225:
334:-like cells that surround the CNS and major blood vessels. They have been found to co-operate with astrocytes in the initial formation of the glia limitans during development and participate in its continued maintenance throughout life. Artificially induced destruction of meningeal cells during CNS development have been found to result in the alteration of subpial extracellular matrix and a disruption of the glia limitans.
338:
astrocytes and created space within the tissue, the meningeal cells will invade even more diffusely. As invading meningeal cells make contact with astrocytes, they can induce the formation of a new, functional glia limitans. The new glia limitans formed after CNS injury usually presents itself as a barrier to regenerating axons.
495:
but rather allowed the glia to determine the level of neuronal activity within proximity. Glial cells were determined to communicate with one another solely with chemical signals and even had specialized glial-glial and neuron-glial neurotransmitter signaling systems. Additionally, neurons were found
459:
Monkeys and other primates have been found to have a glial limiting membrane extremely similar to humans. Studies on these animals have revealed that the thickness of the glia limitans not only varies greatly among different species, but also within different regions of the central nervous system of
296:
The astrocytes of the glia limitans are responsible for separating the brain into two primary compartments. The first compartment is the immune-privileged brain and spinal cord parenchyma. This compartment contains multiple immunosuppressive cell surface proteins such as CD200 and CD95L and it allows
210:
are not covered by the glia limitans. Instead, the entire subarachnoid space is sealed towards the nervous tissue by the glia limitans superficialis. These two parts of the glia limitans are continuous; however, convention dictates that the part that covers the surface of the brain is referred to as
346:
There are a number of diseases associated with problems or abnormalities with the glia limitans. Many diseases can arise from a breach to the glia limitans in which it will no longer be able to fulfill its functional role as a barrier. Two of the more common diseases resulting from a breach to the
239:
The main role of the glia limitans is to act as a physical barrier against unwanted cells or molecules attempting to enter the CNS. The glia limitans compartmentalizes the brain to insulate the parenchyma from the vascular and subarachnoid compartments. Within the brain, the glial limiting membrane
396:
in the perivascular space. These metalloproteinases allow immune cells to breach the glia limitans and reach the CNS parenchyma to attack the CNS parenchymal cells. Once the immune cells have reached the CNS parenchyma and the immune attack is underway, the CNS parenchymal cells are sacrificed in
367:
is directly linked to the developing lesions. Mutations in the fukutin protein lead to a depressed level of its expression in the brain and spinal cord of neonatal subjects, which in turn has been found to contribute to the weakening of the structural integrity of the glia limitans. Neuronal and
264:
experiments the astrocytic foot processes of the glia limitans were shown to induce the formation of the tight junctions of the endothelial cells during brain development. The in vivo experiment involved harvested rat astrocytes that were placed into the anterior chamber of a chick-eye or on the
478:
As of 2011, research is focused on the two-way communication between neurons and glial cells. Communication between these two types of cells allows for axonal conduction, synaptic transmission, as well as the processing of information to regulate and better control the processes of the central
205:
The two different classifications of glial limiting membrane, the glia limitans perivascularis and the glia limitans superficialis, have nearly identical structures, however, they can be distinguished from each other by their location within the brain. The glia limitans perivascularis abuts the
337:
The glia limitans has also proven to be important in the recovery of the CNS after injuries. When lesions are made on the brain surface, meningeal cells will divide and migrate into the lesion, eventually lining the entire injury cavity. If the injury has significantly reduced the density of
388:, specifically MMP-2 and MMP-9, are required for the penetration of the glia limitans by inflammatory cells. This is most likely due to the biochemistry of the parenchymal basement membrane and the astrocytic foot processes. MMP-2 and MMP-9 are both produced by
892:
Nakano, Imaharu; Funahashi, M; Takada, K; Toda, T (1996). "Are breaches in the glia limitans the primary cause of the micropolygyria in
Fukuyama-type congenital muscular dystrophy (FCMD)? - Pathological study of the cerebral cortex of an FCMD fetus".
29:
413:
Because the glia limitans serves such an important structural and physiological function in human beings, it is unsurprising that evolutionary precursors of the glial limiting membrane can be found in many other animals.
432:
that envelops the nervous system and exhibit the same tight occluding junctions that are induced by the glia limitans in humans. These cells act as a barrier and are responsible for establishing permeability gradients.
297:
for the release of anti-inflammatory factors. The second compartment is that of the non-immune-privileged subarachnoid, subpial, and perivascular spaces. This area is filled with pro-inflammatory factors such as
329:
The development of the long astrocyte cellular processes that are integral to the glia limitans structure has been linked to the presence of meningeal cells in the pia mater. Meningeal cells are specialized
456:. In addition to protection from the blood, these barriers are thought to exhibit local control of the microenvironment around specific neuron groups, a function required for complex nervous systems.
487:. As recently as 2002, new information on the process of neuron-glia communication was published by R. Douglas Fields and Beth Stevens-Graham. They used advanced imaging methods to explain that the
273:
or chorioallantois became impermeable to blue-albumin once they had entered the transplanted bolus of astrocytes. In the in vitro experiment, endothelial cells were first cultured alone and the
206:
perivascular space surrounding the parenchymal blood vessels and functions as a supportive constituent of the bloodâbrain barrier. In contrast, the non-parenchymal blood vessels present in the
496:
to release chemical messengers in extrasynaptic regions, suggesting that the neuron-glial relationship includes functions beyond synaptic transmission. Glia have been known to assist in
284:
The glia limitans also acts as a second line of defense against anything that passes the bloodâbrain barrier. However, because the astrocytes surrounding the vessels are connected by
363:, or small protrusions of nervous tissue. Although the underlying mechanism for the formation of these breaches is largely unknown, recent research has indicated that the protein
240:
is an important constituent of the bloodâbrain barrier. Experiments using electron-dense markers have discovered that functional components of the bloodâbrain barrier are the
448:, often seen in the composition of higher organisms. Often, the glial cells will form a seamless sheath completely around the blood space. The barrier consists of
464:
have proven that the younger subjects have thinner membranes with fewer layers of astrocytic processes while the older monkeys possess much thicker membranes.
384:(EAE) are only evident after the penetration of inflammatory cells across the glia limitans and upon entrance into the CNS parenchyma. The activity of matrix
848:
Saito Y, Murayama S, Kawai M, Nakano I (October 1999). "Breached cerebral glia limitans-basal lamina complex in
Fukuyama-type congenital muscular dystrophy".
368:
glial cells migrate through the weakened barrier resulting in the accumulation of neural tissue in the subarachnoid space. This abnormal migration, known as
381:
224:
592:"Fluids and barriers of the CNS establish immune privilege by confining immune surveillance to a two-walled castle moat surrounding the CNS castle"
281:. Then, the brain endothelial cells were cultured with astroctytes resulting in enhanced tight junctions and a reduced frequency of gap junctions.
356:
947:
825:
791:
686:
652:
539:
737:
Struckhoff, Gernot (1995). "Cocultures of
Meningeal and Astrocytic Cells- A Mode for the Formation of the Glial-Limiting Membrane".
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571:
95:
232:
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231:, shown in orange, is an important factor in the brain's immune response. Here it is seen in close association with the
158:. The glia limitans also plays an important role in regulating the movement of small molecules and cells into the
314:
211:
the superficialis, and the part that encloses the blood vessels within the brain is called the perivascularis.
167:
508:, and other chemical messenger release from glia is debated and is seen as a direction for future research.
421:
501:
163:
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formation, regulating synapse strength, and information processing as mentioned above. The process for
712:
Brightman, Milton (1991). "Implication of
Astroglia in the BloodâBrain Barrier". In Abbot, N.J. (ed.).
313:. The astrocytes of the glia limitans are believed to be the component of the brain that secretes the
1035:
983:
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288:, it is not considered part of the BBB and material can readily pass between the foot processes.
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198:(Virchow-Robin spaces). Any substance entering the central nervous system from the blood or
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128:
440:, a glial-interstitial fluid barrier is observed without the presence of tight junctions.
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order to battle the infection. The autoimmune response to EAE leads to chronic attack of
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that cause the blood vessels of the brain to exhibit none of the âleakinessâ found in
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B. Castellano LĂłpez; Bernardo
Castellano; Manuel Nieto-Sampedro (15 September 2003).
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that compose the vessel itself. These endothelial cells contain highly impermeable
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Neurocytology: fine structure of neurons, nerve processes, and neuroglial cells
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were observed in freeze-fracture replicas to be discontinuous and riddled with
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331:
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Breaches in the glia limitans-basal lamina complex have been associated with
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The fine structure of the nervous system: neurons and their supporting cells
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and axonal loss. This can ultimately result in the loss of CNS neurons.
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452:, rather than tight junctions, with clefts formed by extracellular
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Thin astrocyte membrane surrounding the brain and spinal cord
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to create the glia limitans. This membrane lies deep to the
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nervous system. The various forms of communication include
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Alan Peters; Sanford L. Palay; Henry deF. Webster (1991).
460:
the same organism. Further observations of young and old
444:
molluscs, in particular, have cerebral ganglia that have
372:, is theorized to be one of the primary causes for FCMD.
154:, the supporting cells of the nervous system, into the
641:
AlekseÇ Nestorovich
VerkhratskiÇ; Arthur Butt (2007).
523:
521:
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form a close association with the basal lamina of the
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It has been demonstrated that the clinical signs of
424:, so there are no blood vessels found within their
162:by working in concert with other components of the
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69:
64:
50:
45:
21:
357:Fukuyama-type congenital muscular dystrophy (FCMD)
33:The glia limitans (in dark blue) lies between the
534:. Oxford University Press US. pp. 303â305.
585:
583:
972:"New Insights into Neuron-Glia Communication"
716:. New York Academy of Sciences. p. 633.
707:
705:
681:. Oxford University Press. pp. 292â293.
8:
820:. Gulf Professional Publishing. p. 19.
786:. Gulf Professional Publishing. p. 18.
229:Copper/Zinc Superoxide Dismutase (Cu/Zn SOD)
970:Fields, Douglas; Stevens-Graham, B (2002).
528:Helmut Kettenmann; Bruce R. Ransom (2005).
351:Fukuyama-type congenital muscular dystrophy
491:seen in glial cells did not contribute to
269:. Permeable blood vessels from either the
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617:
607:
382:experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis
376:Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis
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359:, which is thought to be the result of
233:glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)
99:
18:
7:
428:. However, they do have a sheath of
256:elsewhere in the body. Through both
202:(CSF) must cross the glia limitans.
647:. John Wiley and Sons. p. 24.
347:glia limitans are described below.
14:
96:Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy
27:
590:Engelhardt B, Coisne C (2011).
450:zonular intercellular junctions
142:. It is the outermost layer of
644:Glial neurobiology: a textbook
1:
996:10.1126/science.298.5593.556
942:. Thieme. pp. 173â175.
751:10.1016/0736-5748(95)00040-N
566:. McGraw-Hill. p. 358.
562:Saladin, Kenneth S. (2011).
401:and neurons, which promotes
164:central nervous system (CNS)
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714:Glial-Neuronal Interaction
471:
739:Int. J. Devl Neuroscience
178:The perivascular feet of
168:bloodâbrain barrier (BBB)
94:
26:
430:perineurial glial cells
422:open circulatory system
120:, is a thin barrier of
118:glial limiting membrane
936:Ennio Pannese (1994).
502:adenosine triphosphate
236:
174:Location and structure
1041:Cellular neuroscience
907:10.1007/s004010050431
895:Acta Neuropathologica
862:10.1007/s004010051089
814:Mathias Bähr (2006).
609:10.1186/2045-8118-8-4
472:Further information:
292:Immunological barrier
227:
127:associated with the
988:2002Sci...298..556F
783:Glial cell function
596:Fluids Barriers CNS
485:signaling molecules
409:Comparative anatomy
303:complement proteins
200:cerebrospinal fluid
196:perivascular spaces
386:metalloproteinases
370:cortical dysplasia
342:Clinical relevance
237:
208:subarachnoid space
194:and surrounds the
89:nlx_subcell_100209
982:(5593): 556â562.
949:978-0-86577-456-8
827:978-0-306-47859-8
793:978-0-444-51486-8
688:978-0-19-506571-8
654:978-0-470-01564-3
541:978-0-19-515222-7
493:action potentials
483:, ion fluxes and
481:neurotransmission
392:, which surround
319:anti-inflammatory
242:endothelial cells
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220:Physical barrier
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856:(4): 330â6.
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817:Brain repair
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489:ion channels
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166:such as the
160:brain tissue
132:basal lamina
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59:Basal lamina
1036:Glial cells
436:In certain
325:Development
140:spinal cord
129:parenchymal
65:Identifiers
1030:Categories
512:References
442:Cephalopod
332:fibroblast
311:chemokines
299:antibodies
180:astrocytes
531:Neuroglia
506:glutamate
321:factors.
307:cytokines
188:pia mater
152:neuroglia
122:astrocyte
116:, or the
55:Astrocyte
35:pia mater
1014:12386325
955:25 March
878:35614560
870:10502035
833:25 March
799:25 March
767:29140815
694:25 March
660:20 March
628:21349152
602:(1): 4.
547:20 March
438:molluscs
420:have an
262:in vitro
250:arteries
215:Function
190:and the
156:meninges
83:NeuroLex
37:and the
1005:1226318
984:Bibcode
976:Science
915:8834545
759:8553894
619:3039833
504:(ATP),
498:synapse
462:monkeys
454:fibrils
426:ganglia
418:Insects
394:T cells
365:fukutin
258:in vivo
148:neurons
46:Details
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919:S2CID
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254:veins
136:brain
100:[
71:Latin
51:Parts
1010:PMID
957:2011
944:ISBN
911:PMID
866:PMID
835:2011
822:ISBN
801:2011
788:ISBN
755:PMID
718:ISBN
696:2011
683:ISBN
662:2011
649:ISBN
624:PMID
568:ISBN
549:2011
536:ISBN
317:and
315:pro-
271:iris
260:and
252:and
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
