686:. The iron in banded iron formations is partially oxidized, with roughly equal amounts of ferrous and ferric iron. Deposition of a banded iron formation requires both an anoxic deep ocean capable of transporting iron in soluble ferrous form, and an oxidized shallow ocean where the ferrous iron is oxidized to insoluble ferric iron and precipitates onto the ocean floor. The deposition of banded iron formations before 1.8 Ga suggests the ocean was in a persistent ferruginous state, but deposition was episodic and there may have been significant intervals of
2243:
8148:
2162:
40:
8560:
48:
2153:
action of ultraviolet light in the upper atmosphere and releases its hydrogen. The escape of hydrogen from the Earth into space must have oxidized the Earth because the process of hydrogen loss is chemical oxidation. This process of hydrogen escape required the generation of methane by methanogens, so that methanogens actually helped create the conditions necessary for the oxidation of the atmosphere.
8570:
2042:
oxygenated the ocean and ended banded iron formation deposition. However, improved dating of
Precambrian strata showed that the late Archean peak of deposition was spread out over tens of millions of years, rather than taking place in a very short interval of time following the evolution of oxygen-coping mechanisms. This made Cloud's hypothesis untenable.
723:, which is considered a modern model for ancient anoxic ocean basins, indicate that high DOP, a high ratio of reactive iron to total iron, and a high ratio of total iron to aluminum are all indicators of transport of iron into a euxinic environment. Ferruginous anoxic conditions can be distinguished from euxenic conditions by a DOP less than about 0.7.
2000:) that is insoluble in water, and sank to the bottom of the shallow seas to create banded iron formations. It took 50 million years or longer to deplete the oxygen sinks. The rate of photosynthesis and associated rate of organic burial also affect the rate of oxygen accumulation. When land plants spread over the continents in the
2046:
photosynthesisers over the course of the GOE. More recently, families of bacteria have been discovered that closely resemble cyanobacteria but show no indication of ever having possessed photosynthetic capability. These may be descended from the earliest ancestors of cyanobacteria, which only later acquired photosynthetic ability by
1908:
formation continued to be deposited until around 1.85 Ga. Given the rapid multiplication rate of cyanobacteria under ideal conditions, an explanation is needed for the delay of at least 400 million years between the evolution of oxygen-producing photosynthesis and the appearance of significant oxygen in the atmosphere.
1912:
organic carbon and does not accumulate. The burial of organic carbon, sulfide, and minerals containing ferrous iron (Fe) is a primary factor in oxygen accumulation. When organic carbon is buried without being oxidized, the oxygen is left in the atmosphere. In total, the burial of organic carbon and pyrite today creates
690:. The transition from deposition of banded iron formations to manganese oxides in some strata has been considered a key tipping point in the timing of the GOE because it is believed to indicate the escape of significant molecular oxygen into the atmosphere in the absence of ferrous iron as a reducing agent.
2598:, even under thick ice. By inference, these organisms could have adapted to oxygen even before oxygen accumulated in the atmosphere. The evolution of such oxygen-dependent organisms eventually established an equilibrium in the availability of oxygen, which became a major constituent of the atmosphere.
2178:
lies in these deposits. It was assumed oxygen released from cyanobacteria resulted in the chemical reactions that created rust, but it appears the iron formations were caused by anoxygenic phototrophic iron-oxidizing bacteria, which does not require oxygen. Evidence suggests oxygen levels spiked each
759:
MIF provides clues to the Great
Oxygenation Event. For example, oxidation of manganese in surface rocks by atmospheric oxygen leads to further reactions that oxidize chromium. The heavier Cr is oxidized preferentially over the lighter Cr, and the soluble oxidized chromium carried into the ocean shows
726:
The currently available evidence suggests that the deep ocean remained anoxic and ferruginous as late as 580 Ma, well after the Great
Oxygenation Event, remaining just short of euxenic during much of this interval of time. Deposition of banded iron formation ceased when conditions of local euxenia on
718:
Examples of such indicators of anoxic conditions include the degree of pyritization (DOP), which is the ratio of iron present as pyrite to the total reactive iron. Reactive iron, in turn, is defined as iron found in oxides and oxyhydroxides, carbonates, and reduced sulfur minerals such as pyrites, in
2212:
Cyanobacteria tend to consume nearly as much oxygen at night as they produce during the day. However, experiments demonstrate that cyanobacterial mats produce a greater excess of oxygen with longer photoperiods. The rotational period of the Earth was only about six hours shortly after its formation
2152:
is the main key of GOE. Hydrogen and methane released from metamorphic processes are also lost from Earth's atmosphere over time and leave the crust oxidized. Scientists realized that hydrogen would escape into space through a process called methane photolysis, in which methane decomposes under the
2143:
In contrast to the increasing flux hypothesis, there are several hypotheses that attempt to use decrease of sinks to explain the GOE. One theory suggests increasing lacustrine organic carbon burial as a cause; with more reduced carbon being buried, there was less of it for free oxygen to react with
2108:
cooled and the supply of volcanic nickel dwindled, oxygen-producing algae began to outperform methane producers, and the oxygen percentage of the atmosphere steadily increased. From 2.7 to 2.4 Ga the rate of deposition of nickel declined steadily from a level 400 times that of today. This
2063:
Another possibility is that early cyanobacteria were starved for vital nutrients, and this checked their growth. However, a lack of the scarcest nutrients, iron, nitrogen, and phosphorus, could have slowed but not prevented a cyanobacteria population explosion and rapid oxygenation. The explanation
2169:
One hypothesis suggests that the oxygen increase had to await tectonically driven changes in the Earth, including the appearance of shelf seas, where reduced organic carbon could reach the sediments and be buried. The burial of reduced carbon as graphite or diamond around subduction zones released
2251:
The increased oxygen concentrations provided a new opportunity for biological diversification, as well as tremendous changes in the nature of chemical interactions between rocks, sand, clay, and other geological substrates and the Earth's air, oceans, and other surface waters. Despite the natural
2217:
but increased to 21 hours by 2.4 Ga in the
Paleoproterozoic. The rotational period increased again, starting 700 million years ago, to its present value of 24 hours. The total amount of oxygen produced by the cyanobacteria remained the same with longer days, but the longer the
764:
after the GOE. However, the chromium data may conflict with the sulfur isotope data, which calls the reliability of the chromium data into question. It is also possible that oxygen was present earlier only in localized "oxygen oases". Since chromium is not easily dissolved, its release from rocks
422:, meanwhile, was present in the atmosphere at just 0.001% of its present atmospheric level. The Sun shone at about 70% of its current brightness 4 billion years ago, but there is strong evidence that liquid water existed on Earth at the time. A warm Earth, in spite of a faint Sun, is known as the
818:
in
Western Australia, are associated with cyanobacteria, and thus fossil stromatolites had long been interpreted as the evidence for cyanobacteria. However, it has increasingly been inferred that at least some of these Archaean fossils were generated abiotically or produced by non-cyanobacterial
1911:
Hypotheses to explain this gap must take into consideration the balance between oxygen sources and oxygen sinks. Oxygenic photosynthesis produces organic carbon that must be segregated from oxygen to allow oxygen accumulation in the surface environment, otherwise the oxygen back-reacts with the
2134:
One hypothesis argues that the GOE was the immediate result of photosynthesis, although the majority of scientists suggest that a long-term increase of oxygen is more likely. Several model results show possibilities of long-term increase of carbon burial, but the conclusions are indeterminate.
2041:
to form banded iron formation. He interpreted the great peak in deposition of banded iron formation at the end of the
Archean as the signature for the evolution of mechanisms for living with oxygen. This ended self-poisoning and produced a population explosion in the cyanobacteria that rapidly
755:
that would have shielded the lower atmosphere from UV radiation. The disappearance of the MIF signature for sulfur indicates the formation of such an ozone shield as oxygen began to accumulate in the atmosphere. MIF of sulphur also indicates the presence of oxygen in that oxygen is required to
1907:
The ability to generate oxygen via photosynthesis likely first appeared in the ancestors of cyanobacteria. These organisms evolved at least 2.45–2.32 Ga and probably as early as 2.7 Ga or earlier. However, oxygen remained scarce in the atmosphere until around 2.0 Ga, and banded iron
710:
had not yet evolved during the time frame of the Great
Oxygenation Event. Thus laminated black shale by itself is a poor indicator of oxygen levels. Scientists must look instead for geochemical evidence of anoxic conditions. These include ferruginous anoxia, in which dissolved ferrous iron is
842:
are diagenetic products of sterols, which are biosynthesized using molecular oxygen. Thus, steranes can additionally serve as an indicator of oxygen in the atmosphere. However, these biomarker samples have since been shown to have been contaminated, and so the results are no longer accepted.
2045:
Most modern interpretations describe the GOE as a long, protracted process that took place over hundreds of millions of years rather than a single abrupt event, with the quantity of atmospheric oxygen fluctuating in relation to the capacity of oxygen sinks and the productivity of oxygenic
742:
Different isotopes of a chemical element have slightly different atomic masses. Most of the differences in geochemistry between isotopes of the same element scale with this mass difference. These include small differences in molecular velocities and diffusion rates, which are described as
2659:
However, other authors express scepticism that the GOE resulted in widespread eukaryotic diversification due to the lack of robust evidence, concluding that the oxygenation of the oceans and atmosphere does not necessarily lead to increases in ecological and physiological diversity.
2284:, with many elements occurring in one or more oxidized forms near the Earth's surface. It is estimated that the GOE was directly responsible for deposition of more than 2,500 of the total of about 4,500 minerals found on Earth today. Most of these new minerals were formed as
2109:
nickel famine was somewhat buffered by an uptick in sulfide weathering at the start of the GOE that brought some nickel to the oceans, without which methanogenic organisms would have declined in abundance more precipitously, plunging Earth into even more severe and long-lasting
7827:
Kreitsmann, T.; Lepland, A.; Bau, M.; Prave, A.; Paiste, K.; Mänd, K.; et al. (September 2020). "Oxygenated conditions in the aftermath of the
Lomagundi-Jatuli event: The carbon isotope and rare earth element signatures of the Paleoproterozoic Zaonega formation, Russia".
658:
that are coated with hematite. The occurrence of red beds indicates that there was sufficient oxygen to oxidize iron to its ferric state, and these represent a marked contrast to sandstones deposited under anoxic conditions which are often beige, white, grey, or green.
2173:
The newly produced oxygen was first consumed in various chemical reactions in the oceans, primarily with iron. Evidence is found in older rocks that contain massive banded iron formations apparently laid down as this iron and oxygen first combined; most present-day
719:
contrast with iron tightly bound in silicate minerals. A DOP near zero indicates oxidizing conditions, while a DOP near 1 indicates euxinic conditions. Values of 0.3 to 0.5 are transitional, suggesting anoxic bottom mud under an oxygenated ocean. Studies of the
2656:. Thus the evolution of eukaryotic sex and eukaryogenesis were likely inseparable processes that evolved in large part to facilitate DNA repair. The evolution of mitochondria, which are well suited for oxygenated environments, may have occurred during the GOE.
646:. Detrital grains composed of pyrite, siderite, and uraninite (redox-sensitive detrital minerals) are found in sediments older than ca. 2.4 Ga. These minerals are only stable under low oxygen conditions, and so their occurrence as detrital minerals in
2651:
from these humble beginnings. Selective pressure for efficient DNA repair of oxidative DNA damage may have driven the evolution of eukaryotic sex involving such features as cell-cell fusions, cytoskeleton-mediated chromosome movements and emergence of the
2054:
data, the evolution of oxygen-producing photosynthesis may have occurred much later than previously thought, at around 2.5 Ga. This reduces the gap between the evolution of oxygen photosynthesis and the appearance of significant atmospheric oxygen.
760:
this enhancement of the heavier isotope. The chromium isotope ratio in banded iron formation suggests small but significant quantities of oxygen in the atmosphere before the Great
Oxidation Event, and a brief return to low oxygen abundance 500
578:
Constraining the onset of atmospheric oxygenation has proven particularly challenging for geologists and geochemists. While there is a widespread consensus that initial oxygenation of the atmosphere happened sometime during the first half of the
571:, and an oxygenated ocean blocks such transport by oxidizing the iron to form insoluble ferric iron compounds. The end of the deposition of banded iron formation at 1.85 Ga is therefore interpreted as marking the oxygenation of the deep ocean.
2606:
It has been proposed that a local rise in oxygen levels due to cyanobacterial photosynthesis in ancient microenvironments was highly toxic to the surrounding biota, and that this selective pressure drove the evolutionary transformation of an
583:, there is disagreement on the exact timing of this event. Scientific publications between 2016–2022 have differed in the inferred timing of the onset of atmospheric oxygenation by approximately 500 million years; estimates of 2.7
4843:
Konhauser, Kurt O.; Lalonde, Stefan V.; Planavsky, Noah J.; Pecoits, Ernesto; Lyons, Timothy W.; Mojzsis, Stephen J.; et al. (October 2011). "Aerobic bacterial pyrite oxidation and acid rock drainage during the Great
Oxidation Event".
5135:
3832:
3406:
3191:
3122:
2234:(a strong greenhouse gas) to carbon dioxide (a weaker one) and water. This weakened the greenhouse effect of the Earth's atmosphere, causing planetary cooling, which has been proposed to have triggered a series of ice ages known as the
252:, due in part to the great difficulty in surveying microscopic organisms' abundances, and in part to the extreme age of fossil remains from that time, the Great Oxidation Event is typically not counted among conventional lists of "
2036:
through its rapid removal via the high levels of reduced ferrous iron, Fe(II), in the early ocean. He suggested that the oxygen released by photosynthesis oxidized the Fe(II) to ferric iron, Fe(III), which precipitated out of the
4280:
Hofmann, Axel; Bekker, Andrey; Rouxel, Olivier; Rumble, Doug; Master, Sharad (September 2009). "Multiple sulphur and iron isotope composition of detrital pyrite in Archaean sedimentary rocks: A new tool for provenance analysis".
2195:
of oxygen concentration. The state of stable low oxygen concentration (0.02%) experiences a high rate of methane oxidation. If some event raises oxygen levels beyond a moderate threshold, the formation of an ozone layer shields
2170:
molecular oxygen into the atmosphere. The appearance of oxidised magmas enriched in sulphur formed around subduction zones confirms changes in tectonic regime played an important role in the oxygenation of Earth's atmosphere.
743:
mass-dependent fractionation processes. By contrast, MIF describes processes that are not proportional to the difference in mass between isotopes. The only such process likely to be significant in the geochemistry of sulfur is
4542:
Scholz, Florian; Severmann, Silke; McManus, James; Noffke, Anna; Lomnitz, Ulrike; Hensen, Christian (December 2014). "On the isotope composition of reactive iron in marine sediments: Redox shuttle versus early diagenesis".
5976:
Konhauser, Kurt O.; Pecoits, Ernesto; Lalonde, Stefan V.; Papineau, Dominic; Nisbet, Euan G.; Barley, Mark E.; et al. (April 2009). "Oceanic nickel depletion and a methanogen famine before the Great Oxidation Event".
4986:
6084:
Peng, Peng; Liu, Xu; Feng, Lianjun; Zhou, Xiqiang; Kuang, Hongwei; Liu, Yongqing; Kang, Jianli; Wang, Xinping; Wang, Chong; Dai, Ke; Wang, Huichu; Li, Jianrong; Miao, Peisen; Guo, Jinghui; Zhai, Mingguo (March 2023).
739:(MIF) of sulfur. The chemical signature of the MIF of sulfur is found prior to 2.4–2.3 Ga but disappears thereafter. The presence of this signature all but eliminates the possibility of an oxygenated atmosphere.
2789:
2688:
period. During the Lomagundi-Jatuli event, oxygen amounts in the atmosphere reached similar heights to modern levels, before returning to low levels during the following stage, which caused the deposition of
2125:
Another hypothesis posits that a number of large igneous provinces (LIPs) were emplaced during the GOE and fertilised the oceans with limiting nutrients, facilitating and sustaining cyanobacterial blooms.
7638:
Mänd, Kaarel; Lalonde, Stefan V.; Robbins, Leslie J.; Thoby, Marie; Paiste, Kärt; Kreitsmann, Timmu; et al. (April 2020). "Palaeoproterozoic oxygenated oceans following the Lomagundi–Jatuli Event".
2264:
evolved after the GOE, giving organisms the energy to exploit new, more complex morphologies interacting in increasingly complex ecosystems, although these did not appear until the late Proterozoic and
4328:
Eriksson, Patrick G.; Cheney, Eric S. (January 1992). "Evidence for the transition to an oxygen-rich atmosphere during the evolution of red beds in the lower proterozoic sequences of southern Africa".
2724:– Earth history between 1.8~0.8 billion years ago, characterized by tectonic stability, climatic stasis, and a slow biological evolution with very low oxygen levels and no evidence of glaciation
7692:
Van Kranendonk, Martin J. (2012). "16: A chronostratigraphic division of the Precambrian: Possibilities and challenges". In Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G.; Schmitz, Mark D.; Ogg, abi M. (eds.).
547:, all minerals containing reduced forms of iron or uranium that are not found in younger sediments because they are rapidly oxidized in an oxidizing atmosphere. He further observed that continental
527:
The current scientific understanding of when and how the Earth's atmosphere changed from a weakly reducing to a strongly oxidizing atmosphere largely began with the work of the American geologist
5461:
Dutkiewicz, A.; Volk, H.; George, S.C.; Ridley, J.; Buick, R. (2006). "Biomarkers from Huronian oil-bearing fluid inclusions: An uncontaminated record of life before the Great Oxidation Event".
2179:
time smaller land masses collided to form a super-continent. Tectonic pressure thrust up mountain chains, which eroded releasing nutrients into the ocean that fed photosynthetic cyanobacteria.
4505:
Lyons, Timothy W.; Anbar, Ariel D.; Severmann, Silke; Scott, Clint; Gill, Benjamin C. (May 2009). "Tracking Euxinia in the Ancient Ocean: A Multiproxy Perspective and Proterozoic Case Study".
6233:
Krissansen-Totton, J.; Buick, R.; Catling, D.C. (1 April 2015). "A statistical analysis of the carbon isotope record from the Archean to Phanerozoic and implications for the rise of oxygen".
1973:
per year today oxidizes reduced gases in the atmosphere through photochemical reaction. On the early Earth, there was visibly very little oxidative weathering of continents (e.g., a lack of
814:, which are interpreted as colonies of microbes, including cyanobacteria, with characteristic layered structures. Modern stromatolites, which can only be seen in harsh environments such as
682:
and hematite). Extensive deposits of this rock type are found around the world, almost all of which are more than 1.85 billion years old and most of which were deposited around 2.5
516:. Such an atmosphere contains practically no oxygen. The modern atmosphere contains abundant oxygen (nearly 21%), making it an oxidizing atmosphere. The rise in oxygen is attributed to
5558:
2064:
for the delay in the oxygenation of the atmosphere following the evolution of oxygen-producing photosynthesis likely lies in the presence of various oxygen sinks on the young Earth.
2668:
The rise in oxygen content was not linear: instead, there was a rise in oxygen content around 2.3 Ga, followed by a drop around 2.1 Ga. This rise in oxygen is called the
751:
shows that UV radiation was penetrating deep into the Earth's atmosphere. This in turn rules out an atmosphere containing more than traces of oxygen, which would have produced an
642:, detrital grains, and red beds are evidence of low oxygen levels. Paleosols (fossil soils) older than 2.4 billion years old have low iron concentrations that suggest anoxic
747:. This is the process in which a molecule containing sulfur is broken up by solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation. The presence of a clear MIF signature for sulfur prior to 2.4
1961:
per year today goes to the sinks composed of reduced minerals and gases from volcanoes, metamorphism, percolating seawater and heat vents from the seafloor. On the other hand,
2028:
Preston Cloud originally proposed that the first cyanobacteria had evolved the capacity to carry out oxygen-producing photosynthesis but had not yet evolved enzymes (such as
4189:
Utsunomiya, Satoshi; Murakami, Takashi; Nakada, Masami; Kasama, Takeshi (January 2003). "Iron oxidation state of a 2.45 Byr-old paleosol developed on mafic volcanics".
587:, 2.501–2.434 Ga 2.501–2.225 Ga, 2.460–2.426 Ga, 2.430 Ga, 2.33 Ga, and 2.3 Ga have been given. Factors limiting calculations include an incomplete
8609:
6182:
des Marais, David J.; Strauss, Harald; Summons, Roger E.; Hayes, J.M. (October 1992). "Carbon isotope evidence for the stepwise oxidation of the Proterozoic environment".
2594:, Antarctica, scientists found that mats of oxygen-producing cyanobacteria produced a thin layer, one to two millimeters thick, of oxygenated water in an otherwise
619:), this is rarely quantified when considering geochemical records and may therefore lead to uncertainties for scientists studying the timing of atmospheric oxygenation.
2012:
molecule spends in the air before it is consumed by geological sinks is about 2 million years. That residence time is relatively short in geologic time; so in the
6714:
8487:
5037:
4507:
4634:
3738:
Cox, Grant M.; Halverson, Galen P.; Minarik, William G.; Le Heron, Daniel P.; Macdonald, Francis A.; Bellefroid, Eric J.; Strauss, Justin V. (December 2013).
2996:
Sosa Torres, Martha E.; Saucedo-Vázquez, Juan P.; Kroneck, Peter M.H. (2015). "The Magic of Dioxygen". In Kroneck, Peter M.H.; Sosa Torres, Martha E. (eds.).
1937:
The rate of change of oxygen can be calculated from the difference between global sources and sinks. The oxygen sinks include reduced gases and minerals from
7932:
887:
777:) which may have formed through bacterial oxidation of pyrite. This could provide some of the earliest evidence of oxygen-breathing life on land surfaces.
4365:
Trendall, A.F.; Blockley, J.G. (2004). "Precambrian iron-formation". In Eriksson, P.G.; Altermann, W.; Nelson, D.R.; Mueller, W.U.; Catuneanu, O. (eds.).
3649:
Baumgartner, Raphael J.; Van Kranendonk, Martin J.; Wacey, David; Fiorentini, Marco L.; Saunders, Martin; Caruso, Stefano; et al. (1 November 2019).
8544:
834:. For example, traces of 2α-methylhopanes and steranes that are thought to be derived from cyanobacteria and eukaryotes, respectively, were found in the
8321:
7885:
2929:
Gumsley, Ashley P.; Chamberlain, Kevin R.; Bleeker, Wouter; Söderlund, Ulf; De Kock, Michiel O.; Larsson, Emilie R.; Bekker, Andrey (6 February 2017).
2200:
rays and decreases methane oxidation, raising oxygen further to a stable state of 21% or more. The Great Oxygenation Event can then be understood as a
8369:
563:
largely disappears from the geological record at 1.85 Ga, after peaking at about 2.5 Ga. Banded iron formation can form only when abundant dissolved
2693:(rocks that contain large amounts of organic matter that would otherwise have been burned away by oxygen). This drop in oxygen levels is called the
8331:
4689:
Frei, R.; Gaucher, C.; Poulton, S.W.; Canfield, D.E. (2009). "Fluctuations in Precambrian atmospheric oxygenation recorded by chromium isotopes".
917:
8316:
6939:
Bekker, Andrey (2014). "Huronian glaciation". In Amils, Ricardo; Gargaud, Muriel; Cernicharo Quintanilla, José; Cleaves, Henderson James (eds.).
5660:
Anbar, A.; Duan, Y.; Lyons, T.; Arnold, G.; Kendall, B.; Creaser, R.; et al. (2007). "A whiff of oxygen before the great oxidation event?".
654:
sediments are widely interpreted as evidence of an anoxic atmosphere. In contrast to redox-sensitive detrital minerals are red beds, red-colored
8471:
7032:
8429:
8311:
5129:
French, Katherine L.; Hallmann, Christian; Hope, Janet M.; Schoon, Petra L.; Zumberge, J. Alex; Hoshino, Yosuke; et al. (27 April 2015).
802:
While the GOE is generally thought to be a result of oxygenic photosynthesis by ancestral cyanobacteria, the presence of cyanobacteria in the
7709:
7365:
6956:
4386:
4173:
3719:
3400:
Zhang, Shuichang; Wang, Xiaomei; Wang, Huajian; Bjerrum, Christian J.; Hammarlund, Emma U.; Costa, M. Mafalda; et al. (4 January 2016).
3013:
2875:
Lyons, Timothy W.; Reinhard, Christopher T.; Planavsky, Noah J. (February 2014). "The rise of oxygen in Earth's early ocean and atmosphere".
7727:"A review of temporal constraints for the Palaeoproterozoic large, positive carbonate carbon isotope excursion (the Lomagundi–Jatuli Event)"
4089:
Ostrander, Chadlin M.; Heard, Andy W.; Shu, Yunchao; Bekker, Andrey; Poulton, Simon W.; Olesen, Kasper P.; Nielsen, Sune G. (11 July 2024).
8069:
7895:
3037:
Ossa Ossa, Frantz; Spangenberg, Jorge E.; Bekker, Andrey; König, Stephan; Stüeken, Eva E.; Hofmann, Axel; et al. (15 September 2022).
7775:"C–O isotope geochemistry of the Dashiqiao magnesite belt, North China Craton: Implications for the Great Oxidation Event and ore genesis"
7381:
Mänd, Kaarel; Planavsky, Noah J.; Porter, Susannah M.; Robbins, Leslie J.; Wang, Changle; Kreitsmann, Timmu; et al. (15 April 2022).
4405:
Canfield, Donald E.; Poulton, Simon W. (1 April 2011). "Ferruginous Conditions: A Dominant Feature of the Ocean through Earth's History".
7441:"Earth's surface oxygenation and the rise of eukaryotic life: Relationships to the Lomagundi positive carbon isotope excursion revisited"
6592:
Meng, Xuyang; Simon, Adam C.; Kleinsasser, Jackie M.; Mole, David R.; Kontak, Daniel J.; Jugo, Peter J.; et al. (28 November 2022).
3091:
806:
before the GOE is a highly controversial topic. Structures that are claimed to be fossils of cyanobacteria exist in rock formed 3.5
8614:
8502:
8251:
7387:
4283:
3826:
Warke, Matthew R.; Di Rocco, Tommaso; Zerkle, Aubrey L.; Lepland, Aivo; Prave, Anthony R.; Martin, Adam P.; et al. (16 June 2020).
3043:
2256:, life had remained energetically limited until the widespread availability of oxygen. The availability of oxygen greatly increased the
706:
conditions. However, the deposition of abundant organic matter is not a sure indication of anoxia, and burrowing organisms that destroy
8629:
8624:
8424:
846:
Carbonaceous microfossils from the Turee Creek Group of Western Australia, which date back to ~2.45–2.21 Ga, have been interpreted as
3260:
Crockford, Peter W.; Kunzmann, Marcus; Bekker, Andrey; Hayles, Justin; Bao, Huiming; Halverson, Galen P.; et al. (20 May 2019).
1977:), and so the weathering sink on oxygen would have been negligible compared to that from reduced gases and dissolved iron in oceans.
8389:
3583:
2854:
5954:
8523:
8492:
7925:
7439:
Fakhraee, Mojtaba; Tarhan, Lidya G.; Reinhard, Christopher T.; Crowe, Sean A.; Lyons, Timothy W.; Planavsky, Noah J. (May 2023).
2727:
1624:
31:
3947:
Poulton, Simon W.; Bekker, Andrey; Cumming, Vivien M.; Zerkle, Aubrey L.; Canfield, Donald E.; Johnston, David T. (April 2021).
1984:
sinks. Free oxygen produced during this time was chemically captured by dissolved iron, converting iron Fe and Fe to magnetite (
199:
one containing abundant free oxygen, with oxygen levels being as high as 10% of modern atmospheric level by the end of the GOE.
8301:
8198:
7484:"Precambrian sedimentary carbonates: carbon and oxygen isotope geochemistry and implications for the terrestrial oxygen budget"
6135:"Palaeoproterozoic ice houses and the evolution of oxygen-mediating enzymes: the case for a late origin of photosystem II"
5294:
4191:
3650:
3785:
Large, Ross R.; Hazen, Robert M.; Morrison, Shaunna M.; Gregory, Dan D.; Steadman, Jeffrey A.; Mukherjee, Indrani (May 2022).
8178:
2648:
1684:
1482:
736:
2144:
in the atmosphere and oceans, enabling its buildup. A different theory suggests that the composition of the volatiles from
8528:
5586:
3356:"Mass-Independent Fractionation of Sulfur Isotopes in Archean Sediments: Strong Evidence for an Anoxic Archean Atmosphere"
2110:
6795:
Claire, M.W.; Catling, D.C.; Zahnle, K.J. (December 2006). "Biogeochemical modelling of the rise in atmospheric oxygen".
6722:
627:
Evidence for the Great Oxidation Event is provided by a variety of petrological and geochemical markers that define this
8359:
6282:
2733:
1542:
575:
further elaborated these ideas through the 1980s, placing the main time interval of oxygenation between 2.2 and 1.9 Ga.
7170:
3187:"Evolution of multicellularity coincided with increased diversification of cyanobacteria and the Great Oxidation Event"
8444:
7918:
5770:
Catling, David C.; Claire, Mark W. (August 2005). "How Earth's atmosphere evolved to an oxic state: A status report".
2242:
1158:
910:
2842:
7348:
Bernstein, Harris; Bernstein, Carol (2017). "Sexual communication in Archaea, the precursor to eukaryotic meiosis".
5711:
Dahl, T.W.; Hammarlund, E.U.; Anbar, A.D.; Bond, D.P.G.; Gill, B.C.; Gordon, G.W.; et al. (30 September 2010).
3116:
Hodgskiss, Malcolm S. W.; Crockford, Peter W.; Peng, Yongbo; Wing, Boswell A.; Horner, Tristan J. (27 August 2019).
1945:
and weathering. The GOE started after these oxygen-sink fluxes and reduced-gas fluxes were exceeded by the flux of O
850:. Their presence suggests a minimum threshold of seawater oxygen content had been reached by this interval of time.
8619:
8092:
6375:
Catling, D.C. (3 August 2001). "Biogenic Methane, Hydrogen Escape, and the Irreversible Oxidation of Early Earth".
4157:
647:
2627:) to drive selection in an early archaeal lineage towards eukaryosis. This archaeal ancestor may already have had
2032:) for living in an oxygenated environment. These cyanobacteria would have been protected from their own poisonous
59:. Red and green lines represent the range of the estimates while time is measured in billions of years ago (Ga).
8594:
8434:
6087:"Rhyacian intermittent large igneous provinces sustained Great Oxidation Event: Evidence from North China craton"
5713:"Devonian rise in atmospheric oxygen correlated to the radiations of terrestrial plants and large predatory fish"
2257:
1785:
1502:
241:
7113:
Sverjensky, Dimitri A.; Lee, Namhey (1 February 2010). "The Great Oxidation Event and Mineral Diversification".
8466:
8458:
8354:
8306:
8062:
6974:"The Paleoproterozoic snowball Earth: A climate disaster triggered by the evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis"
6744:
Goldblatt, C.; Lenton, T.M.; Watson, A.J. (2006). "Bistability of atmospheric oxygen and the Great Oxidation".
4633:
Fakhraee, Mojtaba; Hancisse, Olivier; Canfield, Donald Eugene; Crowe, Sean A.; Katsev, Sergei (22 April 2019).
4440:
Lantink, Margriet L.; Oonk, Paul B. H.; Floor, Geerke H.; Tsikos, Harilaos; Mason, Paul R. D. (February 2018).
2632:
1462:
1126:
568:
7576:"A molecular timescale for eukaryote evolution with implications for the origin of red algal-derived plastids"
4022:
Luo, Genming; Ono, Shuhei; Beukes, Nicolas J.; Wang, David T.; Xie, Shucheng; Summons, Roger E. (6 May 2016).
3185:
Schirrmeister, Bettina E.; de Vos, Jurriaan M.; Antonelli, Alexandre; Bagheri, Homayoun C. (29 January 2013).
616:
2730:– A second major increase in Earth's oxygen levels that occurred between around 850 and 540 million years ago
858:
Some elements in marine sediments are sensitive to different levels of oxygen in the environment such as the
8599:
8404:
6332:
Spinks, Samuel C.; Parnell, John; Bowden, Stephen A.; Taylor, Ross A.D.; Maclean, Màiri E. (December 2014).
6028:
Wang, Shui-Jiong; Rudnick, Roberta L.; Gaschnig, Richard M.; Wang, Hao; Wasylenki, Laura E. (4 March 2019).
5382:"The evolutionary diversification of cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic and paleontological perspectives"
5199:"Iron mineralization and taphonomy of microfossils of the 2.45–2.21 Ga Turee Creek Group, Western Australia"
2751:
2620:
2101:
2033:
847:
780:
Other elements whose MIF may provide clues to the GOE include carbon, nitrogen, transitional metals such as
423:
245:
8271:
8223:
7726:
6921:
4441:
2623:(ROS) might have acted in synergy with other environmental stresses (such as ultraviolet radiation and/or
1896:
1522:
1190:
903:
611:. While the effects of an incomplete geological record have been discussed and quantified in the field of
8573:
7522:
7483:
7148:
3651:"Nano−porous pyrite and organic matter in 3.5 billion-year-old stromatolites record primordial life"
727:
continental platforms and shelves began precipitating iron out of upwelling ferruginous water as pyrite.
8228:
8117:
8107:
7731:
7445:
6693:
6654:
6091:
5900:
5563:
5032:
2757:
2635:, and possibly some kind of cell fusion mechanism. The detrimental effects of internal ROS (produced by
2047:
1871:
797:
667:
560:
8394:
5288:
Stüeken, E.E.; Buick, R.; Bekker, A.; Catling, D.; Foriel, J.; Guy, B.M.; et al. (1 August 2015).
4892:
3740:"Neoproterozoic iron formation: An evaluation of its temporal, environmental and tectonic significance"
143:
56:
6890:(2 August 2021). "'Totally new' idea suggests longer days on early Earth set stage for complex life".
5603:
Holland, Heinrich D. (November 2002). "Volcanic gases, black smokers, and the great oxidation event".
3702:
Trendall, A. F. (2002). "The Significance of Iron-Formation in the Precambrian Stratigraphic Record".
3261:
8497:
8266:
8256:
8213:
7837:
7786:
7740:
7648:
7587:
7534:
7495:
7454:
7396:
7182:
7122:
7067:
6985:
6851:
6804:
6753:
6663:
6607:
6548:
6500:
6441:
6384:
6338:
6334:"Enhanced organic carbon burial in large Proterozoic lakes: Implications for atmospheric oxygenation"
6291:
6242:
6191:
6100:
6043:
5986:
5912:
5874:
5817:
5779:
5724:
5669:
5612:
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5470:
5393:
5303:
5254:
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5203:
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4855:
4700:
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4455:
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4339:
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3665:
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3415:
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3200:
3131:
3052:
2942:
2884:
2029:
1142:
707:
608:
370:
261:
181:
7169:
Sumner, Dawn Y.; Hawes, Ian; Mackey, Tyler J.; Jungblut, Anne D.; Doran, Peter T. (1 October 2015).
8563:
8326:
8208:
8203:
8193:
8112:
8055:
6648:
Köhler, Inga; Konhauser, Kurt O.; Papineau, Dominic; Bekker, Andrey; Kappler, Andreas (June 2013).
5081:
2235:
2231:
2114:
1644:
1603:
513:
386:
380:
315:
311:
192:
6278:"Mechanisms and climatic-ecological effects of the Great Oxidation Event in the early Proterozoic"
3900:"A prolonged, two-step oxygenation of Earth's early atmosphere: Support from confidence intervals"
7863:
7802:
7773:
Tang, Hao-Shu; Chen, Yan-Jing; Santosh, M.; Zhong, Hong; Wu, Guang; Lai, Yong (28 January 2013).
7674:
7382:
7220:
7208:
6903:
6869:
6820:
6777:
6650:"Biological carbon precursor to diagenetic siderite with spherical structures in iron formations"
6623:
6467:
6408:
6333:
6307:
6258:
6215:
6086:
6059:
6010:
5936:
5833:
5693:
5642:
5580:
5270:
5198:
5197:
Fadel, Alexandre; Lepot, Kevin; Busigny, Vincent; Addad, Ahmed; Troadec, David (September 2017).
4879:
4825:
4775:
4724:
4664:
4615:
4004:
3929:
3767:
3681:
3631:
3504:
3308:
3240:
2908:
1765:
1664:
1562:
615:
for several decades, particularly with respect to the evolution and extinction of organisms (the
600:
532:
4442:"Fe isotopes of a 2.4 Ga hematite-rich IF constrain marine redox conditions around the GOE"
3355:
39:
6277:
3307:
Crockford, Peter W.; bar On, Yinon M.; Ward, Luce M.; Milo, Ron; Halevy, Itay (November 2023).
8533:
8419:
8409:
8162:
8122:
7705:
7615:
7361:
7330:
7278:
7095:
7013:
6952:
6887:
6769:
6681:
6598:
6574:
6539:
6535:"Great Oxidation and Lomagundi events linked by deep cycling and enhanced degassing of carbon"
6491:
6459:
6400:
6207:
6164:
6034:
6002:
5928:
5841:
5752:
5685:
5539:
5421:
5362:
5333:"Origin and Evolution of Water Oxidation before the Last Common Ancestor of the Cyanobacteria"
5172:
5111:
5086:
5062:
5013:
4959:
4941:
4871:
4817:
4767:
4716:
4639:
4607:
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4262:
4169:
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3996:
3988:
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2850:
2816:
2677:
2275:
744:
434:
4229:
Johnson, Jena E.; Gerpheide, Aya; Lamb, Michael P.; Fischer, Woodward W. (27 February 2014).
298:. The continually produced oxygen eventually depleted all the surface reducing capacity from
8538:
8286:
8261:
8218:
8188:
8137:
8132:
7954:
7853:
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6671:
6615:
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6508:
6449:
6432:
6392:
6347:
6299:
6276:
Luo, Genming; Zhu, Xiangkun; Wang, Shuijiong; Zhang, Shihong; Jiao, Chaoqun (22 June 2022).
6250:
6199:
6154:
6146:
6108:
6051:
5994:
5920:
5882:
5825:
5787:
5783:
5742:
5732:
5677:
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5529:
5519:
5478:
5411:
5401:
5352:
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5311:
5262:
5220:
5162:
5152:
5103:
5054:
5003:
4995:
4949:
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4748:
4708:
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4347:
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4254:
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3367:
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3208:
3157:
3139:
3070:
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3001:
2968:
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2892:
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2798:
2739:
2653:
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2289:
2201:
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2105:
859:
712:
628:
604:
580:
572:
376:
307:
253:
229:
207:
203:
136:
7774:
5808:
Cloud, Preston E. (1968). "Atmospheric and Hydrospheric Evolution on the Primitive Earth".
5266:
4528:
8604:
8246:
8183:
7959:
5290:"The evolution of the global selenium cycle: Secular trends in Se isotopes and abundances"
5245:
Anbar, Ariel D.; Rouxel, Olivier (May 2007). "Metal Stable Isotopes in Paleoceanography".
2712:
It has been hypothesized that eukaryotes first evolved during the Lomagundi-Jatuli event.
2293:
2051:
1745:
1246:
675:
588:
494:
366:
265:
249:
6487:"Rise of Earth's atmospheric oxygen controlled by efficient subduction of organic carbon"
2226:
Eventually, oxygen started to accumulate in the atmosphere, with two major consequences.
67:
in the atmosphere. The oceans were also largely anoxic – with the possible exception of O
7841:
7790:
7744:
7652:
7591:
7538:
7499:
7458:
7186:
7126:
7071:
6989:
6855:
6808:
6757:
6667:
6611:
6552:
6504:
6445:
6388:
6295:
6246:
6195:
6104:
6047:
5990:
5916:
5878:
5821:
5728:
5673:
5616:
5515:
5474:
5397:
5307:
5258:
5216:
5148:
5099:
5058:
5050:
4929:
4859:
4704:
4652:
4595:
4580:
Farquhar, J. (4 August 2000). "Atmospheric Influence of Earth's Earliest Sulfur Cycle".
4558:
4520:
4459:
4418:
4343:
4250:
4204:
4041:
3966:
3845:
3802:
3755:
3669:
3544:
3419:
3324:
3277:
3204:
3135:
2998:
Sustaining Life on Planet Earth: Metalloenzymes Mastering Dioxygen and Other Chewy Gases
2946:
2888:
810:. These include microfossils of supposedly cyanobacterial cells and macrofossils called
78:
produced, rising to values of 0.02 and 0.04 atm, but absorbed in oceans and seabed rock.
8399:
8374:
7964:
7701:
7610:
7575:
7523:"Carbon isotope geochemistry of the Precambrian Lomagundi carbonate province, Rhodesia"
7325:
7300:
7273:
7246:
7090:
7055:
7008:
6973:
6569:
6534:
6159:
6134:
5747:
5712:
5534:
5497:
5416:
5381:
5357:
5332:
5167:
5080:
Brocks, Jochen J.; Logan, Graham A.; Buick, Roger; Summons, Roger E. (13 August 1999).
5008:
4981:
4954:
4913:
4635:"Proterozoic seawater sulfate scarcity and the evolution of ocean–atmosphere chemistry"
4066:
4023:
3872:
3827:
3575:
3438:
3223:
3186:
3162:
3117:
3039:"Moderate levels of oxygenation during the late stage of Earth's Great Oxidation Event"
2973:
2930:
2811:
2784:
2721:
2706:
2253:
2081:
2073:
869:. Non-metal elements such as selenium and iodine are also indicators of oxygen levels.
517:
438:
401:
334:
188:
89:
of the oceans, but is absorbed by land surfaces. No significant change in oxygen level.
17:
7725:
Martin, Adam P.; Condon, Daniel J.; Prave, Anthony R.; Lepland, Aivo (December 2013).
5624:
4378:
4212:
3739:
2709:. Oceans seem to have stayed rich in oxygen for some time even after the event ended.
2148:
was more oxidized. Another theory suggests that the decrease of metamorphic gases and
735:
Some of the most persuasive evidence for the Great Oxidation Event is provided by the
607:, and uncertainties related to the interpretation of different geological/geochemical
457:, which is a powerful greenhouse gas and was produced by early forms of life known as
8588:
8276:
8127:
8102:
7890:
7867:
7806:
7678:
7546:
7507:
7051:
6907:
6873:
6816:
6627:
6593:
6311:
6063:
6014:
5862:
5439:
5274:
5130:
4883:
4829:
4779:
4668:
4351:
4090:
4008:
3948:
3933:
3685:
3635:
3401:
2834:
2745:
2640:
2595:
2377:
1826:
766:
703:
528:
521:
354:
327:
319:
280:
7849:
7752:
7467:
7440:
7212:
6948:
6824:
6471:
6412:
6351:
6262:
6112:
6029:
5940:
5697:
5224:
4619:
4467:
3771:
3508:
8518:
8097:
6781:
6219:
4728:
3531:
Shaw, George H. (August 2008). "Earth's atmosphere – Hadean to early Proterozoic".
2912:
2838:
2763:
2702:
2636:
2591:
2577:
2261:
2192:
2149:
2145:
1942:
1704:
1442:
878:
827:
811:
612:
596:
342:
338:
299:
237:
151:
139:
6838:
Klatt, J.M.; Chennu, A.; Arbic, B.K.; Biddanda, B.A.; Dick, G.J. (2 August 2021).
5524:
5107:
4813:
4566:
3763:
3285:
2742: – The hypothesis that multicellular life may be self-destructive or suicidal
6972:
Kopp, Robert E.; Kirschvink, Joseph L.; Hilburn, Isaac A.; Nash, Cody Z. (2005).
6030:"Methanogenesis sustained by sulfide weathering during the Great Oxidation Event"
5829:
4603:
3811:
3786:
3552:
2736:– Timeline of the development of free oxygen in the Earth's oceans and atmosphere
8379:
8364:
8147:
7941:
7574:
Strassert, Jürgen F.H.; Irisarri, Iker; Williams, Tom A.; Burki, Fabien (2021).
7357:
5886:
5559:"Photosynthesis originated a billion years earlier than we thought, study shows"
3005:
3000:. Metal Ions in Life Sciences volume 15. Vol. 15. Springer. pp. 1–12.
2690:
2624:
2197:
2188:
2093:
2089:
2013:
1388:
1350:
752:
651:
458:
284:
257:
222:
147:
47:
7600:
7408:
7171:"Antarctic microbial mats: A modern analog for Archean lacustrine oxygen oases"
7060:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
6978:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
6864:
6839:
6619:
5791:
5136:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
4426:
4304:
4108:
3974:
3833:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3407:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3371:
3192:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3123:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3065:
3038:
2935:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2766: – Layered sedimentary structure formed by the growth of bacteria or algae
2760:– Hypothesis that complex extraterrestrial life is an extremely rare phenomenon
2260:
available to living organisms, with global environmental impacts. For example,
411:, which are also the predominant nitrogen-and-carbon-bearing gases produced by
314:
over nearly a billion years. The oxidative environmental change, compounded by
8078:
8026:
7989:
7660:
7560:
7134:
6560:
6303:
6055:
5316:
5289:
4660:
3711:
3332:
2628:
2440:
2413:
2350:
2280:
The Great Oxygenation Event triggered an explosive growth in the diversity of
2214:
1724:
862:
807:
781:
761:
748:
683:
643:
592:
584:
461:. Scientists continue to research how the Earth was warmed before life arose.
346:
323:
295:
218:
157:. This began approximately 2.460–2.426 Ga (billion years) ago during the
86:
5066:
4945:
4266:
4116:
4057:
3992:
3925:
3863:
3492:
3293:
3153:
2964:
8384:
8031:
8000:
7984:
7080:
6998:
6899:
6396:
5924:
5737:
5681:
5406:
5348:
5157:
3854:
3619:
3428:
3213:
3144:
2955:
2612:
2422:
2332:
2080:, an important trap for molecular oxygen, since methane readily oxidizes to
2038:
1234:
1174:
831:
823:
815:
720:
679:
655:
552:
540:
524:, which are thought to have evolved as early as 3.5 billion years ago.
412:
350:
288:
269:
214:
196:
185:
169:
and chemical evidence suggests that biologically produced molecular oxygen (
7619:
7334:
7316:
7282:
7263:
7099:
7017:
6773:
6685:
6578:
6486:
6463:
6404:
6211:
6168:
6150:
6139:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
6006:
5932:
5756:
5689:
5543:
5425:
5366:
5176:
5115:
5017:
4999:
4963:
4937:
4875:
4821:
4771:
4720:
4611:
4075:
4049:
4000:
3881:
3627:
3500:
3447:
3379:
3340:
3232:
3171:
3023:
2982:
2904:
2820:
2802:
7383:"Chromium evidence for protracted oxygenation during the Paleoproterozoic"
6594:"Formation of oxidized sulfur-rich magmas in Neoarchaean subduction zones"
5845:
4165:
3262:"Claypool continued: Extending the isotopic record of sedimentary sulfate"
8439:
8414:
8005:
7979:
7974:
3606:
Wiechert, U. H. (20 December 2002). "GEOLOGY: Earth's Early Atmosphere".
2685:
2681:
2404:
2395:
2368:
2359:
2341:
2285:
2175:
2001:
1974:
1806:
1255:
1237:
785:
639:
556:
548:
544:
502:
390:
273:
211:
162:
158:
6765:
5998:
4867:
4712:
3828:"The Great Oxidation Event preceded a Paleoproterozoic "snowball Earth""
3787:"Evidence that the GOE was a prolonged event with a peak around 1900 Ma"
2896:
1949:
associated with the burial of reductants, such as organic carbon. About
8010:
7858:
7669:
7417:
7203:
6676:
6649:
6254:
5837:
5502:
4476:
4373:. Developments in Precambrian Geology. Vol. 12. pp. 359–511.
3983:
3075:
2608:
2431:
2386:
2281:
2077:
1938:
1322:
1289:
866:
839:
835:
803:
687:
564:
442:
233:
226:
178:
166:
4987:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
8021:
7194:
6512:
6203:
5865:(1973). "Paleoecological Significance of the Banded Iron-Formation".
5482:
5031:
Bosak, Tanja; Knoll, Andrew H.; Petroff, Alexander P. (30 May 2013).
4313:
4258:
4091:"Onset of coupled atmosphere–ocean oxygenation 2.3 billion years ago"
4024:"Rapid oxygenation of Earth's atmosphere 2.33 billion years ago"
3917:
3677:
3566:
Kasting, J.F. (2014). "Modeling the Archean Atmosphere and Climate".
2644:
2097:
2016:, there must have been feedback processes that kept the atmospheric O
1299:
1271:
536:
331:
303:
170:
154:
7798:
6454:
6427:
4762:
4743:
2790:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society: Biological Sciences
822:
Additionally, Archaean sedimentary rocks were once found to contain
4230:
3899:
2701:. Evidence for the event has been found globally in places such as
830:, interpreted as fossilized membrane lipids from cyanobacteria and
7910:
3402:"Sufficient oxygen for animal respiration 1,400 million years ago"
2241:
2187:
Another hypothesis posits a model of the atmosphere that exhibits
2160:
1919:
1851:
1206:
699:
671:
292:
132:
46:
38:
7521:
Schidlowski, Manfred; Eichmann, Rudolf; Junge, Christian (1976).
7482:
Schidlowski, Manfred; Eichmann, Rudolf; Junge, Christian (1975).
7247:"Uniting sex and eukaryote origins in an emerging oxygenic world"
202:
The appearance of highly reactive free oxygen, which can oxidize
30:
For the second (Neoproterozoic) surge in atmospheric oxygen, see
4235:
constraints from Paleoproterozoic detrital pyrite and uraninite"
1280:
268:
have been interpreted to indicate a decrease in the size of the
8051:
7914:
7221:"Oxygen oasis in Antarctic lake reflects Earth in distant past"
4893:"Evidence of Earliest Oxygen-Breathing Life on Land Discovered"
3949:"A 200-million-year delay in permanent atmospheric oxygenation"
559:, began to appear in the geological record at about this time.
535:
sediments older than about 2 billion years contained grains of
4742:
Lyons, Timothy W.; Reinhard, Christopher T. (September 2009).
3898:
Hodgskiss, Malcolm S.W.; Sperling, Erik A. (20 October 2021).
1888:
1847:
882:
8047:
6840:"Possible link between Earth's rotation rate and oxygenation"
5643:"Great Oxidation Event: More oxygen through multicellularity"
3241:"Great Oxidation Event: More oxygen through multicellularity"
2754:– Hypothesis that early photosynthesis reflected purple light
702:, rich in organic matter, are often regarded as a marker for
5636:
5634:
5082:"Archean Molecular Fossils and the Early Rise of Eukaryotes"
3479:
Kasting, J. (12 February 1993). "Earth's early atmosphere".
2004:, more organic carbon was buried and likely allowed higher O
161:
period and ended approximately 2.060 Ga ago during the
433:
levels were much higher at the time, providing enough of a
5498:"Early Archean origin of heterodimeric Photosystem I"
5331:
Cardona, T.; Murray, J. W.; Rutherford, A. W. (May 2015).
4796:
Kerr, R. A. (17 June 2005). "Earth Science: The Story of O
2849:. California: University of California Press. p. 99.
389:
is not known with certainty. However, the bulk was likely
6533:
Eguchi, James; Seales, Johnny; Dasgupta, Rajdeep (2019).
6133:
Kirschvink, Joseph L.; Kopp, Robert E. (27 August 2008).
2218:
day, the more time oxygen has to diffuse into the water.
7886:"First breath: Earth's billion-year struggle for oxygen"
7056:"Oxygen, ecology, and the Cambrian radiation of animals"
7033:"First breath: Earth's billion-year struggle for oxygen"
6426:
Lenton, T.M.; Schellnhuber, H.J.; Szathmáry, E. (2004).
5131:"Reappraisal of hydrocarbon biomarkers in Archean rocks"
3118:"A productivity collapse to end Earth's Great Oxidation"
248:). Although the event is inferred to have constituted a
7696:(1st ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 359–365.
2748: – Switch from fermentation to aerobic respiration
2165:
2.1-billion-year-old rock showing banded iron formation
4154:
Atmospheric Evolution on Inhabited and Lifeless Worlds
2847:
Microcosmos: Four Billion Years of Microbial Evolution
6485:
Duncan, Megan S.; Dasgupta, Rajdeep (25 April 2017).
4912:
Catling, David C.; Zahnle, Kevin J. (February 2020).
2924:
2922:
5955:"Breathing Easy Thanks to the Great Oxidation Event"
8511:
8480:
8457:
8342:
8294:
8285:
8237:
8171:
8155:
8085:
4500:
4498:
4496:
4494:
7050:Sperling, Erik; Frieder, Christina; Raman, Akkur;
6370:
6368:
2008:levels to occur. Today, the average time that an O
287:-based photosynthesis that releases dioxygen as a
5903:(31 March 2017). "How Cyanobacteria went green".
3893:
3891:
3733:
3731:
765:requires the presence of a powerful acid such as
415:today. These are relatively inert gases. Oxygen,
150:first experienced a rise in the concentration of
96:reservoirs filled; gas accumulates in atmosphere.
6922:"Longer days likely bosted Earth's early oxygen"
4400:
4398:
3697:
3695:
3601:
3599:
3597:
3595:
3474:
3472:
3470:
3468:
3466:
3464:
7294:
7292:
7240:
7238:
7236:
5717:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
5598:
5596:
4224:
4222:
4147:
4145:
4143:
4141:
4139:
4137:
4135:
4133:
2931:"Timing and tempo of the Great Oxidation Event"
2870:
2868:
2866:
2684:; it is currently considered to be part of the
2238:, bracketing an age range of 2.45–2.22 Ga.
8488:International Union for Conservation of Nature
5567:. Archived from the original on 1 October 2020
4975:
4973:
3309:"The geologic history of primary productivity"
2785:"The oxygenation of the atmosphere and oceans"
2020:level within bounds suitable for animal life.
756:facilitate repeated redox cycling of sulphur.
8063:
7926:
6715:"Abundant Oxygen Indirectly Due to Tectonics"
5857:
5855:
5803:
5801:
5247:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
5038:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
4508:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
4152:Catling, David C.; Kasting, James F. (2017).
911:
8:
7633:
7631:
7629:
7054:; Levin, Lisa; Knoll, Andrew (August 2013).
6943:. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 1–8.
4791:
4789:
3526:
3524:
3522:
3520:
3518:
27:Paleoproterozoic surge in atmospheric oxygen
7245:Gross, J.; Bhattacharya, D. (August 2010).
4367:Evolution of the Hydrosphere and Atmosphere
3354:Pavlov, A.A.; Kasting, J.F. (5 July 2004).
2204:from the lower to the upper steady states.
670:are composed of thin alternating layers of
591:for the Paleoproterozoic (e.g., because of
551:, which get their color from the oxidized (
322:around the Earth's surface. The subsequent
279:The GOE is inferred to have been caused by
92:Stages 4 and 5 (0.85 Ga – present): Other O
8545:The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History
8291:
8070:
8056:
8048:
7950:
7933:
7919:
7911:
6694:"Iron in primeval seas rusted by bacteria"
918:
904:
441:were present. The most likely such gas is
225:of many early organisms on Earth – mostly
191:, and eventually changed it from a weakly
8610:Events in the geological history of Earth
7857:
7668:
7609:
7599:
7466:
7416:
7324:
7272:
7262:
7202:
7164:
7162:
7089:
7079:
7007:
6997:
6863:
6675:
6568:
6453:
6158:
5746:
5736:
5533:
5523:
5415:
5405:
5356:
5315:
5166:
5156:
5007:
4953:
4761:
4475:
4312:
4065:
3982:
3871:
3853:
3810:
3437:
3427:
3222:
3212:
3161:
3143:
3074:
3064:
2972:
2954:
2810:
784:and iron, and non-metal elements such as
7301:"How oxygen gave rise to eukaryotic sex"
5641:University of Zurich (17 January 2013).
1996:
508:
489:
481:
474:
467:
429:
418:
407:
396:
63:Stage 1 (3.85–2.45 Ga): Practically no O
2775:
2246:Timeline of glaciations, shown in blue.
256:", which are implicitly limited to the
210:) and thus is toxic to the then-mostly
7299:Hörandl E, Speijer D (February 2018).
5578:
5267:10.1146/annurev.earth.34.031405.125029
4529:10.1146/annurev.earth.36.031207.124233
4239:Geological Society of America Bulletin
2680:) and the time period has been termed
2113:conditions than those seen during the
1980:Dissolved iron in oceans exemplifies O
272:of >80% associated with changes in
1934:flux from the global oxygen sources.
195:practically devoid of oxygen into an
7:
8569:
6361:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
6122:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
5234:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
3704:Precambrian Sedimentary Environments
2783:Holland, Heinrich D. (19 May 2006).
2631:mechanisms based on DNA pairing and
1860:
1836:
1815:
1795:
1774:
1754:
1734:
1713:
1693:
1673:
1653:
1633:
1613:
1592:
1572:
1551:
1531:
1511:
1491:
1471:
1451:
1431:
8503:Voluntary Human Extinction Movement
8252:Extinction risk from climate change
7388:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
5772:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
5059:10.1146/annurev-earth-042711-105327
4980:Schopf, J. William (29 June 2006).
4371:Developments in Precambrian Geology
4284:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
3044:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
2843:"Chapter 6, "The Oxygen Holocaust""
7702:10.1016/B978-0-444-59425-9.00016-0
7227:(Press release). 1 September 2015.
6428:"Climbing the co-evolution ladder"
4982:"Fossil evidence of Archaean life"
3576:10.1016/b978-0-08-095975-7.01306-1
2288:and oxidized forms due to dynamic
531:in the 1970s. Cloud observed that
25:
5557:Howard, Victoria (7 March 2018).
3247:(Press release). 17 January 2013.
131:, was a time interval during the
8568:
8559:
8558:
8524:Decline in amphibian populations
8493:IUCN Species Survival Commission
8146:
6817:10.1111/j.1472-4669.2006.00084.x
5496:Caredona, Tanai (6 March 2018).
2728:Neoproterozoic oxygenation event
711:abundant, and euxinia, in which
276:supplies at the end of the GOE.
32:Neoproterozoic oxygenation event
8199:Human impact on the environment
7894:. No. 2746. Archived from
7850:10.1016/j.precamres.2020.105855
7753:10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.10.006
7527:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
7468:10.1016/j.earscirev.2023.104398
6949:10.1007/978-3-642-27833-4_742-4
6352:10.1016/j.precamres.2014.09.026
6113:10.1016/j.earscirev.2023.104352
5605:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
5337:Molecular Biology and Evolution
5295:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
5225:10.1016/j.precamres.2017.07.003
4891:Wynne Parry (25 October 2011).
4468:10.1016/j.precamres.2017.12.025
4192:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
2088:) and water in the presence of
177:) started to accumulate in the
8179:Climate variability and change
7884:Lane, Nick (5 February 2010).
7031:Lane, Nick (5 February 2010).
5440:"Cyanobacteria: Fossil record"
5380:Tomitani, Akiko (April 2006).
5033:"The Meaning of Stromatolites"
3570:. Elsevier. pp. 157–175.
1930:per year. This creates a net O
737:mass-independent fractionation
345:) may have led to the rise of
1:
8529:Decline in insect populations
8472:IUCN Red List extinct species
5625:10.1016/s0016-7037(02)00950-x
5525:10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00548
5108:10.1126/science.285.5430.1033
4814:10.1126/science.308.5729.1730
4744:"Oxygen for heavy-metal fans"
4567:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2014.09.009
4379:10.1016/S0166-2635(04)80007-0
4213:10.1016/s0016-7037(02)01083-9
3791:Geosystems and Geoenvironment
3764:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2013.08.002
3286:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2019.02.030
349:organisms and the subsequent
7694:The geologic time scale 2012
7547:10.1016/0016-7037(76)90010-7
7508:10.1016/0301-9268(75)90018-2
6941:Encyclopedia of Astrobiology
6283:Science China Earth Sciences
5830:10.1126/science.160.3829.729
4604:10.1126/science.289.5480.756
4352:10.1016/0301-9268(92)90073-w
3812:10.1016/j.geogeo.2022.100036
3553:10.1016/j.chemer.2008.05.001
3090:Plait, Phil (28 July 2014).
2734:Geological history of oxygen
437:to warm the Earth, or other
7358:10.1007/978-3-319-65536-9_7
7350:Biocommunication of Archaea
6235:American Journal of Science
5887:10.2113/gsecongeo.68.7.1135
3006:10.1007/978-3-319-12415-5_1
2676:, (named for a district of
2222:Consequences of oxygenation
1645:Earliest multicellular life
512:) is described as a weakly
387:Earth's earliest atmosphere
8646:
8615:Evolution of the biosphere
8093:Background extinction rate
7601:10.1038/s41467-021-22044-z
7409:10.1016/j.epsl.2022.117501
6865:10.1038/s41561-021-00784-3
6620:10.1038/s41561-022-01071-5
5792:10.1016/j.epsl.2005.06.013
4427:10.2113/gselements.7.2.107
4305:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.07.008
4158:Cambridge University Press
4109:10.1038/s41586-024-07551-5
3975:10.1038/s41586-021-03393-7
3372:10.1089/153110702753621321
3066:10.1016/j.epsl.2022.117716
2697:Shunga-Francevillian event
2317:End of Huronian glaciation
2273:
876:
795:
374:
364:
29:
8630:Meteorological hypotheses
8625:Mass extinction timelines
8554:
8415:End-Jurassic or Tithonian
8144:
7948:
7661:10.1038/s41561-020-0558-5
7135:10.2113/gselements.6.1.31
6561:10.1038/s41561-019-0492-6
6304:10.1007/s11430-021-9934-y
6056:10.1038/s41561-019-0320-z
5585:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
5317:10.1016/j.gca.2015.04.033
4661:10.1038/s41561-019-0351-5
3712:10.1002/9781444304312.ch3
3333:10.1016/j.cub.2023.09.040
2590:In field studies done in
1884:
896:
885:
715:is present in the water.
567:iron is transported into
326:of surviving archaea via
242:anoxygenic photosynthesis
81:Stage 3 (1.85–0.85 Ga): O
74:Stage 2 (2.45–1.85 Ga): O
8467:Lists of extinct species
4914:"The Archean atmosphere"
3568:Treatise on Geochemistry
3493:10.1126/science.11536547
2649:evolution of meiotic sex
2647:could have promoted the
2619:involving production of
2074:chemosynthetic organisms
1071:−1000 —
1051:−1500 —
1031:−2000 —
1011:−2500 —
991:−3000 —
971:−3500 —
951:−4000 —
931:−4500 —
674:(a fine-grained form of
7401:2022E&PSL.58417501M
7149:"Evolution of Minerals"
7081:10.1073/pnas.1312778110
6999:10.1073/pnas.0504878102
6900:10.1126/science.abl7415
6397:10.1126/science.1061976
5925:10.1126/science.aam9365
5784:2005E&PSL.237....1C
5738:10.1073/pnas.1011287107
5682:10.1126/science.1140325
5407:10.1073/pnas.0600999103
5158:10.1073/pnas.1419563112
4297:2009E&PSL.286..436H
3855:10.1073/pnas.2003090117
3620:10.1126/science.1079894
3429:10.1073/pnas.1523449113
3214:10.1073/pnas.1209927110
3145:10.1073/pnas.1900325116
3057:2022E&PSL.59417716O
2956:10.1073/pnas.1608824114
2752:Purple Earth hypothesis
2621:reactive oxygen species
2611:lineage into the first
2586:Cyanobacteria evolution
2270:Mineral diversification
2230:Oxygen likely oxidized
2121:Large igneous provinces
1091:−500 —
848:iron-oxidising bacteria
819:phototrophic bacteria.
424:faint young Sun paradox
385:The composition of the
246:Purple Earth hypothesis
113:Great Oxygenation Event
18:Great oxygenation event
8272:Latent extinction risk
7317:10.1098/rspb.2017.2706
7264:10.1186/1745-6150-5-53
6713:American, Scientific.
6151:10.1098/rstb.2008.0024
5901:Blankenship, Robert E.
5000:10.1098/rstb.2006.1834
4938:10.1126/sciadv.aax1420
4050:10.1126/sciadv.1600134
2803:10.1098/rstb.2006.1838
2670:Lomagundi-Jatuli event
2664:Lomagundi-Jatuli event
2247:
2208:Increasing photoperiod
2166:
838:of Western Australia.
792:Fossils and biomarkers
668:Banded iron formations
635:Continental indicators
478:with trace amounts of
236:to use green-spectrum
217:, may have caused the
100:
71:in the shallow oceans.
44:
8229:Paradox of enrichment
8118:Functional extinction
8108:Ecological extinction
7732:Earth-Science Reviews
7446:Earth-Science Reviews
6655:Nature Communications
6092:Earth-Science Reviews
5957:. Scientific American
5564:Astrobiology Magazine
5349:10.1093/molbev/msv024
4166:10.1017/9781139020558
2758:Rare Earth hypothesis
2245:
2164:
2048:lateral gene transfer
798:Biomarker (petroleum)
663:Banded iron formation
561:Banded iron formation
105:Great Oxidation Event
50:
42:
8498:Extinction Rebellion
8440:Pliocene–Pleistocene
8322:Cretaceous–Paleogene
8267:Hypothetical species
8257:Extinction threshold
8214:Overabundant species
7955:Paleoproterozoic Era
7830:Precambrian Research
7488:Precambrian Research
7352:. pp. 103–117.
6339:Precambrian Research
5204:Precambrian Research
4447:Precambrian Research
4331:Precambrian Research
3319:(21): 4741–4750.e5.
2602:Origin of eukaryotes
2030:superoxide dismutase
599:), uncertainties in
371:Prebiotic atmosphere
262:isotope geochemistry
240:and power a form of
182:prebiotic atmosphere
8425:Cenomanian-Turonian
8370:Cambrian–Ordovician
8302:Ordovician–Silurian
8209:Mutational meltdown
8194:Habitat destruction
8113:Extinct in the wild
7960:Mesoproterozoic Era
7842:2020PreR..34705855K
7791:2013GeolJ..48..467T
7745:2013ESRv..127..242M
7653:2020NatGe..13..302M
7592:2021NatCo..12.1879S
7539:1976GeCoA..40..449S
7500:1975PreR....2....1S
7459:2023ESRv..24004398F
7187:2015Geo....43..887S
7153:Scientific American
7127:2010Eleme...6...31S
7072:2013PNAS..11013446S
7066:(33): 13446–13451.
6990:2005PNAS..10211131K
6984:(32): 11131–11136.
6928:. 3 September 2021.
6856:2021NatGe..14..564K
6809:2006Gbio....4..239C
6766:10.1038/nature05169
6758:2006Natur.443..683G
6719:Scientific American
6668:2013NatCo...4.1741K
6612:2022NatGe..15.1064M
6553:2020NatGe..13...71E
6505:2017NatGe..10..387D
6446:2004Natur.431..913L
6389:2001Sci...293..839C
6296:2022ScChD..65.1646L
6247:2015AmJS..315..275K
6196:1992Natur.359..605M
6145:(1504): 2755–2765.
6105:2023ESRv..23804352P
6048:2019NatGe..12..296W
5999:10.1038/nature07858
5991:2009Natur.458..750K
5917:2017Sci...355.1372B
5911:(6332): 1372–1373.
5879:1973EcGeo..68.1135C
5822:1968Sci...160..729C
5729:2010PNAS..10717911D
5723:(42): 17911–17915.
5674:2007Sci...317.1903A
5668:(5846): 1903–1906.
5617:2002GeCoA..66.3811H
5516:2018Heliy...400548C
5475:2006Geo....34..437D
5442:. Ucmp.berkeley.edu
5398:2006PNAS..103.5442T
5308:2015GeCoA.162..109S
5259:2007AREPS..35..717A
5217:2017PreR..298..530F
5149:2015PNAS..112.5915F
5100:1999Sci...285.1033B
5094:(5430): 1033–1036.
5051:2013AREPS..41...21B
4930:2020SciA....6.1420C
4868:10.1038/nature10511
4860:2011Natur.478..369K
4808:(5729): 1730–1732.
4713:10.1038/nature08266
4705:2009Natur.461..250F
4653:2019NatGe..12..375F
4596:2000Sci...289..756F
4559:2014ChGeo.389...48S
4521:2009AREPS..37..507L
4460:2018PreR..305..218L
4419:2011Eleme...7..107P
4344:1992PreR...54..257E
4251:2014GSAB..126..813J
4205:2003GeCoA..67..213U
4042:2016SciA....2E0134L
3967:2021Natur.592..232P
3846:2020PNAS..11713314W
3840:(24): 13314–13320.
3803:2022GsGe....100036L
3756:2013ChGeo.362..232C
3670:2019Geo....47.1039B
3614:(5602): 2341–2342.
3545:2008ChEG...68..235S
3420:2016PNAS..113.1731Z
3325:2023CBio...33E4741C
3278:2019ChGeo.513..200C
3205:2013PNAS..110.1791S
3136:2019PNAS..11617207H
3130:(35): 17207–17212.
2947:2017PNAS..114.1811G
2897:10.1038/nature13068
2889:2014Natur.506..307L
2576:Million years ago.
2236:Huronian glaciation
2232:atmospheric methane
2115:Huronian glaciation
2024:Evolution by stages
1924:(1 Tmol = 10 moles)
1625:Sexual reproduction
1604:Huronian glaciation
678:) and iron oxides (
623:Geological evidence
617:Signor–Lipps effect
569:depositional basins
514:reducing atmosphere
381:Atmosphere of Earth
316:a global glaciation
312:atmospheric methane
193:reducing atmosphere
7965:Neoproterozoic Era
7779:Geological Journal
7311:(1872): 20172706.
6888:Pennisi, Elizabeth
6677:10.1038/ncomms2770
6255:10.2475/04.2015.01
3706:. pp. 33–66.
2643:) on the archaeal
2596:anoxic environment
2248:
2167:
1872:Quaternary ice age
1807:Earliest tetrapods
1766:Cambrian explosion
1725:Cryogenian ice age
1584:Atmospheric oxygen
1563:Pongola glaciation
1191:Multicellular life
1143:Single-celled life
589:sedimentary record
260:eon. In any case,
144:Earth's atmosphere
117:Oxygen Catastrophe
115:, also called the
101:
57:Earth's atmosphere
45:
8620:Extinction events
8582:
8581:
8534:Extinction symbol
8453:
8452:
8317:Triassic–Jurassic
8287:Extinction events
8163:Extinction vortex
8123:Genetic pollution
8045:
8044:
8040:
8039:
7898:on 6 January 2011
7711:978-0-44-459425-9
7641:Nature Geoscience
7367:978-3-319-65535-2
6958:978-3-642-27833-4
6844:Nature Geoscience
6752:(7112): 683–686.
6725:on 28 August 2018
6599:Nature Geoscience
6540:Nature Geoscience
6492:Nature Geoscience
6383:(5531): 839–843.
6190:(6396): 605–609.
6035:Nature Geoscience
5985:(7239): 750–753.
5816:(3829): 729–736.
5611:(21): 3811–3826.
5392:(14): 5442–5447.
5143:(19): 5915–5920.
4994:(1470): 869–885.
4854:(7369): 369–373.
4756:(7261): 179–180.
4699:(7261): 250–253.
4640:Nature Geoscience
4590:(5480): 756–758.
4388:978-0-444-51506-3
4175:978-1-139-02055-8
4103:(8020): 335–339.
3961:(7853): 232–236.
3721:978-1-4443-0431-2
3664:(11): 1039–1043.
3487:(5097): 920–926.
3092:"Poisoned Planet"
3015:978-3-319-12414-8
2883:(7488): 307–315.
2797:(1470): 903–915.
2678:Southern Rhodesia
2276:Mineral evolution
1905:
1904:
1889:million years ago
1880:
1879:
1859:
1858:
1835:
1834:
1814:
1813:
1794:
1793:
1786:Andean glaciation
1773:
1772:
1753:
1752:
1733:
1732:
1712:
1711:
1692:
1691:
1672:
1671:
1652:
1651:
1632:
1631:
1612:
1611:
1591:
1590:
1571:
1570:
1550:
1549:
1530:
1529:
1510:
1509:
1490:
1489:
1470:
1469:
1450:
1449:
860:transition metals
745:photodissociation
605:sedimentary units
603:for many ancient
601:depositional ages
464:An atmosphere of
435:greenhouse effect
318:, devastated the
254:great extinctions
208:genetic materials
204:organic compounds
121:Oxygen Revolution
16:(Redirected from
8637:
8595:Paleoproterozoic
8572:
8571:
8562:
8561:
8539:Human extinction
8430:Eocene–Oligocene
8312:Permian–Triassic
8292:
8262:Field of Bullets
8219:Overexploitation
8204:Muller's ratchet
8189:Invasive species
8150:
8138:Pseudoextinction
8133:Local extinction
8072:
8065:
8058:
8049:
7951:
7935:
7928:
7921:
7912:
7907:
7905:
7903:
7872:
7871:
7861:
7824:
7818:
7817:
7815:
7813:
7770:
7764:
7763:
7761:
7759:
7722:
7716:
7715:
7689:
7683:
7682:
7672:
7635:
7624:
7623:
7613:
7603:
7571:
7565:
7564:
7557:
7551:
7550:
7518:
7512:
7511:
7479:
7473:
7472:
7470:
7436:
7430:
7429:
7427:
7425:
7420:
7378:
7372:
7371:
7345:
7339:
7338:
7328:
7296:
7287:
7286:
7276:
7266:
7242:
7231:
7228:
7216:
7206:
7195:10.1130/G36966.1
7166:
7157:
7156:
7145:
7139:
7138:
7110:
7104:
7103:
7093:
7083:
7047:
7041:
7040:
7039:. No. 2746.
7028:
7022:
7021:
7011:
7001:
6969:
6963:
6962:
6936:
6930:
6929:
6918:
6912:
6911:
6884:
6878:
6877:
6867:
6835:
6829:
6828:
6792:
6786:
6785:
6741:
6735:
6734:
6732:
6730:
6721:. Archived from
6710:
6704:
6701:
6700:. 25 April 2013.
6689:
6679:
6645:
6639:
6638:
6636:
6634:
6606:(1): 1064–1070.
6589:
6583:
6582:
6572:
6530:
6524:
6523:
6521:
6519:
6513:10.1038/ngeo2939
6482:
6476:
6475:
6457:
6423:
6417:
6416:
6372:
6363:
6362:
6360:
6358:
6329:
6323:
6322:
6320:
6318:
6290:(9): 1646–1672.
6273:
6267:
6266:
6230:
6224:
6223:
6204:10.1038/359605a0
6179:
6173:
6172:
6162:
6130:
6124:
6123:
6121:
6119:
6081:
6075:
6074:
6072:
6070:
6025:
6019:
6018:
5973:
5967:
5966:
5964:
5962:
5951:
5945:
5944:
5897:
5891:
5890:
5873:(7): 1135–1143.
5867:Economic Geology
5859:
5850:
5849:
5805:
5796:
5795:
5767:
5761:
5760:
5750:
5740:
5708:
5702:
5701:
5657:
5651:
5650:
5638:
5629:
5628:
5600:
5591:
5590:
5584:
5576:
5574:
5572:
5554:
5548:
5547:
5537:
5527:
5493:
5487:
5486:
5483:10.1130/G22360.1
5458:
5452:
5451:
5449:
5447:
5436:
5430:
5429:
5419:
5409:
5377:
5371:
5370:
5360:
5343:(5): 1310–1328.
5328:
5322:
5321:
5319:
5285:
5279:
5278:
5242:
5236:
5235:
5233:
5231:
5194:
5188:
5187:
5185:
5183:
5170:
5160:
5126:
5120:
5119:
5077:
5071:
5070:
5028:
5022:
5021:
5011:
4977:
4968:
4967:
4957:
4918:Science Advances
4909:
4903:
4900:
4887:
4840:
4834:
4833:
4793:
4784:
4783:
4765:
4739:
4733:
4732:
4686:
4680:
4679:
4677:
4675:
4630:
4624:
4623:
4577:
4571:
4570:
4546:Chemical Geology
4539:
4533:
4532:
4502:
4489:
4488:
4486:
4484:
4479:
4437:
4431:
4430:
4402:
4393:
4392:
4362:
4356:
4355:
4338:(2–4): 257–269.
4325:
4319:
4318:
4316:
4291:(3–4): 436–445.
4277:
4271:
4270:
4259:10.1130/b30949.1
4245:(5–6): 813–830.
4226:
4217:
4216:
4186:
4180:
4179:
4149:
4128:
4127:
4125:
4123:
4086:
4080:
4079:
4069:
4029:Science Advances
4019:
4013:
4012:
3986:
3944:
3938:
3937:
3918:10.1130/g49385.1
3895:
3886:
3885:
3875:
3857:
3823:
3817:
3816:
3814:
3782:
3776:
3775:
3744:Chemical Geology
3735:
3726:
3725:
3699:
3690:
3689:
3678:10.1130/G46365.1
3655:
3646:
3640:
3639:
3603:
3590:
3589:
3563:
3557:
3556:
3528:
3513:
3512:
3476:
3459:
3458:
3456:
3454:
3441:
3431:
3414:(7): 1731–1736.
3397:
3391:
3390:
3388:
3386:
3351:
3345:
3344:
3304:
3298:
3297:
3266:Chemical Geology
3257:
3251:
3248:
3236:
3226:
3216:
3199:(5): 1791–1796.
3182:
3176:
3175:
3165:
3147:
3113:
3107:
3106:
3104:
3102:
3087:
3081:
3080:
3078:
3068:
3034:
3028:
3027:
2993:
2987:
2986:
2976:
2958:
2941:(8): 1811–1816.
2926:
2917:
2916:
2872:
2861:
2860:
2831:
2825:
2824:
2814:
2780:
2740:Medea hypothesis
2699:
2698:
2654:nuclear membrane
2617:Oxidative stress
2455:Palæoproterozoic
2318:
2315:
2308:
2305:
2157:Tectonic trigger
2150:serpentinization
2076:likely produced
2059:Nutrient famines
1999:
1994:
1993:
1990:
1968:
1966:
1956:
1954:
1925:
1922:
1917:
1866:
1861:
1842:
1837:
1821:
1816:
1801:
1796:
1780:
1775:
1760:
1755:
1740:
1735:
1719:
1714:
1705:Earliest animals
1699:
1694:
1679:
1674:
1659:
1654:
1639:
1634:
1619:
1614:
1598:
1593:
1578:
1573:
1557:
1552:
1537:
1532:
1517:
1512:
1503:Earliest fossils
1497:
1492:
1477:
1472:
1457:
1452:
1437:
1432:
1411:
1380:
1342:
1340:
1314:
1312:
1219:
1112:
1107:
1102:
1097:
1092:
1087:
1082:
1077:
1072:
1067:
1062:
1057:
1052:
1047:
1042:
1037:
1032:
1027:
1022:
1017:
1012:
1007:
1002:
997:
992:
987:
982:
977:
972:
967:
962:
957:
952:
947:
942:
937:
932:
920:
913:
906:
900:
890:
883:
854:Other indicators
828:chemical fossils
826:, also known as
713:hydrogen sulfide
698:Black laminated
629:geological event
581:Paleoproterozoic
573:Heinrich Holland
511:
500:
492:
485:
477:
470:
456:
455:
454:
439:greenhouse gases
432:
421:
410:
399:
377:Paleoclimatology
361:Early atmosphere
308:hydrogen sulfide
283:, which evolved
266:sulfate minerals
137:Paleoproterozoic
129:Oxygen Holocaust
55:build-up in the
21:
8645:
8644:
8640:
8639:
8638:
8636:
8635:
8634:
8585:
8584:
8583:
8578:
8550:
8507:
8476:
8459:Extinct species
8449:
8405:Carnian Pluvial
8350:Great Oxidation
8338:
8281:
8247:Extinction debt
8239:
8233:
8184:Genetic erosion
8167:
8151:
8142:
8081:
8076:
8046:
8041:
8036:
8015:
7994:
7944:
7942:Proterozoic Eon
7939:
7901:
7899:
7883:
7880:
7875:
7826:
7825:
7821:
7811:
7809:
7799:10.1002/gj.2486
7772:
7771:
7767:
7757:
7755:
7724:
7723:
7719:
7712:
7691:
7690:
7686:
7637:
7636:
7627:
7573:
7572:
7568:
7559:
7558:
7554:
7520:
7519:
7515:
7481:
7480:
7476:
7438:
7437:
7433:
7423:
7421:
7380:
7379:
7375:
7368:
7347:
7346:
7342:
7305:Proc. Biol. Sci
7298:
7297:
7290:
7244:
7243:
7234:
7219:
7181:(10): 887–890.
7168:
7167:
7160:
7147:
7146:
7142:
7112:
7111:
7107:
7049:
7048:
7044:
7030:
7029:
7025:
6971:
6970:
6966:
6959:
6938:
6937:
6933:
6920:
6919:
6915:
6886:
6885:
6881:
6837:
6836:
6832:
6794:
6793:
6789:
6743:
6742:
6738:
6728:
6726:
6712:
6711:
6707:
6692:
6647:
6646:
6642:
6632:
6630:
6591:
6590:
6586:
6532:
6531:
6527:
6517:
6515:
6484:
6483:
6479:
6455:10.1038/431913a
6425:
6424:
6420:
6374:
6373:
6366:
6356:
6354:
6331:
6330:
6326:
6316:
6314:
6275:
6274:
6270:
6232:
6231:
6227:
6181:
6180:
6176:
6132:
6131:
6127:
6117:
6115:
6083:
6082:
6078:
6068:
6066:
6027:
6026:
6022:
5975:
5974:
5970:
5960:
5958:
5953:
5952:
5948:
5899:
5898:
5894:
5861:
5860:
5853:
5807:
5806:
5799:
5769:
5768:
5764:
5710:
5709:
5705:
5659:
5658:
5654:
5640:
5639:
5632:
5602:
5601:
5594:
5577:
5570:
5568:
5556:
5555:
5551:
5495:
5494:
5490:
5460:
5459:
5455:
5445:
5443:
5438:
5437:
5433:
5379:
5378:
5374:
5330:
5329:
5325:
5287:
5286:
5282:
5244:
5243:
5239:
5229:
5227:
5196:
5195:
5191:
5181:
5179:
5128:
5127:
5123:
5079:
5078:
5074:
5030:
5029:
5025:
4979:
4978:
4971:
4924:(9): eaax1420.
4911:
4910:
4906:
4890:
4842:
4841:
4837:
4799:
4795:
4794:
4787:
4763:10.1038/461179a
4741:
4740:
4736:
4688:
4687:
4683:
4673:
4671:
4632:
4631:
4627:
4579:
4578:
4574:
4541:
4540:
4536:
4504:
4503:
4492:
4482:
4480:
4439:
4438:
4434:
4404:
4403:
4396:
4389:
4364:
4363:
4359:
4327:
4326:
4322:
4279:
4278:
4274:
4234:
4228:
4227:
4220:
4188:
4187:
4183:
4176:
4151:
4150:
4131:
4121:
4119:
4088:
4087:
4083:
4036:(5): e1600134.
4021:
4020:
4016:
3946:
3945:
3941:
3897:
3896:
3889:
3825:
3824:
3820:
3784:
3783:
3779:
3737:
3736:
3729:
3722:
3701:
3700:
3693:
3653:
3648:
3647:
3643:
3605:
3604:
3593:
3586:
3565:
3564:
3560:
3530:
3529:
3516:
3478:
3477:
3462:
3452:
3450:
3399:
3398:
3394:
3384:
3382:
3353:
3352:
3348:
3313:Current Biology
3306:
3305:
3301:
3259:
3258:
3254:
3239:
3184:
3183:
3179:
3115:
3114:
3110:
3100:
3098:
3089:
3088:
3084:
3036:
3035:
3031:
3016:
2995:
2994:
2990:
2928:
2927:
2920:
2874:
2873:
2864:
2857:
2833:
2832:
2828:
2782:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2718:
2696:
2695:
2674:Lomagundi event
2666:
2604:
2588:
2583:
2582:
2581:
2574:
2573:
2572:
2567:
2566:
2561:
2560:
2555:
2554:
2549:
2548:
2543:
2542:
2537:
2536:
2531:
2530:
2525:
2524:
2519:
2518:
2513:
2512:
2507:
2506:
2501:
2500:
2494:
2493:
2492:
2491:
2486:
2485:
2484:
2479:
2478:
2477:
2472:
2471:
2470:
2465:
2464:
2463:
2462:Mesoproterozoic
2458:
2457:
2456:
2450:
2449:
2448:
2447:
2446:
2445:
2444:
2443:
2436:
2435:
2434:
2427:
2426:
2425:
2418:
2417:
2416:
2409:
2408:
2407:
2400:
2399:
2398:
2391:
2390:
2389:
2382:
2381:
2380:
2373:
2372:
2371:
2364:
2363:
2362:
2355:
2354:
2353:
2346:
2345:
2344:
2337:
2336:
2335:
2324:
2321:
2320:
2319:
2316:
2313:
2310:
2309:
2306:
2303:
2278:
2272:
2224:
2210:
2185:
2159:
2141:
2139:Decreasing sink
2132:
2130:Increasing flux
2123:
2102:enzyme cofactor
2087:
2070:
2061:
2052:molecular clock
2026:
2019:
2011:
2007:
1998:
1991:
1988:
1987:
1985:
1983:
1972:
1964:
1962:
1960:
1952:
1950:
1948:
1933:
1929:
1923:
1915:
1913:
1901:
1900:
1892:
1876:
1875:
1864:
1855:
1854:
1840:
1831:
1830:
1819:
1810:
1809:
1799:
1790:
1789:
1778:
1769:
1768:
1758:
1749:
1748:
1746:Ediacaran biota
1738:
1729:
1728:
1717:
1708:
1707:
1697:
1688:
1687:
1685:Earliest plants
1677:
1668:
1667:
1657:
1648:
1647:
1637:
1628:
1627:
1617:
1608:
1607:
1596:
1587:
1586:
1576:
1567:
1566:
1555:
1546:
1545:
1543:Earliest oxygen
1535:
1526:
1525:
1515:
1506:
1505:
1495:
1486:
1485:
1475:
1466:
1465:
1455:
1446:
1445:
1435:
1428:
1427:
1426:
1421:
1420:
1419:
1414:
1413:
1412:
1408:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1400:
1398:
1396:
1394:
1392:
1390:
1387:
1383:
1382:
1381:
1377:
1375:
1373:
1371:
1369:
1367:
1365:
1363:
1361:
1359:
1357:
1356:
1355:
1354:
1353:
1352:
1351:
1349:
1345:
1344:
1343:
1338:
1336:
1334:
1332:
1330:
1328:
1326:
1325:
1324:
1323:
1321:
1317:
1316:
1315:
1310:
1308:
1306:
1304:
1302:
1300:
1298:
1294:
1293:
1292:
1285:
1284:
1283:
1276:
1275:
1274:
1267:
1266:
1265:
1260:
1259:
1258:
1251:
1250:
1249:
1242:
1241:
1240:
1230:
1229:
1228:
1223:
1222:
1221:
1217:
1215:
1213:
1211:
1209:
1207:
1202:
1201:
1200:
1195:
1194:
1193:
1186:
1185:
1184:
1179:
1178:
1177:
1170:
1169:
1168:
1163:
1162:
1161:
1154:
1153:
1152:
1147:
1146:
1145:
1138:
1137:
1136:
1131:
1130:
1129:
1122:
1121:
1120:
1113:
1110:
1108:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1098:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1088:
1085:
1083:
1080:
1078:
1075:
1073:
1070:
1068:
1065:
1063:
1060:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1040:
1038:
1035:
1033:
1030:
1028:
1025:
1023:
1020:
1018:
1015:
1013:
1010:
1008:
1005:
1003:
1000:
998:
995:
993:
990:
988:
985:
983:
980:
978:
975:
973:
970:
968:
965:
963:
960:
958:
955:
953:
950:
948:
945:
943:
940:
938:
935:
933:
930:
924:
898:
892:
888:
881:
875:
856:
800:
794:
776:
772:
733:
696:
694:Iron speciation
665:
637:
625:
510:
506:
498:
495:carbon monoxide
491:
487:
483:
479:
476:
472:
469:
465:
453:
450:
449:
448:
446:
431:
427:
420:
416:
409:
405:
398:
394:
383:
373:
367:Paleoatmosphere
365:Main articles:
363:
250:mass extinction
176:
99:
95:
84:
77:
70:
66:
54:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
8643:
8641:
8633:
8632:
8627:
8622:
8617:
8612:
8607:
8602:
8600:Origin of life
8597:
8587:
8586:
8580:
8579:
8577:
8576:
8566:
8555:
8552:
8551:
8549:
8548:
8541:
8536:
8531:
8526:
8521:
8515:
8513:
8509:
8508:
8506:
8505:
8500:
8495:
8490:
8484:
8482:
8478:
8477:
8475:
8474:
8469:
8463:
8461:
8455:
8454:
8451:
8450:
8448:
8447:
8442:
8437:
8435:Middle Miocene
8432:
8427:
8422:
8417:
8412:
8407:
8402:
8400:End-Capitanian
8397:
8392:
8387:
8382:
8377:
8372:
8367:
8362:
8357:
8352:
8346:
8344:
8340:
8339:
8337:
8336:
8335:
8334:
8324:
8319:
8314:
8309:
8304:
8298:
8296:
8289:
8283:
8282:
8280:
8279:
8274:
8269:
8264:
8259:
8254:
8249:
8243:
8241:
8235:
8234:
8232:
8231:
8226:
8221:
8216:
8211:
8206:
8201:
8196:
8191:
8186:
8181:
8175:
8173:
8169:
8168:
8166:
8165:
8159:
8157:
8153:
8152:
8145:
8143:
8141:
8140:
8135:
8130:
8125:
8120:
8115:
8110:
8105:
8100:
8095:
8089:
8087:
8083:
8082:
8077:
8075:
8074:
8067:
8060:
8052:
8043:
8042:
8038:
8037:
8035:
8034:
8029:
8024:
8018:
8016:
8014:
8013:
8008:
8003:
7997:
7995:
7993:
7992:
7987:
7982:
7977:
7971:
7968:
7967:
7962:
7957:
7949:
7946:
7945:
7940:
7938:
7937:
7930:
7923:
7915:
7909:
7908:
7879:
7878:External links
7876:
7874:
7873:
7819:
7785:(5): 467–483.
7765:
7717:
7710:
7684:
7647:(4): 302–306.
7625:
7566:
7552:
7533:(4): 449–455.
7513:
7474:
7431:
7373:
7366:
7340:
7288:
7232:
7230:
7229:
7158:
7140:
7105:
7052:Girguis, Peter
7042:
7023:
6964:
6957:
6931:
6913:
6879:
6850:(8): 564–570.
6830:
6803:(4): 239–269.
6787:
6736:
6705:
6703:
6702:
6640:
6584:
6525:
6499:(1): 387–392.
6477:
6418:
6364:
6324:
6268:
6241:(4): 275–316.
6225:
6174:
6125:
6076:
6042:(4): 296–300.
6020:
5968:
5946:
5892:
5851:
5797:
5762:
5703:
5652:
5630:
5592:
5549:
5488:
5453:
5431:
5372:
5323:
5280:
5253:(1): 717–746.
5237:
5189:
5121:
5072:
5023:
4969:
4904:
4902:
4901:
4835:
4797:
4785:
4734:
4681:
4647:(5): 375–380.
4625:
4572:
4534:
4515:(1): 507–534.
4490:
4432:
4413:(2): 107–112.
4394:
4387:
4357:
4320:
4272:
4232:
4218:
4199:(2): 213–221.
4181:
4174:
4129:
4081:
4014:
3939:
3912:(2): 158–162.
3887:
3818:
3777:
3727:
3720:
3691:
3641:
3591:
3584:
3558:
3539:(3): 235–264.
3514:
3460:
3392:
3346:
3299:
3252:
3250:
3249:
3177:
3108:
3082:
3029:
3014:
2988:
2918:
2862:
2855:
2835:Margulis, Lynn
2826:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2768:
2767:
2761:
2755:
2749:
2743:
2737:
2731:
2725:
2722:Boring Billion
2717:
2714:
2707:Wyoming Craton
2665:
2662:
2603:
2600:
2587:
2584:
2575:
2570:
2568:
2564:
2562:
2558:
2556:
2552:
2550:
2546:
2544:
2540:
2538:
2534:
2532:
2528:
2526:
2522:
2520:
2516:
2514:
2510:
2508:
2504:
2502:
2498:
2496:
2495:
2489:
2488:
2487:
2482:
2481:
2480:
2475:
2474:
2473:
2469:Neoproterozoic
2468:
2467:
2466:
2461:
2460:
2459:
2454:
2453:
2452:
2451:
2439:
2438:
2437:
2430:
2429:
2428:
2421:
2420:
2419:
2412:
2411:
2410:
2403:
2402:
2401:
2394:
2393:
2392:
2385:
2384:
2383:
2376:
2375:
2374:
2367:
2366:
2365:
2358:
2357:
2356:
2349:
2348:
2347:
2340:
2339:
2338:
2331:
2330:
2329:
2328:
2327:
2326:
2325:
2323:
2322:
2312:
2311:
2302:
2301:
2300:
2299:
2298:
2274:Main article:
2271:
2268:
2267:
2266:
2254:organic matter
2240:
2239:
2223:
2220:
2209:
2206:
2184:
2181:
2158:
2155:
2146:volcanic gases
2140:
2137:
2131:
2128:
2122:
2119:
2085:
2082:carbon dioxide
2069:
2066:
2060:
2057:
2025:
2022:
2017:
2009:
2005:
1981:
1970:
1958:
1946:
1931:
1927:
1903:
1902:
1893:
1886:
1885:
1882:
1881:
1878:
1877:
1870:
1869:
1867:
1857:
1856:
1846:
1845:
1843:
1833:
1832:
1825:
1824:
1822:
1812:
1811:
1805:
1804:
1802:
1792:
1791:
1784:
1783:
1781:
1771:
1770:
1764:
1763:
1761:
1751:
1750:
1744:
1743:
1741:
1731:
1730:
1723:
1722:
1720:
1710:
1709:
1703:
1702:
1700:
1690:
1689:
1683:
1682:
1680:
1670:
1669:
1665:Earliest fungi
1663:
1662:
1660:
1650:
1649:
1643:
1642:
1640:
1630:
1629:
1623:
1622:
1620:
1610:
1609:
1602:
1601:
1599:
1589:
1588:
1582:
1581:
1579:
1569:
1568:
1561:
1560:
1558:
1548:
1547:
1541:
1540:
1538:
1528:
1527:
1523:LHB meteorites
1521:
1520:
1518:
1508:
1507:
1501:
1500:
1498:
1488:
1487:
1481:
1480:
1478:
1468:
1467:
1463:Earliest water
1461:
1460:
1458:
1448:
1447:
1441:
1440:
1438:
1429:
1424:
1423:
1422:
1417:
1416:
1415:
1386:
1385:
1384:
1348:
1347:
1346:
1320:
1319:
1318:
1297:
1296:
1295:
1288:
1287:
1286:
1279:
1278:
1277:
1270:
1269:
1268:
1263:
1262:
1261:
1254:
1253:
1252:
1245:
1244:
1243:
1233:
1232:
1231:
1226:
1225:
1224:
1205:
1204:
1203:
1198:
1197:
1196:
1189:
1188:
1187:
1182:
1181:
1180:
1173:
1172:
1171:
1166:
1165:
1164:
1159:Photosynthesis
1157:
1156:
1155:
1150:
1149:
1148:
1141:
1140:
1139:
1134:
1133:
1132:
1125:
1124:
1123:
1118:
1117:
1116:
1114:
1111:0 —
1109:
1104:
1099:
1094:
1089:
1084:
1079:
1074:
1069:
1064:
1059:
1054:
1049:
1044:
1039:
1034:
1029:
1024:
1019:
1014:
1009:
1004:
999:
994:
989:
984:
979:
974:
969:
964:
959:
954:
949:
944:
939:
934:
929:
926:
925:
923:
922:
915:
908:
897:
894:
893:
886:
874:
871:
855:
852:
793:
790:
774:
770:
732:
729:
695:
692:
664:
661:
636:
633:
624:
621:
518:photosynthesis
451:
402:carbon dioxide
362:
359:
335:proteobacteria
320:microbial mats
189:photosynthesis
174:
165:. Geological,
98:
97:
93:
90:
82:
79:
75:
72:
68:
64:
60:
52:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8642:
8631:
8628:
8626:
8623:
8621:
8618:
8616:
8613:
8611:
8608:
8606:
8603:
8601:
8598:
8596:
8593:
8592:
8590:
8575:
8567:
8565:
8557:
8556:
8553:
8547:
8546:
8542:
8540:
8537:
8535:
8532:
8530:
8527:
8525:
8522:
8520:
8517:
8516:
8514:
8510:
8504:
8501:
8499:
8496:
8494:
8491:
8489:
8486:
8485:
8483:
8481:Organizations
8479:
8473:
8470:
8468:
8465:
8464:
8462:
8460:
8456:
8446:
8443:
8441:
8438:
8436:
8433:
8431:
8428:
8426:
8423:
8421:
8418:
8416:
8413:
8411:
8408:
8406:
8403:
8401:
8398:
8396:
8393:
8391:
8390:Carboniferous
8388:
8386:
8383:
8381:
8378:
8376:
8373:
8371:
8368:
8366:
8363:
8361:
8358:
8356:
8355:End-Ediacaran
8353:
8351:
8348:
8347:
8345:
8341:
8333:
8330:
8329:
8328:
8325:
8323:
8320:
8318:
8315:
8313:
8310:
8308:
8307:Late Devonian
8305:
8303:
8300:
8299:
8297:
8293:
8290:
8288:
8284:
8278:
8277:Living fossil
8275:
8273:
8270:
8268:
8265:
8263:
8260:
8258:
8255:
8253:
8250:
8248:
8245:
8244:
8242:
8236:
8230:
8227:
8225:
8222:
8220:
8217:
8215:
8212:
8210:
8207:
8205:
8202:
8200:
8197:
8195:
8192:
8190:
8187:
8185:
8182:
8180:
8177:
8176:
8174:
8170:
8164:
8161:
8160:
8158:
8154:
8149:
8139:
8136:
8134:
8131:
8129:
8128:Lazarus taxon
8126:
8124:
8121:
8119:
8116:
8114:
8111:
8109:
8106:
8104:
8103:De-extinction
8101:
8099:
8096:
8094:
8091:
8090:
8088:
8084:
8080:
8073:
8068:
8066:
8061:
8059:
8054:
8053:
8050:
8033:
8030:
8028:
8025:
8023:
8020:
8019:
8017:
8012:
8009:
8007:
8004:
8002:
7999:
7998:
7996:
7991:
7988:
7986:
7983:
7981:
7978:
7976:
7973:
7972:
7970:
7969:
7966:
7963:
7961:
7958:
7956:
7953:
7952:
7947:
7943:
7936:
7931:
7929:
7924:
7922:
7917:
7916:
7913:
7897:
7893:
7892:
7891:New Scientist
7887:
7882:
7881:
7877:
7869:
7865:
7860:
7855:
7851:
7847:
7843:
7839:
7835:
7831:
7823:
7820:
7808:
7804:
7800:
7796:
7792:
7788:
7784:
7780:
7776:
7769:
7766:
7754:
7750:
7746:
7742:
7738:
7734:
7733:
7728:
7721:
7718:
7713:
7707:
7703:
7699:
7695:
7688:
7685:
7680:
7676:
7671:
7666:
7662:
7658:
7654:
7650:
7646:
7642:
7634:
7632:
7630:
7626:
7621:
7617:
7612:
7607:
7602:
7597:
7593:
7589:
7585:
7581:
7577:
7570:
7567:
7562:
7556:
7553:
7548:
7544:
7540:
7536:
7532:
7528:
7524:
7517:
7514:
7509:
7505:
7501:
7497:
7493:
7489:
7485:
7478:
7475:
7469:
7464:
7460:
7456:
7452:
7448:
7447:
7442:
7435:
7432:
7419:
7414:
7410:
7406:
7402:
7398:
7394:
7390:
7389:
7384:
7377:
7374:
7369:
7363:
7359:
7355:
7351:
7344:
7341:
7336:
7332:
7327:
7322:
7318:
7314:
7310:
7306:
7302:
7295:
7293:
7289:
7284:
7280:
7275:
7270:
7265:
7260:
7256:
7252:
7248:
7241:
7239:
7237:
7233:
7226:
7222:
7218:
7217:
7214:
7210:
7205:
7200:
7196:
7192:
7188:
7184:
7180:
7176:
7172:
7165:
7163:
7159:
7155:. March 2010.
7154:
7150:
7144:
7141:
7136:
7132:
7128:
7124:
7120:
7116:
7109:
7106:
7101:
7097:
7092:
7087:
7082:
7077:
7073:
7069:
7065:
7061:
7057:
7053:
7046:
7043:
7038:
7037:New Scientist
7034:
7027:
7024:
7019:
7015:
7010:
7005:
7000:
6995:
6991:
6987:
6983:
6979:
6975:
6968:
6965:
6960:
6954:
6950:
6946:
6942:
6935:
6932:
6927:
6923:
6917:
6914:
6909:
6905:
6901:
6897:
6893:
6889:
6883:
6880:
6875:
6871:
6866:
6861:
6857:
6853:
6849:
6845:
6841:
6834:
6831:
6826:
6822:
6818:
6814:
6810:
6806:
6802:
6798:
6791:
6788:
6783:
6779:
6775:
6771:
6767:
6763:
6759:
6755:
6751:
6747:
6740:
6737:
6724:
6720:
6716:
6709:
6706:
6699:
6695:
6691:
6690:
6687:
6683:
6678:
6673:
6669:
6665:
6661:
6657:
6656:
6651:
6644:
6641:
6629:
6625:
6621:
6617:
6613:
6609:
6605:
6601:
6600:
6595:
6588:
6585:
6580:
6576:
6571:
6566:
6562:
6558:
6554:
6550:
6546:
6542:
6541:
6536:
6529:
6526:
6514:
6510:
6506:
6502:
6498:
6494:
6493:
6488:
6481:
6478:
6473:
6469:
6465:
6461:
6456:
6451:
6447:
6443:
6440:(7011): 913.
6439:
6435:
6434:
6429:
6422:
6419:
6414:
6410:
6406:
6402:
6398:
6394:
6390:
6386:
6382:
6378:
6371:
6369:
6365:
6353:
6349:
6345:
6341:
6340:
6335:
6328:
6325:
6313:
6309:
6305:
6301:
6297:
6293:
6289:
6285:
6284:
6279:
6272:
6269:
6264:
6260:
6256:
6252:
6248:
6244:
6240:
6236:
6229:
6226:
6221:
6217:
6213:
6209:
6205:
6201:
6197:
6193:
6189:
6185:
6178:
6175:
6170:
6166:
6161:
6156:
6152:
6148:
6144:
6140:
6136:
6129:
6126:
6114:
6110:
6106:
6102:
6098:
6094:
6093:
6088:
6080:
6077:
6065:
6061:
6057:
6053:
6049:
6045:
6041:
6037:
6036:
6031:
6024:
6021:
6016:
6012:
6008:
6004:
6000:
5996:
5992:
5988:
5984:
5980:
5972:
5969:
5956:
5950:
5947:
5942:
5938:
5934:
5930:
5926:
5922:
5918:
5914:
5910:
5906:
5902:
5896:
5893:
5888:
5884:
5880:
5876:
5872:
5868:
5864:
5858:
5856:
5852:
5847:
5843:
5839:
5835:
5831:
5827:
5823:
5819:
5815:
5811:
5804:
5802:
5798:
5793:
5789:
5785:
5781:
5778:(1–2): 1–20.
5777:
5773:
5766:
5763:
5758:
5754:
5749:
5744:
5739:
5734:
5730:
5726:
5722:
5718:
5714:
5707:
5704:
5699:
5695:
5691:
5687:
5683:
5679:
5675:
5671:
5667:
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5648:
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5637:
5635:
5631:
5626:
5622:
5618:
5614:
5610:
5606:
5599:
5597:
5593:
5588:
5582:
5566:
5565:
5560:
5553:
5550:
5545:
5541:
5536:
5531:
5526:
5521:
5517:
5513:
5510:(3): e00548.
5509:
5505:
5504:
5499:
5492:
5489:
5484:
5480:
5476:
5472:
5468:
5464:
5457:
5454:
5441:
5435:
5432:
5427:
5423:
5418:
5413:
5408:
5403:
5399:
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5383:
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5364:
5359:
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5313:
5309:
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5264:
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5238:
5226:
5222:
5218:
5214:
5210:
5206:
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5200:
5193:
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5125:
5122:
5117:
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5109:
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5101:
5097:
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5076:
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5056:
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5048:
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5027:
5024:
5019:
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5010:
5005:
5001:
4997:
4993:
4989:
4988:
4983:
4976:
4974:
4970:
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4961:
4956:
4951:
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4931:
4927:
4923:
4919:
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4898:
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4881:
4877:
4873:
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4857:
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4815:
4811:
4807:
4803:
4792:
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4777:
4773:
4769:
4764:
4759:
4755:
4751:
4750:
4745:
4738:
4735:
4730:
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4710:
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4568:
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4465:
4461:
4457:
4453:
4449:
4448:
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4433:
4428:
4424:
4420:
4416:
4412:
4408:
4401:
4399:
4395:
4390:
4384:
4380:
4376:
4372:
4368:
4361:
4358:
4353:
4349:
4345:
4341:
4337:
4333:
4332:
4324:
4321:
4315:
4310:
4306:
4302:
4298:
4294:
4290:
4286:
4285:
4276:
4273:
4268:
4264:
4260:
4256:
4252:
4248:
4244:
4240:
4236:
4225:
4223:
4219:
4214:
4210:
4206:
4202:
4198:
4194:
4193:
4185:
4182:
4177:
4171:
4167:
4163:
4159:
4156:. Cambridge:
4155:
4148:
4146:
4144:
4142:
4140:
4138:
4136:
4134:
4130:
4118:
4114:
4110:
4106:
4102:
4098:
4097:
4092:
4085:
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4077:
4073:
4068:
4063:
4059:
4055:
4051:
4047:
4043:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4030:
4025:
4018:
4015:
4010:
4006:
4002:
3998:
3994:
3990:
3985:
3980:
3976:
3972:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3956:
3955:
3950:
3943:
3940:
3935:
3931:
3927:
3923:
3919:
3915:
3911:
3907:
3906:
3901:
3894:
3892:
3888:
3883:
3879:
3874:
3869:
3865:
3861:
3856:
3851:
3847:
3843:
3839:
3835:
3834:
3829:
3822:
3819:
3813:
3808:
3804:
3800:
3797:(2): 100036.
3796:
3792:
3788:
3781:
3778:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3761:
3757:
3753:
3749:
3745:
3741:
3734:
3732:
3728:
3723:
3717:
3713:
3709:
3705:
3698:
3696:
3692:
3687:
3683:
3679:
3675:
3671:
3667:
3663:
3659:
3652:
3645:
3642:
3637:
3633:
3629:
3625:
3621:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3602:
3600:
3598:
3596:
3592:
3587:
3585:9780080983004
3581:
3577:
3573:
3569:
3562:
3559:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3542:
3538:
3534:
3527:
3525:
3523:
3521:
3519:
3515:
3510:
3506:
3502:
3498:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3475:
3473:
3471:
3469:
3467:
3465:
3461:
3449:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3408:
3403:
3396:
3393:
3381:
3377:
3373:
3369:
3365:
3361:
3357:
3350:
3347:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3303:
3300:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3256:
3253:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3237:
3234:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3193:
3188:
3181:
3178:
3173:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3124:
3119:
3112:
3109:
3097:
3093:
3086:
3083:
3077:
3072:
3067:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3045:
3040:
3033:
3030:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2992:
2989:
2984:
2980:
2975:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2957:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2925:
2923:
2919:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2871:
2869:
2867:
2863:
2858:
2856:9780520210646
2852:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2839:Sagan, Dorion
2836:
2830:
2827:
2822:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2791:
2786:
2779:
2776:
2770:
2765:
2762:
2759:
2756:
2753:
2750:
2747:
2746:Pasteur point
2744:
2741:
2738:
2735:
2732:
2729:
2726:
2723:
2720:
2719:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2692:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2663:
2661:
2657:
2655:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2633:recombination
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2601:
2599:
2597:
2593:
2585:
2579:
2442:
2433:
2424:
2415:
2406:
2397:
2388:
2379:
2378:Carboniferous
2370:
2361:
2352:
2343:
2334:
2297:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2277:
2269:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2252:recycling of
2250:
2249:
2244:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2228:
2227:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2207:
2205:
2203:
2199:
2194:
2193:steady states
2190:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2171:
2163:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2147:
2138:
2136:
2129:
2127:
2120:
2118:
2116:
2112:
2107:
2106:Earth's crust
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2068:Nickel famine
2067:
2065:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2049:
2043:
2040:
2035:
2031:
2023:
2021:
2015:
2003:
1978:
1976:
1967:1.2 Tmol
1955:3.3 Tmol
1944:
1940:
1935:
1921:
1909:
1899:
1898:
1890:
1883:
1873:
1868:
1863:
1862:
1853:
1849:
1848:Earliest apes
1844:
1839:
1838:
1828:
1827:Karoo ice age
1823:
1818:
1817:
1808:
1803:
1798:
1797:
1787:
1782:
1777:
1776:
1767:
1762:
1757:
1756:
1747:
1742:
1737:
1736:
1726:
1721:
1716:
1715:
1706:
1701:
1696:
1695:
1686:
1681:
1676:
1675:
1666:
1661:
1656:
1655:
1646:
1641:
1636:
1635:
1626:
1621:
1616:
1615:
1605:
1600:
1595:
1594:
1585:
1580:
1575:
1574:
1564:
1559:
1554:
1553:
1544:
1539:
1534:
1533:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1513:
1504:
1499:
1494:
1493:
1484:
1479:
1474:
1473:
1464:
1459:
1454:
1453:
1444:
1439:
1434:
1433:
1430:
1410:
1379:
1341:
1313:
1291:
1282:
1273:
1257:
1248:
1239:
1236:
1220:
1192:
1176:
1160:
1144:
1128:
1115:
928:
927:
921:
916:
914:
909:
907:
902:
901:
895:
891:
889:Life timeline
884:
880:
872:
870:
868:
864:
861:
853:
851:
849:
844:
841:
837:
833:
829:
825:
820:
817:
813:
812:stromatolites
809:
805:
799:
791:
789:
787:
783:
778:
768:
767:sulfuric acid
763:
757:
754:
750:
746:
740:
738:
730:
728:
724:
722:
716:
714:
709:
705:
701:
693:
691:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
662:
660:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
634:
632:
630:
622:
620:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
576:
574:
570:
566:
562:
558:
554:
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
529:Preston Cloud
525:
523:
522:cyanobacteria
519:
515:
504:
496:
462:
460:
444:
440:
436:
425:
414:
403:
392:
388:
382:
378:
372:
368:
360:
358:
356:
355:multicellular
352:
348:
344:
340:
336:
333:
329:
328:symbiogenesis
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
294:
290:
286:
282:
281:cyanobacteria
277:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
228:
224:
220:
216:
213:
209:
205:
200:
198:
194:
190:
187:
183:
180:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
153:
149:
145:
141:
138:
134:
130:
126:
125:Oxygen Crisis
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
91:
88:
80:
73:
62:
61:
58:
49:
41:
37:
33:
19:
8543:
8519:Anthropocene
8360:End-Botomian
8349:
8240:and concepts
8098:Coextinction
7900:. Retrieved
7896:the original
7889:
7833:
7829:
7822:
7810:. Retrieved
7782:
7778:
7768:
7756:. Retrieved
7736:
7730:
7720:
7693:
7687:
7644:
7640:
7583:
7579:
7569:
7555:
7530:
7526:
7516:
7491:
7487:
7477:
7450:
7444:
7434:
7424:17 September
7422:. Retrieved
7392:
7386:
7376:
7349:
7343:
7308:
7304:
7254:
7251:Biol. Direct
7250:
7225:ScienceDaily
7224:
7178:
7174:
7152:
7143:
7121:(1): 31–36.
7118:
7114:
7108:
7063:
7059:
7045:
7036:
7026:
6981:
6977:
6967:
6940:
6934:
6925:
6916:
6891:
6882:
6847:
6843:
6833:
6800:
6796:
6790:
6749:
6745:
6739:
6727:. Retrieved
6723:the original
6718:
6708:
6697:
6659:
6653:
6643:
6631:. Retrieved
6603:
6597:
6587:
6547:(1): 71–76.
6544:
6538:
6528:
6516:. Retrieved
6496:
6490:
6480:
6437:
6431:
6421:
6380:
6376:
6355:. Retrieved
6343:
6337:
6327:
6315:. Retrieved
6287:
6281:
6271:
6238:
6234:
6228:
6187:
6183:
6177:
6142:
6138:
6128:
6116:. Retrieved
6096:
6090:
6079:
6067:. Retrieved
6039:
6033:
6023:
5982:
5978:
5971:
5959:. Retrieved
5949:
5908:
5904:
5895:
5870:
5866:
5813:
5809:
5775:
5771:
5765:
5720:
5716:
5706:
5665:
5661:
5655:
5647:ScienceDaily
5646:
5608:
5604:
5569:. Retrieved
5562:
5552:
5507:
5501:
5491:
5466:
5462:
5456:
5444:. Retrieved
5434:
5389:
5385:
5375:
5340:
5336:
5326:
5299:
5293:
5283:
5250:
5246:
5240:
5228:. Retrieved
5208:
5202:
5192:
5180:. Retrieved
5140:
5134:
5124:
5091:
5085:
5075:
5045:(1): 21–44.
5042:
5036:
5026:
4991:
4985:
4921:
4917:
4907:
4897:Live Science
4896:
4851:
4845:
4838:
4805:
4801:
4753:
4747:
4737:
4696:
4690:
4684:
4672:. Retrieved
4644:
4638:
4628:
4587:
4581:
4575:
4550:
4544:
4537:
4512:
4506:
4481:. Retrieved
4451:
4445:
4435:
4410:
4406:
4370:
4366:
4360:
4335:
4329:
4323:
4288:
4282:
4275:
4242:
4238:
4196:
4190:
4184:
4153:
4120:. Retrieved
4100:
4094:
4084:
4033:
4027:
4017:
3958:
3952:
3942:
3909:
3903:
3837:
3831:
3821:
3794:
3790:
3780:
3747:
3743:
3703:
3661:
3657:
3644:
3611:
3607:
3567:
3561:
3536:
3533:Geochemistry
3532:
3484:
3480:
3451:. Retrieved
3411:
3405:
3395:
3385:25 September
3383:. Retrieved
3366:(1): 27–41.
3363:
3360:Astrobiology
3359:
3349:
3316:
3312:
3302:
3269:
3265:
3255:
3245:ScienceDaily
3244:
3196:
3190:
3180:
3127:
3121:
3111:
3099:. Retrieved
3095:
3085:
3048:
3042:
3032:
2997:
2991:
2938:
2934:
2880:
2876:
2846:
2829:
2794:
2788:
2778:
2764:Stromatolite
2711:
2703:Fennoscandia
2694:
2691:black shales
2673:
2669:
2667:
2658:
2641:mitochondria
2637:endosymbiont
2605:
2592:Lake Fryxell
2589:
2578:Age of Earth
2279:
2262:mitochondria
2225:
2211:
2186:
2172:
2168:
2142:
2133:
2124:
2090:UV radiation
2071:
2062:
2044:
2034:oxygen waste
2027:
1979:
1943:metamorphism
1936:
1910:
1906:
1895:
1583:
1443:Earth formed
879:Oxygen cycle
857:
845:
821:
801:
779:
758:
741:
734:
725:
717:
697:
666:
638:
626:
613:paleontology
597:metamorphism
577:
526:
463:
384:
357:life-forms.
343:mitochondria
339:endosymbiont
337:(which went
300:ferrous iron
278:
238:light energy
206:(especially
201:
148:shallow seas
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
102:
36:
8365:Dresbachian
7859:10023/23503
7812:12 December
7758:12 December
7739:: 242–261.
7670:10037/19269
7586:(1): 1879.
7494:(1): 1–69.
7418:10037/24808
7204:10092/12361
6662:(1): 1741.
6346:: 202–215.
6317:12 November
6069:11 November
5302:: 109–125.
5211:: 530–551.
4674:20 December
4483:29 December
4477:1874/362652
4454:: 218–235.
3984:10023/24041
3750:: 232–249.
3272:: 200–225.
3076:10481/78482
2625:desiccation
2296:processes.
2258:free energy
2189:bistability
2183:Bistability
2094:methanogens
2050:. Based on
2014:Phanerozoic
899:This box:
753:ozone layer
459:methanogens
341:and became
285:chlorophyll
258:Phanerozoic
223:extirpation
8589:Categories
8445:Quaternary
8079:Extinction
8027:Cryogenian
7990:Statherian
7836:: 105855.
7561:"Research"
7453:: 104398.
7395:: 117501.
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2771:References
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2414:Cretaceous
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2202:transition
1235:Arthropods
1175:Eukaryotes
877:See also:
873:Hypotheses
863:molybdenum
832:eukaryotes
824:biomarkers
796:See also:
782:molybdenum
708:lamination
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644:weathering
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324:adaptation
296:photolysis
264:data from
232:that used
219:extinction
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7902:8 October
7868:225636859
7807:140672677
7679:212732729
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6874:236780731
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3509:21134564
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2396:Triassic
2369:Devonian
2360:Silurian
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2176:iron ore
2111:icehouse
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1975:red beds
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840:Steranes
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786:selenium
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557:hematite
549:red beds
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533:detrital
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391:nitrogen
274:nutrient
230:colonies
227:archaeal
171:dioxygen
167:isotopic
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