". Also, "'adolescent-limited' antisocial behavior emerges alongside puberty, where otherwise healthy youngsters experience dysphoria during the relatively role-less years between biological maturation and access to mature privileges and responsibilities", called the maturity gap. They look at the taxonomy theory, which states that the gender difference in crime are based on sex differences in the risk factors for life-course-persistent antisocial behavior. Based on research, girls are less likely than boys to have nervous system dysfunctions, difficult temperament, late maturity in verbal and motor development, learning disabilities, and childhood behavioral problems.
521:, focus on the widely acknowledged fact that there is a large sex difference in crime: more men than women commit crimes. This has been true over time and across cultures. There is also a greater number of men who commit serious crimes resulting in injury or death than women. In a study that looked at self-reports of delinquent acts, researchers identified several sex differences by looking at sex ratios. For every woman, 1.28 men drink alcohol, which is a large influencer in deviant behavior. For every woman, 2.7 men committed the crime of stealing up to $ 50. Lastly, for every woman, 3.7 men steal more than $ 50. Also, more males are involved in homicides, as both the perpetrators and victims, than females. Furthermore, one male is more delinquent than another for mainly the same reasons that men typically engage in criminal acts more than women.
962:, leading to a criminalization of behaviors now defined as "assault" behaviors (while they were simply negatively perceived before). The increase in the proportion of female violent crime would thus be explained more by a change in law enforcement policies than by effective behavior of the population itself. According to the report aforementioned, "Evidence suggests that aggressive and violent behavior in children is linked to family and social factors, such as social and financial deprivation; harsh and inconsistent parenting; parents' marital problems; family violence, whether between parents, by parents toward children or between siblings; poor parental mental health; physical and sexual abuse; and alcoholism, drug dependency or other substance misuse by parents or other family members."
665:. Testosterone and other androgens have evolved to masculinize a brain in order to be competitive even as far as being a risk to harming others. By doing so, individuals with masculinized brains as a result of pre-natal and adult life testosterone and androgens enhance their resource acquiring abilities in order to survive, attract and copulate with mates as much as possible. Thus, crime can be seen as an extreme form of adaptation to gain status and acquire more resources. Many other researchers have agreed with this and have stated that criminal behavior is an expression of inter-male competition in mating efforts and resource seeking since there is a huge correlation between criminals and fathering children at younger ages.
590:
gap rate in crime. One view is that the gender gap of crime is associated with different strains and various types of experiences males and females go through. For instance, their socialization, life events, home life, and relationships differ from one another. Because of this, research suggests that boys and men are more closely related to crime and delinquency. Brezina argues that because boys are more exposed to harsh punishment from their parents while growing up, negative experiences at school, no support system, and homelessness, they have more freedom to commit a crime. Brezina states that some boys and men tend to see crime as acceptable because they favor their "internalized 'masculine' values."
594:
friendship. This leads to them reacting to strain differently than males do. Instead of coping their strain with crime, they express it with their emotions to eliminate the stress. The emotional response females receive, are fear, guilt, anxiety, or shame, which decreases their chances of committing a crime. In addition, girls and women have a great amount of social support, which also leads to lower rate of crime. The types of strain that males and females experience can be an understanding of why there is a gender gap in crime.
738:, sex differences in aggression is one of the most robust and oldest findings in psychology. Past meta-analyses in the encyclopedia found males regardless of age engaged in more physical and verbal aggression while small effect for females engaging in more indirect aggression such as rumor spreading or gossiping. It also found males tend to engage in more unprovoked aggression at higher frequency than females. This replicated another 2007 meta-analysis of 148 studies in the journal
1268:, females were more likely to be victims of homicides compared to males. A 2013 global study on homicide by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime found that males accounted for about 95 percent of all convicted homicide perpetrators worldwide. Also, according to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, the percent of victims killed by their spouses or ex-spouses in 2011 were 77.4 percent women and 22.6 percent men in selected countries across Europe.
769:. However, such data generally shows that men tend to inflict the greater share of injuries. Critics have used studies such as Dekeseredy et al. to argue that "studies finding about equal rates of violence by women in relationships are misleading because they fail to place the violence in context; in other words, there is a difference between someone who uses violence to fight back or defend oneself and someone who initiates an unprovoked assault."
43:
6242:
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violence. Studies conducted have found direct correlation between testosterone and dominance especially among the most violent criminals in prison who had the highest testosterone levels. The same research also found fathers (those outside competitive environments) had the lowest testosterone levels compared to other males. The second theory is also similar and is known as the evolutionary
935:
in arrest rate in the United States. Arrests rates for women had a sizable increase in the following crimes: robbery (+20.2%), larceny-theft (+29.6%), and arson â property crime (+24.7%). The trend results from 2003 to 2012 showed the vast majority of crimes were still committed by men with around 88% of homicides and 75% of all legal felonies. According to government statistics from the
562:
sex differences were understood and quite often mentioned within works, such as Merton's theory of anomie; however, they were not critically discussed, and often any mention of female delinquency was only as comparative to males, to explain male behaviors, or through defining the girl as taking on the role of a boy, namely, conducting their behavior and appearance as that of a
510:(1998) assessed Gottfredson and Hirschi's (1990) work on the subject, which stated that individuals with lower levels of self-control are more likely to be involved in criminal behavior, in a gender-sensitive context. The purpose of their study was to account for the gender gap in crime rates. By using a self-reporting questionnaire, Burton
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117:
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report, the rate of violent crime doubled among male youth during the late 1980s and 1990s, while it almost tripled among female youth. It rose for the latter from 2.2 per 1,000 in 1988 to a peak of 5.6 per 1,000 in 1996, and began to decline in 1999. Some researchers have suggested that the increase
823:
postulates that for judges and juries it is often "impossible to isolate the circumstances that the defendant is a woman from the circumstances that she can also be a widow, a mother, attractive, or may cry on the stand." Furthermore, male and female defendants in court have reported being advised to
660:
which states that testosterone would increase during puberty thus facilitating reproductive and competitive behaviour which would include aggression as a result of evolution. Thus it is the challenge of competition in relation to testosterone among males of the species that facilitates aggression and
585:
Further theories have been contended, with many debates surrounding the involvement and ignoring of women within theoretical studies of crime; however, with new approaches and advances in feminist studies and masculinity studies, and the claims of increases in recent years in female crime, especially
581:
However, other contentions have been made as explanations for the invisibility of women in regard to theoretical approaches, such as: females have an '...apparently low level of offending'); that they pose less of a social threat than their male counterparts; that their 'delinquencies tend to be of a
728:
behavior) in public. Men are more likely to be the targets of displays of aggression and provocation than women. Studies by
Bettencourt and Miller show that when provocation is controlled for, sex differences in aggression are greatly reduced. They argue that this shows that gender-role norms play a
628:
and caring for children by females than by males. Greater caring for children also leads to difficulty leaving them in order to either fight or flee. Anne
Campbell writes that females may thus avoid direct physical aggressiveness and instead use strategies such as "friendship termination, gossiping,
593:
Brezina argues that girls and women have limited opportunities to commit crime. They, for example, are more dedicated to family and friends, have higher parental supervision, and are less likely to link themselves to delinquent peers. Therefore, their strains would be high family demands and lose of
589:
Past studies explained gender and crime through psychological and biological aspects. However, now specific sociological theories analyze the gender differences when it comes to committing crime. Brezina's research focuses on the "general strain theory," specifically, on why males and females have a
934:
overall, but an increase in crimes committed by women. There was an increase in arrest rate for women of 2.9% but a decrease in arrest rate for men of 12.7%. This demonstrates an increase in arrests for women which only slightly offsets the decrease in arrest for men resulting in a decrease overall
648:
explains that males throughout hominid history have evolved to form coalitions or groups in order to engage in inter-group aggression and increase their chances of acquiring resources, mates and territory. Vugt argues that this evolved male social dynamic explains the human history of war to modern
2784:
Intimate male partners are most often the main perpetrators of violence against women, a form of violence known as intimate partner violence, 'domestic' violence or 'spousal (or wife) abuse.' Intimate partner violence and sexual violence, whether by partners, acquaintances or strangers, are common
577:
One key reason contended for this lack of attention to females in crime and deviance is due to the view that female crime has almost exclusively been dealt with by men, from policing through to legislators, and that this has continued through into the theoretical approaches, quite often portraying
561:
Considerations of gender in regard to crime have been considered to be largely ignored and pushed aside in criminological and sociological study, until recent years, to the extent of female deviance having been marginalized. In the past fifty years of sociological research into crime and deviance,
546:
Terrie
Moffitt and Avshalom Caspi compare childhood risk factors of males and females portraying childhood-onset and adolescent-onset antisocial behavior, which influences deviant behavior in individuals. Childhood-onset delinquency is attributed to lack of parenting, neurocognitive problems, and
2748:
This is an issue that affects vast numbers of women throughout all nations of the world. Although there are cases in which men are the victims of domestic violence, nevertheless 'the available research suggests that domestic violence is overwhelmingly directed by men against women In addition,
843:
In the United States, men are much more likely to be incarcerated than women. More than 9 times as many men (5,037,000) as women (581,000) had ever at one time been incarcerated in a State or
Federal prison at year end 2001. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, males experienced higher
810:
also found that although minor domestic violence was equal, more severe violence was perpetrated by men. It was also found that men were more likely to beat up, choke or strangle their partners, while women were more likely to throw something at their partner, slap, kick, punch, or hit with an
798:
found that although less serious situation violence or altercation was equal for both genders, more serious and violent abuse was perpetrated by men. It was also found that women's physical violence was more likely motivated by self-defense or fear while men's was motivated by control. A 2011
573:
Eagly and
Steffen suggested in their meta-analysis of data on sex and aggression that beliefs about the negative consequences of violating gender expectations affect how both genders behave regarding aggression. Psychologist Anne Campbell argued that "cultural interpretations have 'enhanced'
939:, male perpetrators constituted 96% of federal prosecution on domestic violence. Another report by the US department of Justice on non-fatal domestic violence from 2003 to 2012 found that 76 percent of domestic violence was committed against women and 24 percent were committed against men.
861:
White females of all ages had the lowest conviction rates of any racial or age groups, however these statistics do not isolate Asian offenders from a diverse 'other' category. Asian women are considerably less likely to commit homicide than white
American
2583:
Card, Noel A.; Stucky, Brian D.; Sawalani, Gita M.; Little, Todd D. (2008-10-01). "Direct and indirect aggression during childhood and adolescence: a meta-analytic review of gender differences, intercorrelations, and relations to maladjustment".
765:, some research suggests that rates of physical aggression within the context of dating and marriage tend to be similar for men and women, or that women are more likely to commit domestic violence against a partner; this is known as
2749:
violence used by men against female partners tends to be much more severe than that used by women against men. Mullender and Morley state that 'Domestic violence against women is the most common form of family violence worldwide.'
623:
which will lead the competition with other males over females. If the mother died, this may have had more serious consequences for a child than if the father died in the ancestral environment since there is a tendency for greater
1213:
In 2013 and 2014, males accounted for 85% of those that have committed legal offenses and sent to provincial and territorial correctional services in Canada. Females account for 15 percent of overall committed legal offenses.
673:
Neurobiological abnormalities associated with criminality also show sex differences. One study found that sex differences in antisocial behaviour were reduced by 77% when controlling sex difference in the grey matter of the
574:
evolutionarily based sex differences by a process of imposition which stigmatises the expression of aggression by females and causes women to offer exculpatory (rather than justificatory) accounts of their own aggression."
3457:"Special run by Department of Justice (DOJ) Criminal Statistics Bureau. The DOJ does not isolate Asians under this data set. They are included under the "other" category that totaled 7.4% of those convicted of homicide."
824:
conduct themselves differently in accordance with their gender; women in particular recall being advised to express "mute passivity," whereas men are encouraged to "assert themselves" in cross-examinations and testimony.
777:, and not permitting the same for men. This results in counting men who had defended themselves as perpetrators, and counting women who may have engaged in ex post facto justification of their violence, a noted trait of
2761:
GarcĂa-Moreno, Claudia; Stöckl, Heidi (2013), "Protection of sexual and reproductive health rights: addressing violence against women", in Grodin, Michael A.; Tarantola, Daniel; Annas, George J.; et al. (eds.),
772:
One study argued that it was the above-cited
Dekeseredy et al. that in fact improperly contextualized partner violence; Dekeseredy's campus study was based around asking women and only women if their violence was in
757:
than females, although the difference was small. Difference also showed that females reported more cyberbullying behavior during mid-adolescence while males showed more cyberbullying behavior at late adolescence.
3550:
1366:
Statistics repeatedly show that many more men than women commit crimes. Indeed, as
Richard Collier notes, 'most crimes would remain unimaginable without the presence of men (Collier, 1998; see also Jefferson,
734:
748:
which reviewed past analysis and found greater male use in verbal and physical aggression with the difference being greater in the physical type. A meta-analysis of 122 studies published in the journal of
803:
also found that the common motives for female on male domestic violence were anger, a need for attention, or as a response to their partner's own violence. Another 2011 review published in the journal of
847:
In 2014, more than 73% of those arrested in the US were males. Men accounted for 80.4 percent of persons arrested for violent crime and 62.9 percent of those arrested for property crime. In 2011, the
3634:
3485:"Female-perpetrated homicides tell a similar story. In one study (Mann, 1996) 75% of arrests were of African-American women, 13% were white women, whereas no Asian women at all were arrested."
582:
relatively minor kind', but also due to the fear that including women in research could threaten or undermine theories, as
Thrasher and Sutherland feared would happen with their research.
471:
perspective. An observable difference in crime rates between men and women might be due to social and cultural factors, crimes going unreported, or to biological factors (for example,
4232:
1232:, worldwide, 78.7% of homicide victims are male, and in 193 of the 202 listed countries or regions, males were more likely to be killed than females. In two, the ratio was 50:50 (
644:, Netherlands, has argued that males have evolved more aggressive and group-oriented in order to gain access to resources, territories, mates and higher status. His theory the
3941:
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or sociobiological theories). The nature or motive of the crime itself may also require consideration as a factor. Gendered profiling might affect the reported crime rates.
3518:
5113:
4970:
2245:
Raine, A., Yang, Y., Narr, K. L., & Toga, A. W. (2011). Sex differences in orbitofrontal gray as a partial explanation for sex differences in antisocial personality.
2064:
1636:
Moffitt, Terrie; Caspi, Avshalom (2001). "Childhood
Predictors Differentiate Life-Course Persistent and Adolescence-Limited Antisocial Pathways Among Males and Females".
4938:
4172:
356:
53:
3730:
3658:
2726:
McQuigg, Ronagh J.A. (2011), "Potential problems for the effectiveness of international human rights law as regards domestic violence", in McQuigg, Ronagh J.A. (ed.),
1277:
4890:
4225:
724:
Women are more likely to use direct aggression in private, where other people cannot see them, and are more likely to use indirect aggression (such as
486:
are associated with criminal activity. Many professionals have offered explanations for this sex difference. Some differing explanations include men's
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4091:
419:
268:
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1229:
819:
One study has noted substantial differences in the treatment and behavior of defendants in the courts on the basis of gender; female criminologist
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3934:
313:
3844:
2683:
Barlett, Christopher; Coyne, Sarah M. (2014-10-01). "A meta-analysis of sex differences in cyber-bullying behavior: the moderating role of age".
1589:
Rowe, David; Vazsonyi, Alexander; Flannery, Daniel (1995). "Sex Differences in Crime: Do Means and Within-Sex Variation Have Similar Causes?".
1705:
Eagly, Alice H.; Steffen, Valerie J. (1986). "Gender and aggressive behavior: A meta-analytic review of the social psychological literature".
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3875:
3819:
3478:
3450:
1518:
1488:
1461:
1434:
308:
3119:"Differences in frequency of violence and reported injury between relationships with reciprocal and nonreciprocal intimate partner violence"
2968:
Straus, Murray A. (14 July 2007). "Processes Explaining the Concealment and Distortion of Evidence on Gender Symmetry in Partner Violence".
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383:
323:
197:
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1807:
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3426:
2265:"Sex differences in antisocial personality disorder: Results from the National Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions"
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148:
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3927:
1397:
1352:
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Of children under age 5 killed by a parent, the rate for biological father conviction was slightly higher than for biological mothers.
212:
187:
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4194:
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2777:
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2644:
2561:
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1869:
1306:
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87:
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2263:
Alegria, Analucia A.; Blanco, Carlos; Petry, Nancy M.; Skodol, Andrew E.; Liu, Shang-Min; Grant, Bridget; Hasin, Deborah (2013).
1927:
The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology, edited by David M. Buss, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2005. Chapter 21 by Anne Campbell.
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Males were convicted of the vast majority of homicides in the United States, representing 89.5% of the total number of offenders.
607:
318:
261:
207:
131:
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3003:
Bair-Merritt, Megan H.; Crowne, Sarah Shea; Thompson, Darcy A.; Sibinga, Erica; Trent, Maria; Campbell, Jacquelyn (2010-10-01).
1307:"Beyond Driving While Black and Flying While Brown: Using Intersectionality to Uncover the Gendered Aspects of Racial Profiling"
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Psychological traits and syndromes associated with criminal and antisocial behaviour are more frequent in men. Examples include
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5287:
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4990:
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885:
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233:
182:
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Bair-Merritt, Megan H; Crowne, Sarah Shea; Thompson, Darcy A; Sibinga, Erica; Trent, Maria; Campbell, Jacquelyn (2010-10-01).
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Bettencourt, B. Ann; Miller, Norman (1996). "Gender differences in aggression as a function of provocation: A meta-analysis".
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556:
224:
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Grijalva, Emily; Newman, Daniel A.; Tay, Louis; Donnellan, M. Brent; Harms, P. D.; Robins, Richard W.; Yan, Taiyi (2015).
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Young adult black males had the highest homicide conviction rate compared to offenders in other racial and sex categories.
715:
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368:
295:
237:
217:
202:
65:
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However, of children under 5 killed by someone other than their parent, 80% of the people that were convicted were males.
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351:
246:
173:
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136:
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day gang rivalry which is under a process of male on male competition in order to gain resources and potential mates.
192:
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69:
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Bookwala, J.; Frieze, I. H.; Smith, C.; Ryan, K. (1992). "Predictors of dating violence: A multi variate analysis".
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Crime and Punishment in America: An Encyclopedia of Trends and Controversies in the Justice System, Volume 1: AâM
1828:"Gender and General Strain Theory: An Examination of the Role of Gendered Strains and Negative Emotions on Crime"
290:
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3635:"CANSIM - 109-5009 - Adults and youths charged, by sex and offence category, Canada, provinces and territories"
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Swan, Suzanne C.; Gambone, Laura J.; Caldwell, Jennifer E.; Sullivan, Tami P.; Snow, David L. (2008-01-01).
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Swan, Suzanne C.; Gambone, Laura J.; Caldwell, Jennifer E.; Sullivan, Tami P.; Snow, David L. (2008-01-01).
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612:
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The "general theory of crime" is accepted among scholars as one of the most valid theories of crime. Burton
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compiled homicide statistics in the United States between 1980 and 2008. That study showed the following:
695:
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Statistics have been consistent in reporting that men commit more criminal acts than women. Self-reported
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2797:
Archer, J (2000). "Sex differences in aggression between heterosexual partners: A meta-analytic review".
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International human rights law and domestic violence: the effectiveness of international human rights law
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455:(which attempts to demonstrate a causal relationship between biological factors, in this case biological
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which found greater male aggression in childhood and adolescence. This analysis also conforms with the
877:
Females were most likely to be victims of domestic homicides (63.7%) and sex-related homicides (81.7%)
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victimization rates than females for all types of violent crime except rape or other sexual assault.
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657:
536:
479:
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BROIDY, LISA; AGNEW, ROBERT (August 1997). "Gender and Crime: A General Strain Theory Perspective".
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did not contextualize violence simply by not counting women perpetrators until forced to by the US
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530:
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278:
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Campbell, Anne (1999). "Staying alive: Evolution, culture, and women's intrasexual aggression".
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on crime statistics could be partly explained by the stricter approach to schoolyard fights and
880:
Males were most likely to be victims of drug-related (90.5%) and gang-related homicides (94.6%).
2312:
McHugh, R. Kathryn; Votaw, Victoria R.; Sugarman, Dawn E.; Greenfield, Shelly F. (2018-12-01).
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3244:
3205:
3187:
3148:
3099:
3081:
3042:
3024:
2850:
2814:
2773:
2763:
2737:
2708:
2700:
2640:
2636:
2609:
2601:
2557:
2509:
2462:
2439:
2400:
2392:
2371:"Sex differences in psychopathy and antisocial personality disorder: A review and integration"
2351:
2333:
2294:
2087:
2036:
2018:
1966:
1902:
1865:
1827:
1804:
1767:
1732:
1653:
1514:
1508:
1484:
1478:
1457:
1451:
1430:
1393:
1348:
1257:
762:
495:
482:
acts are also higher for men than for women, although lower than official data. Low levels of
363:
153:
3671:
2727:
1861:
1424:
1383:
1338:
5466:
5407:
5338:
5196:
5139:
4703:
4560:
3304:
3296:
3252:
3236:
3195:
3179:
3138:
3130:
3089:
3073:
3032:
3016:
2977:
2921:
2885:
2876:
Dutton, D. G.; Nicholls, T. L.; Spidel, A. (2005). "Female perpetrators of intimate abuse".
2842:
2806:
2692:
2632:
2593:
2549:
2541:
2501:
2431:
2382:
2341:
2325:
2284:
2276:
2226:
2195:
2164:
2133:
2079:
2026:
2010:
1958:
1894:
1857:
1759:
1724:
1645:
1598:
1550:
1344:
1060:
464:
460:
6206:
6097:
6062:
5971:
5859:
5753:
5709:
5689:
5562:
5278:
5257:
5012:
4790:
4769:
4676:
4656:
4625:
4594:
4333:
4323:
4254:
4245:
4241:
4144:
3442:
Dangerous Strangers: Minority Newcomers and Criminal Violence in the Urban West, 1850-2000
2831:"omen reported the expression of as much or more violence in their relationships as men."
2666:
1811:
948:
766:
328:
3225:"Why Do Women Use Intimate Partner Violence? A Systematic Review of Women's Motivations"
3005:"Why do women use intimate partner violence? A systematic review of women's motivations"
5699:
5679:
5589:
5282:
5174:
5049:
4860:
4820:
4749:
4570:
4308:
3257:
3224:
3200:
3167:
3143:
3118:
3094:
3061:
3037:
3004:
2545:
2346:
2313:
2289:
2264:
2031:
1998:
1100:
616:
491:
388:
3350:
2387:
2370:
871:
Victimization rates for both males and females have been relatively stable since 2000.
6289:
6201:
6144:
6134:
5694:
5514:
5474:
5470:
5461:
5304:
5273:
5262:
5252:
5179:
5081:
4975:
4825:
4815:
4785:
4764:
4754:
4713:
4681:
4630:
4465:
4318:
2897:
2597:
2533:
2214:
2183:
2152:
2121:
1962:
1914:
1610:
1562:
931:
633:
2989:
2910:"ates of commission of acts and initiation of violence were similar across gender."
2862:
2099:
2083:
1665:
5991:
5292:
5269:
4810:
4800:
4708:
4520:
4422:
4397:
3423:
2912:
Makepeace, J. M. (1986). "Gender differences in courtship violence victimization".
1978:
1779:
1385:
Understanding Statistics for the Social Sciences, Criminal Justice, and Criminology
914:
Males constituted 79.7% of those arrested for offenses against family and children.
774:
653:
603:
487:
483:
472:
452:
4733:
4480:
4370:
4353:
3587:
3364:
2785:
worldwide and disproportionately affect women, although are not exclusive to them.
1999:"Evolution and the psychology of intergroup conflict: the male warrior hypothesis"
3329:
2153:"Fetal testosterone and criminality: test of evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory"
761:
While the literature generally finds that women are more commonly the victims of
6130:
6042:
5986:
5824:
5609:
5308:
5127:
4865:
4620:
4530:
4515:
4495:
4475:
4387:
4365:
4348:
4298:
4116:
3566:"Family Violence Statistics Including Statistics on Strangers and Acquaintances"
3565:
2810:
2505:
1898:
1728:
1602:
1554:
1253:
1233:
699:
567:
519:
Sex Differences in Crime: Do Means and Within-Sex Variation Have Similar Causes?
448:
300:
17:
4210:
3183:
3077:
1944:"Gender Differences in Cooperation and Competition:The Male-Warrior Hypothesis"
6077:
6072:
5789:
5524:
5064:
4759:
4651:
4615:
4565:
4470:
4407:
3300:
2981:
2846:
2329:
2199:
2137:
2065:"Testosterone and human aggression: an evaluation of the challenge hypothesis"
1763:
1649:
754:
719:
703:
4510:
3248:
3240:
3191:
3168:"A review of research on women's use of violence with male intimate partners"
3134:
3085:
3062:"A review of research on women's use of violence with male intimate partners"
3028:
3020:
2704:
2605:
2396:
2337:
2022:
1906:
5739:
4661:
4500:
4360:
4303:
4293:
3919:
3672:
Rates of victims of police-reported violent crime by age group, Canada, 2008
2769:
2231:
2168:
1997:
McDonald, Melissa M.; Navarrete, Carlos David; Van Vugt, Mark (2012-03-05).
1265:
729:
large part in the differences in aggressive behavior between men and women.
641:
31:
30:"Sex and crime" redirects here. For laws which criminalize sexual acts, see
3282:"Gender differences in self-reports of intimate partner violence: A review"
3266:
3209:
3152:
3103:
3046:
2818:
2712:
2613:
2443:
2404:
2355:
2298:
2091:
2040:
2014:
1970:
1771:
1657:
988:
Victims of Person Crimes in Canada by Gender, per 100,000 residents (2008)
4916:
2889:
2854:
2513:
1736:
6191:
5951:
5656:
4870:
4835:
4580:
4443:
4375:
1056:
959:
620:
615:
has proposed several evolutionary explanations for gender differences in
27:
Differences between men and women as the perpetrators or victims of crime
3743:
3309:
2553:
1411:
it is well supported in research that more men than women commit crimes.
490:
tendency toward risk and violent behavior, sex differences in activity,
6092:
4698:
4693:
4671:
4545:
4505:
4490:
4380:
3913:
2184:"The evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory of criminal behavior expanded"
2122:"The evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory of criminal behavior expanded"
1245:
1080:
1016:
2933:
2003:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
4646:
4575:
4540:
4453:
4448:
4412:
4313:
4288:
4265:
3467:
Lee, Yueh-Ting; McCauley, Clark R.; Draguns, Juris G. (13 May 2013).
2696:
2435:
2280:
1450:
Bachman, Ronet D.; Paternoster, Raymond; Wilson, Theodore H. (2021).
1261:
578:
what could be considered as a one-sided view, as Mannheim suggested.
563:
2627:
Campbell, Anne (2007-04-05). Barrett, Louise; Dunbar, Robin (eds.).
2925:
4718:
4458:
4417:
4278:
3824:
Fisher, J. (1999). "Ethics Check". CMA Management Magazine, 36-37
2538:
International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences
1249:
1241:
911:
Males constituted 81.5% of those arrested for motor-vehicle theft.
902:
735:
International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences
444:
440:
4525:
4283:
3991:
3683:
Aggravated assaults include; assault level 3 and assault level 2
1850:
Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice
917:
Males constituted 77.8% of those arrested for aggravated assault
656:
in aggression and competition among males. The first one is the
517:
David Rowe, Alexander Vazsonyi, and Daniel Flannery, authors of
116:
4920:
4214:
3923:
781:, as victims. The study further found that studies from the US
4666:
4273:
1534:
Burton VS, Cullen FT, Evans TD, Alarid LF, Dunaway RG (1998).
966:
Gender statistics Canada by total charged annual crimes (2002)
456:
436:
36:
3910:
British Journal Of Criminology. Spring 1988, Vol. 28: No. 2.
3892:
Prevalence of Imprisonment in the U.S. Population, 1974-2001
1679:
1677:
1675:
923:
Males constituted 57.3% of those arrested for larceny-theft.
467:
may provide a way to investigate such a relationship from a
3614:, last updated 10 June 2006, URL accessed on April 13, 2007
926:
Males constituted 51.3% of those arrested for embezzlement.
892:
Males constituted 98.9% of those arrested for forcible rape
2420:"Gender differences in narcissism: A meta-analytic review"
3349:. U.S. Department of Justice. August 2003. Archived from
2457:
Chrisler, Joan C; Donald R. McCreary (11 February 2012).
3899:
U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics
3117:
Whitaker DJ, Haileyesus T, Swahn M, Saltzman LS (2007).
1848:
Brezina, Timothy (2017-02-27). "General Strain Theory".
908:
Males constituted 81.7% of those arrested for vandalism.
710:
Aggression and violence among peers and in relationships
3705:
Canada, Government of Canada, Statistics (2015-04-22).
2534:"Gender Differences in Personality and Social Behavior"
2314:"Sex and gender differences in substance use disorders"
598:
Sociobiological and evolutionary psychology perspective
61:
2269:
Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment
898:
Males constituted 85.0% of those arrested for burglary
3775:. United National Office of Drugs and Crime (Vienna).
2369:
Cale, Ellison M.; Lilienfeld, Scott O. (2002-11-01).
895:
Males constituted 87.9% of those arrested for robbery
3797:. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (Vienna).
3707:"Adult correctional statistics in Canada, 2013/2014"
1480:
Neuroscience and Crime: A Special Issue of Neurocase
920:
Males constituted 58.7% of those arrested for fraud.
874:
Males were more likely to be murder victims (76.8%).
6118:
6000:
5889:
5882:
5780:
5655:
5523:
5447:
5349:
5155:
5148:
5011:
4848:
4778:
4742:
4639:
4606:
4593:
4396:
4264:
4253:
4155:
4063:
3999:
3957:
3897:
Most victims and perpetrators in homicides are male
3347:"Prevalence of Imprisonment in the U.S. Population"
2963:
2961:
2527:
2525:
2523:
1691:
1689:
619:. Males can increase their reproductive success by
3812:The Girls in the Gang: A Report from New York City
3328:
3322:
3320:
1337:Eamonn Carrabine; Paul Iganski; Maggy Lee (2004).
557:Feminist school of criminology § Gender ratio
3470:Personality and Person Perception Across Cultures
3424:"Homicide Trends in the United States, 1980-2008"
3845:Other bibliography concerning gender & crime
2970:European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research
2629:Sex differences in aggression - Oxford Handbooks
2151:Hoskin, Anthony W.; Ellis, Lee (December 2014).
1507:Tibbetts, Stephen G.; Piquero, Alex R. (2022).
1453:Statistics for Criminology and Criminal Justice
1429:. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p. 79.
1423:Burfeind, James; Jeglum Bartusch, Dawn (2010).
930:From 2003 to 2012, there was a decrease in the
716:Sex differences in psychology § Aggression
663:neuroandrogenic (ENA) theory of male aggression
463:. Despite the difficulty of interpreting them,
3752:Percentage of male and female homicide victims
1278:Power-control theory of gender and delinquency
901:Males constituted 83.0% of those arrested for
4932:
4226:
3935:
451:(the scientific study of criminal behavior),
413:
50:The examples and perspective in this article
8:
4891:Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures
3729:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3657:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2215:"Evolutionary theory and criminal behaviour"
1887:Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency
1591:Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency
1543:Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency
1426:Juvenile Delinquency: an Integrated Approach
884:2011 arrest data in suburban areas from the
447:. Such studies may belong to fields such as
3700:
3698:
3551:"Ten-Year Arrest Trends, by Sex, 2003-2012"
2765:Health and human rights in a changing world
1332:
1330:
1328:
570:, adopting stereotypical masculine traits.
5886:
5152:
4939:
4925:
4917:
4603:
4261:
4233:
4219:
4211:
3942:
3928:
3920:
3633:Canada, Government of Canada, Statistics.
3544:
3542:
3540:
3538:
3419:
3417:
3415:
3413:
3411:
3409:
3407:
3405:
3403:
3401:
2678:
2676:
1502:
1500:
984:
746:Oxford Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology
420:
406:
99:
3916:Crime and Justice Journal. 1998. Vol. 24.
3308:
3256:
3199:
3142:
3093:
3036:
2495:
2459:Handbook of Gender Research in Psychology
2386:
2345:
2288:
2230:
2030:
1718:
88:Learn how and when to remove this message
6103:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
1622:
1620:
1377:
1375:
1340:Criminology: A Sociological Introduction
1230:United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
3914:Gang Violence In The PostIndustrial Era
3588:"Nonfatal Domestic Violence, 2003â2012"
2637:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198568308.001.0001
2182:Ellis, Lee; Hoskin, Anthony W. (2015).
2120:Ellis, Lee; Hoskin, Anthony W. (2015).
1382:Jeffery T. Walker; Sean Maddan (2013).
1298:
1218:Worldwide homicide statistics by gender
792:A 2008 review published in the journal
338:
232:
168:
123:
107:
3722:
3650:
3513:
3511:
3335:. New York: New York University Press.
2662:
2652:
2072:Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews
2058:
2056:
2054:
2052:
2050:
1937:
1935:
1933:
1862:10.1093/acrefore/9780190264079.013.249
1843:
1841:
1821:
1819:
799:systematic review from the journal of
652:There are two theories on the role of
5595:Psychological effects of Internet use
3628:
3626:
3624:
3622:
3620:
3509:
3507:
3505:
3503:
3501:
3499:
3497:
3495:
3493:
3491:
3376:
3374:
1992:
1990:
1988:
1510:Criminological Theory: The Essentials
7:
3835:Bibliography on "Girls and Violence"
2213:Quinsey, Vernon L. (February 2002).
1626:Rowe, Vazsonyi, & Flannery, 1995
5575:Digital media use and mental health
3908:Feminism and Criminology in Britain
3427:United States Department of Justice
2219:Legal and Criminological Psychology
1793:Feminism and Criminology In Britain
1288:Race and crime in the United States
1228:According to the data given by the
1115:Females are 11.3 times more likely
849:United States Department of Justice
5206:Automatic and controlled processes
2878:Journal of Offender Rehabilitation
2546:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.25100-3
1513:. SAGE Publications. p. 195.
1456:. SAGE Publications. p. 305.
1171:Females are 2.6 times more likely
1133:Females are 1.2 times more likely
1051:Females are 3.1 times more likely
692:narcissistic personality disorders
443:as the perpetrators or victims of
25:
5615:Smartphones and pedestrian safety
3903:Girls In The Youth Justice System
3549:Federal Bureau of Investigation.
2532:Del Giudice, Marco (March 2015).
1805:Girls In The Youth Justice System
1536:"Gender, self control, and crime"
1483:. Psychology Press. p. 161.
6266:
6253:
6241:
6240:
5640:Mobile phones and driving safety
4806:Attraction to transgender people
3990:
3864:"Male Versus Female Criminality"
3473:. Psychology Press. p. 66.
2598:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01184.x
1963:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01842.x
1189:Males are 3.9 times more likely
1151:Males are 1.2 times more likely
1095:Males are 1.8 times more likely
1075:Males are 3.5 times more likely
629:ostracism, and stigmatization".
608:Sociobiological theories of rape
525:Nature, nurture, and life course
115:
41:
5543:Computer-mediated communication
3367:. Bureau of Justice Statistics.
3289:Aggression and Violent Behavior
2188:Aggression and Violent Behavior
2126:Aggression and Violent Behavior
2084:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.12.007
1638:Development and Psychopathology
1390:Jones & Bartlett Publishers
981:Youth females (12-17) â 24, 487
807:Aggression and Violent Behavior
753:found males are more likely to
5820:Empathisingâsystemising theory
5123:female intrasexual competition
5060:Evolutionarily stable strategy
4125:Age disparity in relationships
3870:. ABC-CLIO. pp. 317â319.
3744:UNDOC Homicide Statistics 2013
3612:Public Health Agency of Canada
1826:Puhrmann, Aaron (2015-12-10).
1207:Males are 2 times more likely
1031:Males are 2 times more likely
309:age disparity in relationships
1:
6180:Standard social science model
5233:Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis
4896:Social construction of gender
3439:Mullen, K. (19 August 2005).
2388:10.1016/S0272-7358(01)00125-8
1752:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
1477:Markowitsch, Hans J. (2020).
1224:Homicide statistics by gender
955:Canadian Public Health Agency
6028:Missing heritability problem
5620:Social aspects of television
5243:Evolution of nervous systems
5211:Computational theory of mind
4881:Sex as a biological variable
3847:with descriptions, from the
3595:Bureau of Justice Statistics
3573:Bureau of Justice Statistics
3327:Heidensohn, Frances (1986).
3229:Trauma, Violence & Abuse
3009:Trauma, Violence & Abuse
2320:. Gender and Mental Health.
978:Young males (12-17) â 74,513
566:and by rejecting the female
6274:Evolutionary biology portal
3597:. US Department of Justice.
3586:Truman, Jennifer L (2014).
3575:. US Department of Justice.
2811:10.1037/0033-2909.126.5.651
2506:10.1037/0033-2909.119.3.422
1899:10.1177/0022427897034003001
1729:10.1037/0033-2909.100.3.309
1603:10.1177/0022427895032001004
1555:10.1177/0022427898035002001
1240:), and in the remaining 7;
787:Centers for Disease Control
632:Psychologist and professor
64:, discuss the issue on the
6322:
6235:Evolutionary psychologists
6108:TriversâWillard hypothesis
6023:Humanâanimal communication
5735:Ovulatory shift hypothesis
5585:Imprinted brain hypothesis
5553:Humanâcomputer interaction
4796:Androphilia and gynephilia
3788:"Global study on homicide"
3786:Gibbons, Jonathan (2011).
3766:"Global Study on Homicide"
3764:Gibbons, Jonathan (2013).
3564:Durose, Matthew R (2005).
3184:10.1891/0886-6708.23.3.301
3078:10.1891/0886-6708.23.3.301
2375:Clinical Psychology Review
2318:Clinical Psychology Review
1221:
987:
946:
839:Crime in the United States
836:
713:
601:
554:
534:
528:
29:
6306:Sex differences in humans
6229:
6155:Environmental determinism
6126:Cultural selection theory
6013:Evolutionary epistemology
5927:evolutionary neuroscience
5600:Rank theory of depression
5102:Parentâoffspring conflict
4954:
3988:
3951:Sex differences in humans
3862:Finley, Laura L. (2017).
3831:. Basingstoke: MacMillan.
3814:(Olympic Marketing Corp)
3748:Homicide counts and rates
3445:. Springer. p. 179.
3301:10.1016/j.avb.2011.02.008
2982:10.1007/s10610-007-9060-5
2847:10.1891/0886-6708.7.4.297
2330:10.1016/j.cpr.2017.10.012
2200:10.1016/j.avb.2015.05.002
2138:10.1016/j.avb.2015.05.002
1832:Open Access Dissertations
1764:10.1017/S0140525X99001818
1683:Moffitt & Caspi, 2001
1650:10.1017/S0954579401002097
1007:
1002:
997:
992:
459:and human behaviors), or
109:Sex differences in humans
6048:Cultural group selection
5932:Biocultural anthropology
5625:Societal impacts of cars
5558:Media naturalness theory
5248:Fight-or-flight response
4344:Non-binary / genderqueer
3241:10.1177/1524838010379003
3135:10.2105/AJPH.2005.079020
3021:10.1177/1524838010379003
2955:(Dekeseredy et al. 1997)
1311:Colum. J. Gender & L
937:US Department of Justice
720:Aggression § Gender
435:are differences between
433:Sex differences in crime
6248:Evolutionary psychology
6212:Sociocultural evolution
6053:Dual inheritance theory
5510:Personality development
4971:Theoretical foundations
4948:Evolutionary psychology
4906:Transgender archaeology
3849:Oxford University Press
3827:Heidensohn, F. (1995).
3810:Campbell, Anne (1984).
2232:10.1348/135532502168324
2169:10.1111/1745-9125.12056
1942:Vugt, Mark Van (2006).
732:According to the 2015
696:substance use disorders
646:Male Warrior hypothesis
613:Evolutionary psychology
586:that of violent crime.
502:General theory of crime
6170:Social constructionism
6165:Psychological nativism
6140:Biological determinism
6088:Recent human evolution
6083:Punctuated equilibrium
5906:Behavioral epigenetics
5901:evolutionary economics
5870:Variability hypothesis
5815:Emotional intelligence
5548:Engineering psychology
5238:Evolution of the brain
4901:Split attraction model
4886:Sexâgender distinction
4092:Emotional intelligence
3965:Sexual differentiation
2799:Psychological Bulletin
2484:Psychological Bulletin
2424:Psychological Bulletin
2015:10.1098/rstb.2011.0301
1707:Psychological Bulletin
1283:Incarceration of women
1238:British Virgin Islands
975:Adult females â 71,058
269:Emotional intelligence
132:Sexual differentiation
6197:Multilineal evolution
6160:Nature versus nurture
6119:Theoretical positions
5967:Functional psychology
5962:Evolutionary medicine
5937:Biological psychiatry
5645:Texting while driving
5635:Leadâcrime hypothesis
5495:Cognitive development
5480:Caregiver deprivation
4991:Gene selection theory
4876:Queer heterosexuality
3839:University of Glasgow
3754:Retrieved May-31-2014
3674:Retrieved May-31-2014
2890:10.1300/j076v41n04_01
1951:Psychological Science
1194:Other "person" crimes
972:Adult males â 326,536
947:Further information:
837:Further information:
801:Trauma Violence Abuse
783:Department of Justice
714:Further information:
602:Further information:
555:Further information:
6150:Cultural determinism
5957:Evolutionary biology
5942:Cognitive psychology
5890:Academic disciplines
5538:Cognitive ergonomics
5505:Language acquisition
5485:Childhood attachment
5298:Wason selection task
5192:Behavioral modernity
4981:Cognitive revolution
4964:Evolutionary thought
4856:Anti-gender movement
4831:Romantic orientation
3172:Violence and Victims
3066:Violence and Victims
2835:Violence and Victims
2772:, pp. 780â781,
2734:Taylor & Francis
2540:. pp. 750â756.
2247:Molecular psychiatry
1037:Forcible confinement
833:In the United States
795:Violence and Victims
704:grandiose narcissism
676:orbitofrontal cortex
658:Challenge hypothesis
626:parental investments
537:Life course approach
257:Emotional expression
70:create a new article
62:improve this article
52:may not represent a
6296:Correlates of crime
6217:Unilineal evolution
5982:Population genetics
5767:Sexy son hypothesis
5705:Hormonal motivation
5685:Concealed ovulation
5226:Dual process theory
5097:Parental investment
4608:Sexual orientations
4339:Masculine of center
2732:, Oxford New York:
2685:Aggressive Behavior
1795:(Heidensohn, 1995).
1695:(Heidensohn, 1995).
1157:Criminal harassment
779:psychological abuse
751:Aggressive Behavior
159:Scientific measures
103:Part of a series on
6175:Social determinism
6058:Fisher's principle
6018:Great ape language
6008:Cultural evolution
5977:Philosophy of mind
5810:Division of labour
5772:Westermarck effect
5720:Mating preferences
5630:Distracted driving
5364:Literary criticism
5221:Domain specificity
5201:modularity of mind
4729:Same gender loving
4640:Alternative labels
3692:Includes assault 1
3639:www5.statcan.gc.ca
3382:"Persons Arrested"
3123:Am J Public Health
2461:. Springer, 2010.
1810:2008-10-02 at the
821:Frances Heidensohn
726:passive-aggressive
531:Nature vs. nurture
469:gender differences
279:Gender empathy gap
6283:
6282:
6261:Psychology portal
6225:
6224:
6068:Hologenome theory
6038:Unit of selection
6033:Primate cognition
5947:Cognitive science
5878:
5877:
5749:Sexual attraction
5725:Mating strategies
5490:Cinderella effect
5420:Moral foundations
5324:Visual perception
5216:Domain generality
5185:Facial expression
5133:Sexual dimorphism
5092:Natural selection
5038:Hamiltonian spite
4914:
4913:
4861:Gender assignment
4844:
4843:
4589:
4588:
4329:Gender neutrality
4208:
4207:
4180:Gender inequality
3877:978-1-61-069927-3
3851:on-line resources
3820:978-0-631-13374-2
3711:www.statcan.gc.ca
3480:978-1-134-80829-8
3452:978-1-4039-8062-5
3280:Chan, KL (2011).
2586:Child Development
2063:Archer J (2006).
2009:(1589): 670â679.
1520:978-1-07-183821-1
1490:978-1-00-014991-3
1463:978-1-54-437569-4
1436:978-1-44-963614-2
1258:Republic of Korea
1211:
1210:
763:domestic violence
741:Child Development
496:gender inequality
430:
429:
364:Gender inequality
98:
97:
90:
72:, as appropriate.
16:(Redirected from
6313:
6301:Gender and crime
6270:
6257:
6244:
6243:
5887:
5883:Related subjects
5670:Adult attachment
5197:Cognitive module
5153:
5140:Social selection
5114:Costly signaling
5109:Sexual selection
4996:Modern synthesis
4941:
4934:
4927:
4918:
4704:Non-heterosexual
4604:
4262:
4235:
4228:
4221:
4212:
4023:Mental disorders
3994:
3944:
3937:
3930:
3921:
3881:
3799:
3798:
3792:
3783:
3777:
3776:
3770:
3761:
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3693:
3690:
3684:
3681:
3675:
3669:
3663:
3662:
3656:
3648:
3646:
3645:
3630:
3615:
3608:Aggressive Girls
3605:
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3577:
3576:
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3114:
3108:
3107:
3097:
3057:
3051:
3050:
3040:
3000:
2994:
2993:
2976:(3â4): 227â232.
2965:
2956:
2953:
2947:
2944:
2938:
2937:
2914:Family Relations
2908:
2902:
2901:
2873:
2867:
2866:
2829:
2823:
2822:
2794:
2788:
2787:
2758:
2752:
2751:
2723:
2717:
2716:
2697:10.1002/ab.21555
2680:
2671:
2670:
2664:
2660:
2658:
2650:
2624:
2618:
2617:
2592:(5): 1185â1229.
2580:
2574:
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2570:
2529:
2518:
2517:
2499:
2479:
2473:
2472:
2454:
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2447:
2436:10.1037/a0038231
2415:
2409:
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2390:
2381:(8): 1179â1207.
2366:
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2349:
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2292:
2281:10.1037/a0031681
2260:
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2204:
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2179:
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2148:
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2117:
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2110:
2108:
2102:. Archived from
2069:
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1994:
1983:
1982:
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1939:
1928:
1925:
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1918:
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1379:
1370:
1369:
1363:
1361:
1345:Psychology Press
1334:
1323:
1322:
1320:
1318:
1303:
1138:Uttering threats
1061:attempted murder
985:
465:crime statistics
461:feminist studies
422:
415:
408:
394:equality paradox
389:Sociolinguistics
193:Mental disorders
119:
100:
93:
86:
82:
79:
73:
45:
44:
37:
21:
18:Gender and crime
6321:
6320:
6316:
6315:
6314:
6312:
6311:
6310:
6286:
6285:
6284:
6279:
6221:
6207:Neoevolutionism
6114:
6098:Species complex
6063:Group selection
6001:Research topics
5996:
5972:Neuropsychology
5874:
5860:Substance abuse
5782:Sex differences
5776:
5690:Coolidge effect
5651:
5563:Neuroergonomics
5528:
5519:
5443:
5345:
5279:Folk psychology
5160:
5144:
5014:
5007:
4950:
4945:
4915:
4910:
4840:
4791:Analloeroticism
4774:
4770:Heterosociality
4738:
4635:
4598:
4596:
4585:
4400:
4392:
4334:Gender variance
4324:Gender fluidity
4256:
4249:
4239:
4209:
4204:
4151:
4059:
4043:Substance abuse
4018:Life expectancy
3995:
3986:
3953:
3948:
3888:
3878:
3861:
3858:
3856:Further reading
3829:Women and Crime
3807:
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3331:Women and Crime
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2497:10.1.1.476.1949
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1812:Wayback Machine
1803:
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1720:10.1.1.857.5744
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953:According to a
951:
949:Crime in Canada
945:
841:
835:
830:
817:
767:gender symmetry
722:
712:
684:
682:Psychopathology
671:
610:
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213:substance abuse
188:Life expectancy
94:
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5590:Mind-blindness
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5321:
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5300:
5295:
5285:
5283:theory of mind
5276:
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5104:
5094:
5089:
5084:
5079:
5078:
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5067:
5062:
5057:
5052:
5050:Baldwin effect
5047:
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5040:
5035:
5025:
5019:
5017:
5009:
5008:
5006:
5005:
5000:
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4883:
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4858:
4852:
4850:
4846:
4845:
4842:
4841:
4839:
4838:
4833:
4828:
4823:
4821:Plurisexuality
4818:
4813:
4808:
4803:
4798:
4793:
4788:
4782:
4780:
4776:
4775:
4773:
4772:
4767:
4762:
4757:
4752:
4750:Sociosexuality
4746:
4744:
4743:Social aspects
4740:
4739:
4737:
4736:
4731:
4726:
4721:
4716:
4711:
4706:
4701:
4696:
4691:
4689:Heteroflexible
4686:
4685:
4684:
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4664:
4659:
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4649:
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4573:
4571:Vakasalewalewa
4568:
4563:
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4215:
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4200:Social support
4197:
4195:Social capital
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3894:
3887:
3886:External links
3884:
3883:
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3857:
3854:
3853:
3852:
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3832:
3825:
3822:
3806:
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3487:
3479:
3459:
3451:
3431:
3397:
3370:
3356:
3353:on 2009-09-01.
3338:
3316:
3295:(2): 167â175.
3272:
3235:(4): 178â189.
3215:
3178:(3): 301â314.
3158:
3129:(5): 941â947.
3109:
3072:(3): 301â314.
3052:
3015:(4): 178â189.
2995:
2957:
2948:
2939:
2926:10.2307/584365
2920:(3): 383â388.
2903:
2868:
2841:(4): 297â311.
2824:
2805:(5): 651â680.
2789:
2778:
2753:
2742:
2736:, p. 13,
2718:
2691:(5): 474â488.
2672:
2663:|journal=
2645:
2619:
2575:
2562:
2519:
2474:
2467:
2449:
2430:(2): 261â310.
2410:
2361:
2304:
2275:(3): 214â222.
2255:
2238:
2205:
2174:
2143:
2112:
2109:on 2016-01-09.
2046:
1984:
1929:
1920:
1893:(3): 275â306.
1877:
1870:
1837:
1815:
1797:
1785:
1742:
1697:
1685:
1671:
1644:(2): 355â375.
1628:
1616:
1581:
1568:
1549:(2): 123â147.
1526:
1519:
1496:
1489:
1469:
1462:
1442:
1435:
1415:
1399:978-1449634032
1398:
1392:. p. 99.
1371:
1354:978-0415281676
1353:
1347:. p. 88.
1324:
1313:. 8 March 2021
1297:
1295:
1292:
1291:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1273:
1270:
1222:Main article:
1219:
1216:
1209:
1208:
1205:
1200:
1195:
1191:
1190:
1187:
1182:
1177:
1176:Other assaults
1173:
1172:
1169:
1164:
1159:
1153:
1152:
1149:
1144:
1139:
1135:
1134:
1131:
1126:
1121:
1120:Simple assault
1117:
1116:
1113:
1108:
1103:
1101:Sexual assault
1097:
1096:
1093:
1088:
1083:
1077:
1076:
1073:
1068:
1063:
1053:
1052:
1049:
1044:
1039:
1033:
1032:
1029:
1024:
1019:
1012:
1011:
1006:
1001:
996:
990:
989:
983:
982:
979:
976:
973:
944:
941:
928:
927:
924:
921:
918:
915:
912:
909:
906:
899:
896:
893:
882:
881:
878:
875:
872:
869:
866:
863:
859:
856:
834:
831:
829:
826:
816:
813:
711:
708:
683:
680:
670:
667:
617:aggressiveness
599:
596:
552:
549:
543:
540:
529:Main article:
526:
523:
503:
500:
492:social support
428:
427:
425:
424:
417:
410:
402:
399:
398:
397:
396:
391:
386:
384:Social support
381:
379:Social capital
376:
371:
366:
361:
360:
359:
349:
341:
340:
336:
335:
334:
333:
332:
331:
326:
321:
316:
311:
303:
298:
293:
288:
283:
282:
281:
271:
266:
265:
264:
254:
249:
241:
240:
230:
229:
228:
227:
222:
221:
220:
215:
210:
205:
200:
190:
185:
177:
176:
166:
165:
164:
163:
162:
161:
151:
146:
141:
140:
139:
126:
125:
121:
120:
112:
111:
105:
104:
96:
95:
56:of the subject
54:worldwide view
49:
47:
40:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6318:
6307:
6304:
6302:
6299:
6297:
6294:
6293:
6291:
6276:
6275:
6269:
6265:
6263:
6262:
6256:
6252:
6250:
6249:
6239:
6237:
6236:
6232:
6231:
6228:
6218:
6215:
6213:
6210:
6208:
6205:
6203:
6202:Neo-Darwinism
6200:
6198:
6195:
6193:
6190:
6188:
6187:Functionalism
6185:
6181:
6178:
6176:
6173:
6171:
6168:
6166:
6163:
6161:
6158:
6156:
6153:
6151:
6148:
6146:
6145:Connectionism
6143:
6141:
6138:
6137:
6136:
6135:indeterminism
6132:
6129:
6127:
6124:
6123:
6121:
6117:
6109:
6106:
6104:
6101:
6099:
6096:
6094:
6091:
6089:
6086:
6084:
6081:
6079:
6076:
6074:
6071:
6069:
6066:
6064:
6061:
6059:
6056:
6054:
6051:
6049:
6046:
6044:
6041:
6040:
6039:
6036:
6034:
6031:
6029:
6026:
6024:
6021:
6019:
6016:
6014:
6011:
6009:
6006:
6005:
6003:
5999:
5993:
5990:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5980:
5978:
5975:
5973:
5970:
5968:
5965:
5963:
5960:
5958:
5955:
5953:
5950:
5948:
5945:
5943:
5940:
5938:
5935:
5933:
5930:
5928:
5924:
5920:
5916:
5913:
5911:
5907:
5904:
5902:
5898:
5895:
5894:
5892:
5888:
5885:
5881:
5871:
5868:
5866:
5863:
5861:
5858:
5856:
5855:Schizophrenia
5853:
5851:
5848:
5846:
5843:
5841:
5840:Mental health
5838:
5836:
5833:
5831:
5828:
5826:
5823:
5821:
5818:
5816:
5813:
5811:
5808:
5806:
5803:
5801:
5798:
5796:
5793:
5791:
5788:
5787:
5785:
5783:
5779:
5773:
5770:
5768:
5765:
5763:
5759:
5755:
5752:
5750:
5746:
5743:
5741:
5738:
5736:
5733:
5731:
5728:
5726:
5723:
5721:
5718:
5716:
5715:Mate guarding
5713:
5711:
5708:
5706:
5703:
5701:
5698:
5696:
5693:
5691:
5688:
5686:
5683:
5681:
5678:
5676:
5675:Age disparity
5673:
5671:
5668:
5666:
5663:
5662:
5660:
5658:
5654:
5646:
5643:
5641:
5638:
5636:
5633:
5631:
5628:
5627:
5626:
5623:
5621:
5618:
5616:
5613:
5611:
5608:
5606:
5605:Schizophrenia
5603:
5601:
5598:
5596:
5593:
5591:
5588:
5586:
5583:
5581:
5578:
5576:
5573:
5571:
5568:
5564:
5561:
5559:
5556:
5554:
5551:
5549:
5546:
5544:
5541:
5540:
5539:
5536:
5535:
5533:
5531:
5530:Mental health
5526:
5525:Human factors
5522:
5516:
5515:Socialization
5513:
5511:
5508:
5506:
5503:
5501:
5498:
5496:
5493:
5491:
5488:
5486:
5483:
5481:
5478:
5476:
5475:paternal bond
5472:
5468:
5465:
5463:
5460:
5458:
5455:
5454:
5452:
5450:
5446:
5440:
5437:
5433:
5430:
5429:
5428:
5425:
5421:
5418:
5417:
5416:
5413:
5409:
5406:
5404:
5401:
5399:
5396:
5395:
5394:
5391:
5389:
5386:
5382:
5379:
5378:
5377:
5374:
5370:
5367:
5365:
5362:
5361:
5360:
5357:
5356:
5354:
5352:
5348:
5340:
5339:NaĂŻve physics
5337:
5335:
5332:
5330:
5327:
5326:
5325:
5322:
5320:
5317:
5315:
5312:
5310:
5306:
5305:Motor control
5303:
5299:
5296:
5294:
5291:
5290:
5289:
5286:
5284:
5280:
5277:
5275:
5271:
5268:
5264:
5263:Ophidiophobia
5261:
5259:
5256:
5254:
5253:Arachnophobia
5251:
5250:
5249:
5246:
5244:
5241:
5239:
5236:
5234:
5231:
5227:
5224:
5222:
5219:
5217:
5214:
5212:
5209:
5207:
5204:
5203:
5202:
5198:
5195:
5193:
5190:
5186:
5183:
5181:
5180:Display rules
5178:
5176:
5173:
5172:
5171:
5168:
5167:
5165:
5163:
5158:
5154:
5151:
5147:
5141:
5138:
5134:
5131:
5129:
5126:
5124:
5120:
5117:
5115:
5112:
5111:
5110:
5107:
5103:
5100:
5099:
5098:
5095:
5093:
5090:
5088:
5085:
5083:
5082:Kin selection
5080:
5076:
5073:
5072:
5071:
5068:
5066:
5063:
5061:
5058:
5056:
5053:
5051:
5048:
5044:
5041:
5039:
5036:
5034:
5031:
5030:
5029:
5026:
5024:
5021:
5020:
5018:
5016:
5010:
5004:
5001:
4997:
4994:
4992:
4989:
4987:
4984:
4982:
4979:
4977:
4976:Adaptationism
4974:
4973:
4972:
4969:
4965:
4962:
4961:
4960:
4957:
4956:
4953:
4949:
4942:
4937:
4935:
4930:
4928:
4923:
4922:
4919:
4907:
4904:
4902:
4899:
4897:
4894:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4884:
4882:
4879:
4877:
4874:
4872:
4869:
4867:
4864:
4862:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4853:
4851:
4847:
4837:
4834:
4832:
4829:
4827:
4826:Postgenderism
4824:
4822:
4819:
4817:
4816:Monosexuality
4814:
4812:
4809:
4807:
4804:
4802:
4799:
4797:
4794:
4792:
4789:
4787:
4786:Allosexuality
4784:
4783:
4781:
4777:
4771:
4768:
4766:
4765:Homosociality
4763:
4761:
4758:
4756:
4755:Antisexuality
4753:
4751:
4748:
4747:
4745:
4741:
4735:
4732:
4730:
4727:
4725:
4722:
4720:
4717:
4715:
4712:
4710:
4707:
4705:
4702:
4700:
4697:
4695:
4692:
4690:
4687:
4683:
4680:
4679:
4678:
4675:
4673:
4670:
4668:
4665:
4663:
4660:
4658:
4655:
4653:
4650:
4648:
4645:
4644:
4642:
4638:
4632:
4629:
4627:
4624:
4622:
4619:
4617:
4614:
4613:
4611:
4609:
4605:
4602:
4600:
4592:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4574:
4572:
4569:
4567:
4564:
4562:
4559:
4557:
4554:
4552:
4549:
4547:
4544:
4542:
4539:
4537:
4534:
4532:
4529:
4527:
4524:
4522:
4519:
4517:
4514:
4512:
4509:
4507:
4504:
4502:
4499:
4497:
4494:
4492:
4489:
4487:
4484:
4482:
4479:
4477:
4474:
4472:
4469:
4467:
4464:
4460:
4457:
4456:
4455:
4452:
4450:
4447:
4445:
4442:
4437:
4434:
4431:
4430:
4429:
4428:Bugis genders
4426:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4405:
4403:
4399:
4398:Third genders
4395:
4389:
4386:
4382:
4379:
4377:
4374:
4372:
4369:
4368:
4367:
4364:
4362:
4359:
4355:
4352:
4351:
4350:
4347:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4332:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4322:
4320:
4319:Gender bender
4317:
4315:
4312:
4310:
4309:Cross-dresser
4307:
4305:
4302:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4275:
4272:
4271:
4269:
4267:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4252:
4247:
4243:
4236:
4231:
4229:
4224:
4222:
4217:
4216:
4213:
4201:
4198:
4196:
4193:
4191:
4188:
4186:
4183:
4181:
4178:
4174:
4171:
4170:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4161:
4160:
4158:
4154:
4146:
4143:
4141:
4138:
4136:
4133:
4131:
4128:
4126:
4123:
4122:
4120:
4118:
4115:
4113:
4110:
4108:
4105:
4103:
4100:
4098:
4095:
4093:
4090:
4088:
4085:
4083:
4080:
4078:
4075:
4074:
4072:
4070:
4066:
4062:
4056:
4053:
4049:
4046:
4044:
4041:
4039:
4038:Schizophrenia
4036:
4034:
4031:
4029:
4026:
4025:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4010:
4008:
4006:
4002:
3998:
3993:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3971:
3968:
3967:
3966:
3963:
3962:
3960:
3956:
3952:
3945:
3940:
3938:
3933:
3931:
3926:
3925:
3922:
3915:
3912:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3898:
3895:
3893:
3890:
3889:
3885:
3879:
3873:
3869:
3865:
3860:
3859:
3855:
3850:
3846:
3843:
3840:
3836:
3833:
3830:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3808:
3804:
3796:
3795:www.unodc.org
3789:
3782:
3779:
3774:
3773:www.unodc.org
3767:
3760:
3757:
3753:
3749:
3746:used tables:
3745:
3740:
3737:
3732:
3726:
3712:
3708:
3701:
3699:
3695:
3689:
3686:
3680:
3677:
3673:
3668:
3665:
3660:
3654:
3640:
3636:
3629:
3627:
3625:
3623:
3621:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3604:
3601:
3596:
3589:
3582:
3579:
3574:
3567:
3560:
3557:
3552:
3545:
3543:
3541:
3539:
3535:
3524:
3520:
3514:
3512:
3510:
3508:
3506:
3504:
3502:
3500:
3498:
3496:
3494:
3492:
3488:
3482:
3476:
3472:
3471:
3463:
3460:
3454:
3448:
3444:
3443:
3435:
3432:
3428:
3425:
3420:
3418:
3416:
3414:
3412:
3410:
3408:
3406:
3404:
3402:
3398:
3387:
3383:
3377:
3375:
3371:
3366:
3360:
3357:
3352:
3348:
3342:
3339:
3333:
3332:
3323:
3321:
3317:
3311:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3283:
3276:
3273:
3268:
3264:
3259:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3219:
3216:
3211:
3207:
3202:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3162:
3159:
3154:
3150:
3145:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3113:
3110:
3105:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3056:
3053:
3048:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3006:
2999:
2996:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2964:
2962:
2958:
2952:
2949:
2943:
2940:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2907:
2904:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2872:
2869:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2828:
2825:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2793:
2790:
2786:
2781:
2779:9781136688638
2775:
2771:
2767:
2766:
2757:
2754:
2750:
2745:
2743:9781136742088
2739:
2735:
2731:
2730:
2722:
2719:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2679:
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2673:
2668:
2656:
2648:
2646:9780198568308
2642:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2623:
2620:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2579:
2576:
2565:
2563:9780080970875
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2528:
2526:
2524:
2520:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2490:(3): 422â47.
2489:
2485:
2478:
2475:
2470:
2468:9781441914644
2464:
2460:
2453:
2450:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2414:
2411:
2406:
2402:
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2327:
2323:
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2315:
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2305:
2300:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2259:
2256:
2253:(2), 227-236.
2252:
2248:
2242:
2239:
2233:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2209:
2206:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2178:
2175:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2147:
2144:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2116:
2113:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2078:(3): 319â45.
2077:
2073:
2066:
2059:
2057:
2055:
2053:
2051:
2047:
2042:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1993:
1991:
1989:
1985:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1945:
1938:
1936:
1934:
1930:
1924:
1921:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1881:
1878:
1873:
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638:VU University
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6259:
6246:
6233:
5992:Sociobiology
5850:Neuroscience
5830:Intelligence
5804:
5376:Anthropology
5329:Color vision
5314:Multitasking
5293:Flynn effect
5288:Intelligence
5270:Folk biology
5013:Evolutionary
4866:Gender roles
4811:Kinsey scale
4801:Aromanticism
4677:Gray asexual
4626:Heterosexual
4551:Sworn virgin
4521:Mukhannathun
4423:Binabinaaine
4162:
4102:Intelligence
4065:Neuroscience
4013:Autoimmunity
3867:
3828:
3811:
3805:Bibliography
3794:
3781:
3772:
3759:
3739:
3714:. Retrieved
3710:
3688:
3679:
3667:
3642:. Retrieved
3638:
3603:
3594:
3581:
3572:
3559:
3526:. Retrieved
3522:
3469:
3462:
3441:
3434:
3389:. Retrieved
3385:
3359:
3351:the original
3341:
3330:
3310:10722/134467
3292:
3288:
3275:
3232:
3228:
3218:
3175:
3171:
3161:
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3122:
3112:
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3055:
3012:
3008:
2998:
2973:
2969:
2951:
2946:Archer, 2000
2942:
2917:
2913:
2906:
2881:
2877:
2871:
2838:
2834:
2827:
2802:
2798:
2792:
2783:
2764:
2756:
2747:
2728:
2721:
2688:
2684:
2628:
2622:
2589:
2585:
2578:
2567:. Retrieved
2554:2318/1852940
2537:
2487:
2483:
2477:
2458:
2452:
2427:
2423:
2413:
2378:
2374:
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2268:
2258:
2250:
2246:
2241:
2222:
2218:
2208:
2191:
2187:
2177:
2163:(1): 54â73.
2160:
2156:
2146:
2129:
2125:
2115:
2104:the original
2075:
2071:
2006:
2002:
1957:(1): 19â23.
1954:
1950:
1923:
1890:
1886:
1880:
1853:
1849:
1831:
1800:
1788:
1755:
1751:
1745:
1710:
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1542:
1529:
1509:
1479:
1472:
1452:
1445:
1425:
1418:
1410:
1403:. Retrieved
1384:
1365:
1358:. Retrieved
1339:
1315:. Retrieved
1310:
1301:
1227:
1212:
1202:
1197:
1184:
1179:
1166:
1161:
1146:
1141:
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1041:
1026:
1021:
1008:
1003:
998:
993:
965:
964:
952:
929:
883:
846:
842:
818:
815:Court system
805:
800:
793:
791:
775:self-defense
771:
760:
750:
745:
739:
733:
731:
723:
685:
672:
669:Neurobiology
654:testosterone
651:
631:
611:
604:Sociobiology
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
560:
545:
518:
516:
511:
507:
505:
488:evolutionary
484:self control
477:
473:testosterone
453:sociobiology
432:
431:
346:
286:Intelligence
234:Neuroscience
183:Autoimmunity
84:
78:January 2018
75:
51:
6131:Determinism
6043:Coevolution
5987:Primatology
5825:Gender role
5730:Orientation
5610:Screen time
5467:Affectional
5449:Development
5128:Mate choice
5055:By-products
5023:Adaptations
4986:Cognitivism
4724:Questioning
4597:orientation
4516:Mudoko dako
4476:Femminiello
4388:Transsexual
4366:Trans woman
4349:Transgender
4173:in the U.S.
4117:Neurosexism
4055:Stroke care
3977:In research
2884:(4): 1â31.
2225:(1): 1â13.
2157:Criminology
1254:New Zealand
1234:Switzerland
1015:Aggravated
700:psychopathy
568:gender role
449:criminology
357:in the U.S.
301:Neurosexism
225:Stroke care
144:In research
6290:Categories
6078:Population
6073:Lamarckism
5919:behavioral
5897:Behavioral
5845:Narcissism
5790:Aggression
5580:Hypophobia
5570:Depression
5457:Attachment
5439:Universals
5403:Psychology
5381:Biological
5369:Musicology
5359:Aesthetics
5258:Basophobia
5065:Exaptation
5043:Reciprocal
4760:Asociality
4714:Polysexual
4682:Demisexual
4652:Bi-curious
4631:Homosexual
4599:identities
4566:Two-spirit
4471:Fakafifine
4466:Fa'afafine
4408:Androgynos
4257:identities
4248:identities
4185:Leadership
4130:Attraction
4121:Sexuality
4112:Narcissism
4077:Aggression
4069:Psychology
4033:Depression
3982:Physiology
3841:'s website
3716:2015-12-15
3644:2016-02-11
3528:2016-02-10
3519:"Table 66"
3391:2016-02-10
2569:2015-12-05
1597:: 84â100.
1294:References
828:Statistics
755:cyberbully
688:antisocial
535:See also:
480:delinquent
369:Leadership
314:attraction
305:Sexuality
296:Narcissism
262:Aggression
238:psychology
203:depression
154:Dimorphism
149:Physiology
5923:cognitive
5915:Affective
5800:Cognition
5754:Sexuality
5740:Pair bond
5500:Education
5157:Cognition
5075:Inclusive
5015:processes
5003:Criticism
4734:TakatÄpui
4709:Pansexual
4662:Ex-ex-gay
4501:Koekchuch
4481:GĂŒevedoce
4401:and sexes
4371:Fakaleitī
4361:Trans man
4354:Akava'ine
4304:Cisgender
4294:Androgyne
4168:Education
4156:Sociology
4082:Cognition
3970:Disorders
3249:1524-8380
3192:0886-6708
3086:0886-6708
3029:1552-8324
2898:144977045
2770:Routledge
2705:1098-2337
2665:ignored (
2655:cite book
2606:1467-8624
2492:CiteSeerX
2397:0272-7358
2338:0272-7358
2324:: 12â23.
2194:: 61â74.
2132:: 61â74.
2023:0962-8436
1915:145144331
1907:0022-4278
1715:CiteSeerX
1611:145215732
1563:145328304
1405:August 7,
1360:August 7,
1317:12 August
1266:Hong Kong
943:In Canada
642:Amsterdam
551:Sociology
352:Education
339:Sociology
247:Cognition
137:disorders
66:talk page
32:Sex crime
6192:Memetics
5952:Ethology
5910:genetics
5745:Physical
5710:Jealousy
5665:Activity
5471:maternal
5427:Religion
5415:Morality
5393:Language
5274:taxonomy
5087:Mismatch
5033:Cheating
5028:Altruism
4871:Intersex
4849:See also
4836:Sapphism
4621:Bisexual
4581:X-gender
4556:Travesti
4531:NĂĄdleehi
4444:Chibados
4376:Mak nyah
4190:Religion
4145:Jealousy
4001:Medicine
3725:cite web
3653:cite web
3365:"Gender"
3267:20823071
3210:18624096
3153:17395835
3104:18624096
3047:20823071
2990:29704872
2863:27868318
2819:10989615
2713:25098968
2614:18826521
2444:25546498
2405:12436810
2356:29174306
2299:23544428
2100:26405251
2092:16483890
2041:22271783
1971:17362372
1808:Archived
1772:11301523
1666:29182035
1658:11393651
1272:See also
1057:Homicide
960:bullying
811:object.
621:polygyny
374:Religion
329:jealousy
170:Medicine
60:You may
6093:Species
5865:Suicide
5700:Fantasy
5680:Arousal
5462:Bonding
5351:Culture
5175:Display
5162:Emotion
5070:Fitness
4959:History
4699:Lesbian
4694:Khanith
4672:Gay men
4616:Asexual
4546:Sipiniq
4506:Lhamana
4491:Kathoey
4438:Calalai
4435:Calabai
4381:Rae-rae
4266:Genders
4140:Fantasy
4097:Empathy
4048:Suicide
3958:Biology
3837:on the
3258:2994556
3201:2968709
3144:1854883
3095:2968709
3038:2994556
2855:1308437
2514:8668747
2347:5945349
2290:3767421
2032:3260849
1979:3566509
1780:1081104
1737:3797558
1579:, 1998.
1575:Cullen
1246:Iceland
1081:Robbery
1017:assault
636:, from
324:fantasy
274:Empathy
218:suicide
124:Biology
6271:
6258:
6245:
5835:Memory
5795:Autism
5762:female
5695:Desire
5432:Origin
5408:Speech
5398:Origin
5170:Affect
4657:Ex-gay
4647:Banjee
4595:Sexual
4576:Winkte
4561:Tumtum
4541:Palopa
4454:Eunuch
4449:Enaree
4413:Apwint
4314:Femboy
4289:Female
4255:Gender
4246:sexual
4242:Gender
4135:Desire
4107:Memory
4087:Coping
4028:Autism
4005:Health
3874:
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3750:&
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3429:(2010)
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1561:
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1351:
1262:Latvia
1059:&
1009:Result
999:Female
862:women.
718:, and
702:, and
564:tomboy
512:et al.
508:et al.
319:desire
291:Memory
252:Coping
198:autism
174:health
5805:Crime
5388:Crime
5319:Sleep
5309:skill
5149:Areas
4779:Other
4719:Queer
4536:Nullo
4496:Köçek
4486:Hijra
4459:Galli
4432:Bissu
4418:Bakla
4279:Woman
4163:Crime
3791:(PDF)
3769:(PDF)
3591:(PDF)
3569:(PDF)
3285:(PDF)
2986:S2CID
2930:JSTOR
2894:S2CID
2859:S2CID
2107:(PDF)
2096:S2CID
2068:(PDF)
1975:S2CID
1947:(PDF)
1911:S2CID
1776:S2CID
1662:S2CID
1607:S2CID
1559:S2CID
1539:(PDF)
1250:Japan
1242:Tonga
994:Crime
903:arson
542:Onset
494:, or
445:crime
441:women
347:Crime
68:, or
5758:male
5119:Male
4526:Muxe
4511:MÄhĆ«
4284:Male
4244:and
4067:and
4003:and
3872:ISBN
3816:ISBN
3731:link
3659:link
3475:ISBN
3447:ISBN
3263:PMID
3245:ISSN
3206:PMID
3188:ISSN
3149:PMID
3100:PMID
3082:ISSN
3043:PMID
3025:ISSN
2851:PMID
2815:PMID
2774:ISBN
2738:ISBN
2709:PMID
2701:ISSN
2667:help
2641:ISBN
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2602:ISSN
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2440:PMID
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2088:PMID
2037:PMID
2019:ISSN
1967:PMID
1903:ISSN
1866:ISBN
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1654:PMID
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1485:ISBN
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1431:ISBN
1407:2016
1394:ISBN
1362:2016
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1319:2024
1264:and
1236:and
1004:Male
690:and
606:and
439:and
236:and
172:and
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5334:Eye
4667:Gay
4299:Boi
4274:Man
3523:FBI
3386:FBI
3305:hdl
3297:doi
3253:PMC
3237:doi
3196:PMC
3180:doi
3139:PMC
3131:doi
3090:PMC
3074:doi
3033:PMC
3017:doi
2978:doi
2922:doi
2886:doi
2843:doi
2807:doi
2803:126
2693:doi
2633:doi
2594:doi
2550:hdl
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2502:doi
2488:119
2432:doi
2428:141
2383:doi
2342:PMC
2326:doi
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2277:doi
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2080:doi
2027:PMC
2011:doi
2007:367
1959:doi
1895:doi
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