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G.J.A.; Close, Graeme L.; Cooper, Jamie A.; Das, Sai Krupa; Cooper, Richard; Dugas, Lara R.; Ekelund, Ulf; Entringer, Sonja; Forrester, Terrence; Fudge, Barry W.; Goris, Annelies H.; Gurven, Michael; Hambly, Catherine; Hamdouchi, Asmaa El; Hoos, Marije B.; Hu, Sumei; Joonas, Noorjehan; Joosen, Annemiek M.; Katzmarzyk, Peter; Kempen, Kitty P.; Kimura, Misaka; Kraus, William E.; Kushner, Robert F.; Lambert, Estelle V.; Leonard, William R.; Lessan, Nader; Martin, Corby K.; Medin, Anine C.; Meijer, Erwin P.; Morehen, James C.; Morton, James P.; Neuhouser, Marian L.; Nicklas, Theresa A.; Ojiambo, Robert M.; Pietiläinen, Kirsi H.; Pitsiladis, Yannis P.; Plange-Rhule, Jacob; Plasqui, Guy; Prentice, Ross L.; Rabinovich, Roberto A.; Racette, Susan B.; Raichlen, David A.; Ravussin, Eric; Reynolds, Rebecca M.; Roberts, Susan B.; Schuit, Albertine J.; Sjödin, Anders M.; Stice, Eric; Urlacher, Samuel S.; Valenti, Giulio; Van Etten, Ludo M.; Van Mil, Edgar A.; Wilson, George; Wood, Brian M.; Yanovski, Jack; Yoshida, Tsukasa; Zhang, Xueying; Murphy-Alford, Alexia J.; Loechl, Cornelia U.; Luke, Amy H.; Rood, Jennifer; Sagayama, Hiroyuki; Schoeller, Dale A.; Westerterp, Klaas R.; Wong, William W.; Yamada, Yosuke; Speakman, John R. (October 2022).
178:
greater anatomical variability in men were established this would not necessarily mean that men were also more variable in mental traits, (3) even if it were established that men were more variable in mental traits this would not automatically mean that men were innately more variable, (4) variability is not significant in and of itself, but rather depends on what the variability consists of, and (5) that any possible differences in variability between men and women must also be understood with reference to the fact that women lack the opportunity to achieve eminence because of their prescribed societal and cultural roles. Additionally, the argument that great variability automatically meant greater range was criticized by
Hollingworth.
159:. Thorndike believed that variability in intelligence could have a biological basis and suggested that this could have important implications for achievement and pedagogy. For example, he postulated that greater male variation could mean "eminence and leadership of the world's affairs of whatever sort will inevitably belong oftener to men." In addition, since the number of women that fall within the extreme top-end of the intelligence distribution would be inherently smaller, he suggested that educational resources should be invested in preparing women for roles and occupations that require only a mediocre level of cognitive ability.
305:, addressed the National Bureau of Economic Research Conference on the subject of gender diversity in the science and engineering professions, saying: "It does appear that on many, many different human attributes—height, weight, propensity for criminality, overall IQ, mathematical ability, scientific ability—there is relatively clear evidence that whatever the difference in means—which can be debated—there is a difference in the standard deviation, and variability of a male and a female population." His remarks caused a backlash; Summers faced a
128:, whose critique of Ellis's work was both theoretical and methodological. After Pearson dismissed Ellis's conclusions, he then "presented his own data to show that it was the female who was more variable than the male" Ellis wrote a letter to Pearson thanking him for the criticisms which would allow him to present his arguments "more clearly & precisely than before", but did not yield his position regarding greater male variability.
279:
some, but not all of the difference seen in STEM occupations. With regard to the question of whether these results are due to societal influences or of biological origins, they hold that the results showing greater variance at a very young age (for instance IQ differences in variability between the sexes is visible from a young age on) lend credence to the theory that biological factors might explain a large part of the observed data.
31:
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107:, Ellis dedicated an entire chapter to the subject, entitled "The Variational Tendency of Men". In this chapter he posits that "both the physical and mental characters of men show wider limits of variation than do the physical and mental characters of women" (p. 358). Ellis documents several studies that support this assertion (see pp. 360–367), and
53:, where some studies appear to show that males are more likely than females to have either very high or very low IQ test scores. In this context, there is controversy over whether such sex-based differences in the variability of intelligence exist, and if so, whether they are caused by genetic differences, environmental conditioning, or a mixture of both.
232:
concluded, "The 'greater male variability hypothesis' is confirmed." This study found that on average, boys showed 14% greater variance than girls in science, reading, and math test scores. In reading, boys were significantly represented at the bottom of score distribution, whereas for maths and science they featured more at the top.
174:
societal expectations than women. Consequently, deficiencies in men were often detected at an earlier age, while similar deficiencies in women might not be detected because less was expected of them. Therefore, deficiencies in women would be required to be more pronounced than those in men in order to be detected at similar ages.
182:
infants birth weight, and it was concluded that if variability favoured any sex it was the female sex. The general consensus today is that boys have a higher birth weight than girls, and are more responsive to their mother's diet while in the womb, thus causing an even greater variation if nutritional needs are met.
236:
also found that policies leading to greater female participation in the workforce tended to increase female variability and, therefore, decrease the variability gap. They also point out that Baye and
Monseur had themselves observed a lack of international consistency, leading more support to a cultural hypothesis.
251:, researchers reported "the largest-ever mega-analysis of sex differences in variability of brain structure"; they stated that they "observed significant patterns of greater male than female between-subject variance for all subcortical volumetric measures, all cortical surface area measures, and 60% of
278:
A 2021 review investigating different hypotheses behind the discrepancy of sexes in STEM jobs summarizes the greater variability research with respect to this question. Given that research finds greater variability in males with in quantitative and nonverbal reasoning, they hold that this can explain
181:
In an attempt to examine the validity of the variability hypothesis, while avoiding intervening social and cultural factors, Hollingworth gathered data on birth weight and length of 1,000 male and 1,000 female newborns. This research found virtually no difference in the variability of male and female
177:
Hollingworth also attacked the variability hypothesis theoretically, criticizing the underlying logic of the hypothesis. Hollingworth argued that the variability hypothesis was flawed because: (1) it had not been empirically established that men were more anatomically variable than women, (2) even if
98:
Although Darwin was curious about sex differences in variability throughout the animal kingdom, variability in humans was not a chief concern of his research. The first scholar to carry out a detailed empirical investigation on the question of human sex differences in variability in both physical and
1870:
Halsey, Lewis G.; Careau, Vincent; Pontzer, Herman; Ainslie, Philip N.; Andersen, Lene F.; Anderson, Liam J.; Arab, Lenore; Baddou, Issad; Bedu-Addo, Kweku; Blaak, Ellen E.; Blanc, Stephane; Bonomi, Alberto G.; Bouten, Carlijn V.C.; Bovet, Pascal; Buchowski, Maciej S.; Butte, Nancy F.; Camps, Stefan
219:
Recent studies indicate that greater male variability in mathematics persists in the U.S., although the ratio of boys to girls at the top end of the distribution is reversed in Asian
Americans. A 2010 meta-analysis of 242 studies found that males have an 8% greater variance in mathematical abilities
190:
The 21st century has witnessed a resurgence of research on gender differences in variability, with most of the emphasis on humans. The results vary based on the type of problem, but some recent studies have found that the variability hypothesis is true for parts of IQ tests, with more men falling at
274:
calculus and statistics students from 1997 to 2019, found that although female participation in these courses has increased significantly, the proportion of males to females at the top scores in the AP math exams is still substantial, though the proportion of males to females at the top scores has
235:
The results of Baye and
Monseur have been both replicated and criticized in a 2019 meta-analytical extension published by Helen Gray and her associates, which broadly confirmed that variability is greater for males internationally but that there is significant heterogeneity between countries. They
207:
concluded that "data shows a higher variance in boys' than girls' results on mathematics and reading tests in most OECD countries", the results implying that "gender differences in the variance of test scores are an international phenomenon". However, it also found that several countries failed to
239:
A 2018 meta analysis of over 1 million school-aged children found strong evidence for higher variability in boys' grades, but for girls to receive higher grades on average, both of which the authors describe as "in line with previous studies". Due in part to the combination of these factors, they
215:
A 2009 study in developmental psychology examined non-cognitive traits including blood parameters and birth weight as well as certain cognitive traits, and concluded that "greater intrasex phenotype variability in males than in females is a fundamental aspect of the gender differences in humans".
255:
measures. This pattern was stable across the lifespan for 50% of the subcortical structures, 70% of the regional area measures, and nearly all regions for thickness." The authors emphasize, however, that this has of yet no practical interpretive meaning, says nothing on causation, and requires
173:
By examining the case records of 1,000 patients at the
Clearing House for Mental Defectives, Leta Hollingworth determined that, although men outnumbered women in the clearing house, the ratio of men to women decreased with age. Hollingworth explained this to be the result of men facing greater
231:
A 2016 study by Baye and
Monseur examining twelve databases from the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement and the Program for International Student Assessment, were used to analyse gender differences within an international perspective from 1995 to 2015, and
94:
of 1861–1867 where "a vast number of measurements of various parts of the body in different races were made, and the men were found in almost every case to present a greater range of variation than the women" (p. 275). To Darwin, the evidence from the medical community at the time, which
223:
A 2014 review found that males tend to have higher variance on mathematical and verbal abilities but females tend to have higher variance on fear and emotionality; however, the differences in variance are small and without much practical significance and the causes remain unknown. A 2005
131:
Support for the greater male variability hypothesis grew during the early part of the 20th century. During this period, the attention of researchers shifted towards studying variability in mental abilities partly due to the advent of standardised mental tests (see the history of the
211:
A 2008 study reviewed the history of the hypothesis that general intelligence is more biologically variable in males than in females and presented data which the authors claim "in many ways are the most complete that have ever been compiled substantially support the hypothesis".
333:. Three days later, that article was removed without explanation and replaced by an unrelated article by different authors. This caused debate within the scientific community and international publicity. A revised version was subsequently peer reviewed again and published in the
282:
A 2022 analysis of a large database on energy expenditure in adult humans found that "even when statistically comparing males and females of the same age, height, and body composition, there is much more variation in total, activity, and basal energy expenditure among males".
228:, and no difference in variability on the advanced progressive matrices, but also found that males had a higher average general intelligence. This meta analysis, however, was criticized for bias by the authors and for poor methodology.
151:, Thorndike argued that while mean level sex differences in intellectual ability appeared to be negligible, sex differences in variability were clear. Other influential proponents of the hypothesis at this time were psychologists
852:
Eriksson, J. G., Kajantie, E., Osmond, C., Thornburg, K., & Barker, D. J. (2010). Boys live dangerously in the womb. American journal of human biology : the official journal of the Human
Biology Council, 22(3), 330–335.
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111:"By the 1890s several studies had been conducted to demonstrate that variability was indeed more characteristic of males...The biological evidence overwhelmingly favored males as the more variable sex."
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Lehre, Anne-Catherine; Lehre, Knut; Laake, Petter; Danbolt, Niels (2009). "Greater intrasex phenotype variability in males than in females is a fundamental aspect of the gender differences in humans".
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the extremes of the distribution. Publications differ as to the extent and distribution of male variability, including on whether variability can be shown across various cultural and social factors.
34:
Two distribution curves with identical means but different variabilities. The curve with the greater variability (green) yields higher values in both the lowest and highest ends of the range.
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college admissions. They note: "Simulations of these differences suggest the top 10% of a class contains equal numbers of girls and boys in STEM, but more girls in non-STEM subjects."
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That same year, a mathematics research paper presenting a possible evolutionary explanation for the variability hypothesis was peer-reviewed, accepted, and formally published in
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than females, which the authors indicate is not meaningfully different from an equal variance. Additionally, they find several datasets indicate no or a reversed variance ratio.
86:
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585:
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Thöni, Christian; Volk, Stefan; Cortina, Jose M. (January 2021). "Greater Male
Variability in Cooperation: Meta-Analytic Evidence for an Evolutionary Perspective".
1739:
Bahar, A. Kadir (2021). "Will We Ever Close the Gender Gap Among Top
Mathematics Achievers? Analysis of Recent Trends by Race in Advanced Placement (AP) Exams".
1291:
Irwing, Paul; Lynn, Richard (November 2005). "Sex differences in means and variability on the progressive matrices in university students: A meta-analysis".
56:
Sex-differences in variability have been observed in many abilities and traits – including physical, psychological and genetic ones – across a wide range of
441:
Johnson, Wendy; Carothers, Andrew; Deary, Ian J. (November 2008). "Sex
Differences in Variability in General Intelligence: A New Look at the Old Question".
143:, one of the leading exponents of mental testing who played an instrumental role in the development of today's Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery
263:
find strong evidence for greater male variability for cooperation (variance ratio: 1.30, 95% CI ), time preferences (1.15, ), risk preferences (1.25 ),
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Denmark, F. L.; Fernandez, L. C. (1993). "Historical development of the psychology of women". In Denmark, Florence; Paludi, Michele Antoinette (eds.).
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324:) suggesting possible innate biological factors including greater male variability to help explain the underrepresentation of women in hi-tech jobs.
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Hyde, J. S.; Lindberg, S. M.; Linn, M. C.; Ellis, A. B.; Williams, C. C. (25 July 2008). "Gender Similarities Characterize Math Performance".
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suggested a greater prevalence of physical abnormalities among men than women, was also indicative of men's greater physical variability.
2142:"Kann Mathematik sexistisch sein? Ein Aufsatz über Intelligenzverteilung unter Männern und Frauen wurde in den USA jedenfalls zensuriert"
1490:"Sex differences in variability across nations in reading, mathematics and science: a meta-analytic extension of Baye and Monseur (2016)"
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Benjamin, Ludy T; Shields, Stephanie A (1990). "Leta Stetter Hollingworth (1886–1939)". In O'Connell, Agnes; Russo, Nancy Felipe (eds.).
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discussed the social history which she argued explains "the revulsion with which many feminists react to the variability hypothesis."
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found that males are more variable on most measures of quantitative and visuospatial ability, making no conclusions of its causation.
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Hedges, L.; Nowell, A (7 July 1995). "Sex differences in mental test scores, variability, and numbers of high-scoring individuals".
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Halpern, Diane F.; Benbow, Camilla P.; Geary, David C.; Gur, Ruben C.; Hyde, Janet Shibley; Gernsbacher, Morton Ann (August 2007).
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Shields, Stephanie A. (1975). "Ms. Pilgrim's progress: The contributions of Leta Stetter Hollingworth to the psychology of women".
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species. On the genetic level, the greater phenotype variability in males is likely to be associated with human males being a
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Stewart-Williams, Steve; Halsey, Lewis G (January 2021). "Men, women and STEM: Why the differences and what should be done?".
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The notion of greater male variability—at least in respect to physical characteristics—can be traced back to the writings of
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Feingold, Alan (January 1994). "Gender differences in variability in intellectual abilities: A cross-cultural perspective".
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Shields, S. (1982). "The variability hypothesis: The history of a biological model of sex differences in intelligence".
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2114:"What really happened when two mathematicians tried to publish a paper on gender differences? The tale of the emails"
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Machin, S.; Pekkarinen, T. (28 November 2008). "ASSESSMENT: Global Sex Differences in Test Score Variability".
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Arden, Rosalind; Plomin, Robert (July 2006). "Sex differences in variance of intelligence across childhood".
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Gray, Helen; Lyth, Andrew; McKenna, Catherine; Stothard, Susan; Tymms, Peter; Copping, Lee (December 2019).
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90:, Darwin cites some observations made by his contemporaries. For example, he highlights findings from the
1991:
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2018:
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1966:"Full Transcript: President Summers' Remarks at the National Bureau of Economic Research, Jan. 14 2005"
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software engineer James Damore was fired immediately after posting an internal memo on diversity (see
1531:"Gender differences in individual variation in academic grades fail to fit expected patterns for STEM"
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Hollingworth, L. S. (1914). "Variability as related to sex differences in achievement: A critique".
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led to an intellectual dispute about the variability hypothesis between Ellis and the statistician
17:
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46:, is the hypothesis that males generally display greater variability in traits than females do.
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Benjamin, Ludy T. (March 1990). "Leta Stetter Hollingworth: Psychologist, educator, feminist".
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665:"Leta Stetter Hollingworth: 'Literature of Opinion' and the Study of Individual Differences"
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2073:"The Greater Male Variability Hypothesis – An Addendum to our post on the Google Memo 2017"
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136:), which made it possible to examine intelligence with greater objectivity and precision.
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1682:"Converging evidence for greater male variability in time, risk, and social preferences"
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One advocate of greater male variability during this time was the American psychologist
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Lindberg, Sara M.; Hyde, Janet Shibley; Petersen, Jennifer L.; Linn, Marcia C. (2010).
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1588:"Greater male than female variability in regional brain structure across the lifespan"
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The variability hypothesis has continued to spur controversy within academic circles.
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conclude that differences in variability are insufficient to explain disparities in
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1447:"Gender differences in variability and extreme scores in an international context"
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One of the most prominent incidents occurred in 2005 when then Harvard President,
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In a 1992 paper titled "Variability: A Pernicious Hypothesis," Stanford Professor
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Blinkhorn, Steve (July 2006). "Is there a sex difference in IQ scores? (Reply)".
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Hypothesis that males have more variance in certain traits compared to females
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O’Dea, R. E.; Lagisz, M.; Jennions, M. D.; Nakagawa, S. (25 September 2018).
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1776:"Sex differences in Cognitive Abilities Test scores: A UK national picture"
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1873:"Variability in energy expenditure is much greater in males than females"
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and thus are more likely to display averaged traits in their phenotype.
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Wierenga, Lara M.; Doucet, Gaelle E.; Dima, Danai; et al. (2020).
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667:. In Kimble, Gregory A.; Wertheimer, Michael; White, Charlotte (eds.).
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586:"The pioneering work of Leta Hollingworth in the psychology of women"
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2167:"Modeling the evolution of differences in variability between sexes"
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Noddings, Nel (March 1992). "Variability: A Pernicious Hypothesis".
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Finder, Alan; Healy, Patrick D.; Zernike, Kate (22 February 2006).
1195:"New trends in gender and mathematics performance: A meta-analysis"
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29:
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A 2008 analysis of test scores across 41 countries published in
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Strand, Steve; Deary, Ian J.; Smith, Pauline (September 2006).
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meta-analyses found greater female variability on the standard
2088:"A Twice-Retracted Paper on Sex Differences Ignites Debate"
2011:"President of Harvard Resigns, Ending Stormy 5-Year Tenure"
1060:"The Science of Sex Differences in Science and Mathematics"
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Man and Woman: A Study of Human Secondary Sexual Characters
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Ellis, Havelock (1897). "The Variational Tendency of Men".
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Man and Woman: A Study of Human Secondary Sexual Characters
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2057:"Facing War With His Faculty, Harvard's Summers Resigns"
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offers (1.18 ) and transfers in the trust game (1.28 ).
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In 2021, two meta-analyses on preference measurement in
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Psychology of Women: A Handbook of Issues and Theories
2054:
Daniel Golden and Steve Stecklow (22 February 2006).
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Sean Stevens and Jonathan Haidt (4 September 2017).
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The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex
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49:It has often been discussed in relation to human
1428:"Battle of the sexes: Who has the bigger brain?"
1686:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1005:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
999:Hyde, Janet S.; Mertz, Janet E. (2 June 2009).
1680:Thöni, Christian; Volk, Stefan (8 June 2021).
1001:"Gender, culture, and mathematics performance"
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385:Wilson Sayres, Melissa A (21 February 2018).
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1064:Psychological Science in the Public Interest
3169:
2435:
2222:
2208:
2200:
387:"Genetic Diversity on the Sex Chromosomes"
313:, prompting his resignation as President.
1906:
1896:
1783:British Journal of Educational Psychology
1715:
1705:
1613:
1603:
1562:
1505:
1472:
1462:
1445:Baye, Ariane; Monseur, Christian (2016).
1351:
1259:
1218:
1083:
1034:
1024:
772:. Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 173–183.
628:
626:
624:
622:
620:
579:
577:
575:
573:
571:
503:
454:
410:
208:exhibit a gender difference in variance.
3386:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
2171:Journal of Interdisciplinary Mathematics
335:Journal of Interdisciplinary Mathematics
1741:Journal for the Education of the Gifted
377:
116:Early controversies in the 20th century
2086:Azvolinsky, Anna (27 September 2018).
1845:Personality and Individual Differences
1242:Hyde, Janet Shibley (3 January 2014).
671:. Psychology Press. pp. 243–255.
602:
2878:Psychological effects of Internet use
1244:"Gender Similarities and Differences"
443:Perspectives on Psychological Science
256:further examination and replication.
99:mental faculties, was the sexologist
7:
1494:Large-Scale Assessments in Education
1451:Large-Scale Assessments in Education
2858:Digital media use and mental health
2140:Neumann, Marc (18 September 2018).
1990:Jaschik, Scott (18 February 2005).
1261:10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115057
669:Portraits of Pioneers in Psychology
330:The New York Journal of Mathematics
44:greater male variability hypothesis
18:Greater Male Variability Hypothesis
2489:Automatic and controlled processes
1334:Blinkhorn, Steve (November 2005).
855:https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.20995
832:. Greenwood Press. pp. 1–22.
795:The American Journal of Psychology
80:. When he expounded his theory of
25:
2898:Smartphones and pedestrian safety
2165:Hill, Theodore P. (3 July 2020).
322:Google's Ideological Echo Chamber
247:In October 2020, with respect to
3549:
3536:
3524:
3523:
2923:Mobile phones and driving safety
1426:McKie, Robin (6 November 2005).
1076:10.1111/j.1529-1006.2007.00032.x
465:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00096.x
2826:Computer-mediated communication
1818:European Journal of Personality
316:In a similar incident in 2017,
3103:Empathising–systemising theory
2406:female intrasexual competition
2343:Evolutionarily stable strategy
1932:Review of Educational Research
663:Shields, Stephanie A. (2013).
1:
3463:Standard social science model
2516:Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis
2183:10.1080/09720502.2020.1769827
1293:British Journal of Psychology
694:American Journal of Sociology
3311:Missing heritability problem
2903:Social aspects of television
2526:Evolution of nervous systems
2494:Computational theory of mind
1889:10.1016/j.jhevol.2022.103229
391:Genome Biology and Evolution
226:Raven's Progressive Matrices
3557:Evolutionary biology portal
1248:Annual Review of Psychology
1109:Developmental Psychobiology
498:. Scott. pp. 358–372.
270:A 2021 study of 10 million
163:Leta Hollingworth's studies
120:The publication of Ellis's
3610:
3518:Evolutionary psychologists
3391:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
3306:Human–animal communication
3018:Ovulatory shift hypothesis
2868:Imprinted brain hypothesis
2836:Human–computer interaction
1877:Journal of Human Evolution
1857:10.1016/j.paid.2005.11.027
1555:10.1038/s41467-018-06292-0
287:Contemporary controversies
166:
147:. In his 1906 publication
103:. In his 1894 publication
64:gender, while females are
3512:
3438:Environmental determinism
3409:Cultural selection theory
3296:Evolutionary epistemology
3210:evolutionary neuroscience
2883:Rank theory of depression
2385:Parent–offspring conflict
2237:
1992:"What Larry Summers Said"
1944:10.3102/00346543062001085
1753:10.1177/01623532211044540
1507:10.1186/s40536-019-0070-9
1464:10.1186/s40536-015-0015-x
647:10.1080/02783199009553259
609:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
584:Benjamin, Ludy T (1975).
347:Sex differences in humans
3331:Cultural group selection
3215:Biocultural anthropology
2908:Societal impacts of cars
2841:Media naturalness theory
2531:Fight-or-flight response
1830:10.1177/0890207020962326
1651:10.1177/0956797620956632
275:been slowly decreasing.
3594:Evolutionary psychology
3531:Evolutionary psychology
3495:Sociocultural evolution
3336:Dual inheritance theory
2793:Personality development
2254:Theoretical foundations
2231:Evolutionary psychology
1795:10.1348/000709905X50906
1707:10.1073/pnas.2026112118
1305:10.1348/000712605X53542
1164:10.1126/science.1160364
1026:10.1073/pnas.0901265106
935:10.1126/science.7604277
884:10.1126/science.1162573
505:2027/mdp.39015000618002
162:
3579:Psychological theories
3453:Social constructionism
3448:Psychological nativism
3423:Biological determinism
3371:Recent human evolution
3366:Punctuated equilibrium
3189:Behavioral epigenetics
3184:evolutionary economics
3153:Variability hypothesis
3098:Emotional intelligence
2831:Engineering psychology
2521:Evolution of the brain
1199:Psychological Bulletin
261:experimental economics
40:variability hypothesis
35:
3584:History of psychology
3480:Multilineal evolution
3443:Nature versus nurture
3402:Theoretical positions
3250:Functional psychology
3245:Evolutionary medicine
3220:Biological psychiatry
2928:Texting while driving
2918:Lead–crime hypothesis
2778:Cognitive development
2763:Caregiver deprivation
2274:Gene selection theory
2146:Neue ZĂĽrchner Zeitung
1639:Psychological Science
1535:Nature Communications
740:American Psychologist
134:Intelligence quotient
33:
3433:Cultural determinism
3240:Evolutionary biology
3225:Cognitive psychology
3173:Academic disciplines
2821:Cognitive ergonomics
2788:Language acquisition
2768:Childhood attachment
2581:Wason selection task
2475:Behavioral modernity
2264:Cognitive revolution
2247:Evolutionary thought
157:James McKeen Cattell
42:, also known as the
3500:Unilineal evolution
3265:Population genetics
3050:Sexy son hypothesis
2988:Hormonal motivation
2968:Concealed ovulation
2509:Dual process theory
2380:Parental investment
2122:. 17 September 2018
1970:The Harvard Crimson
1698:2021PNAS..11826112T
1592:Human Brain Mapping
1547:2018NatCo...9.3777O
1397:10.1038/nature04967
1017:2009PNAS..106.8801H
927:1995Sci...269...41H
878:(5906): 1331–1332.
357:Bateman's principle
3458:Social determinism
3341:Fisher's principle
3301:Great ape language
3291:Cultural evolution
3260:Philosophy of mind
3093:Division of labour
3055:Westermarck effect
3003:Mating preferences
2913:Distracted driving
2647:Literary criticism
2504:Domain specificity
2484:modularity of mind
2015:The New York Times
978:10.1007/BF01420741
403:10.1093/gbe/evy039
352:Sex and psychology
307:no-confidence vote
253:cortical thickness
58:sexually dimorphic
36:
3566:
3565:
3544:Psychology portal
3508:
3507:
3351:Hologenome theory
3321:Unit of selection
3316:Primate cognition
3230:Cognitive science
3161:
3160:
3032:Sexual attraction
3008:Mating strategies
2773:Cinderella effect
2703:Moral foundations
2607:Visual perception
2499:Domain generality
2468:Facial expression
2416:Sexual dimorphism
2375:Natural selection
2321:Hamiltonian spite
2043:on 22 March 2017.
1605:10.1002/hbm.25204
1474:20.500.12799/3831
1336:"A gender bender"
1158:(5888): 494–495.
1121:10.1002/dev.20358
1011:(22): 8801–8807.
839:978-0-313-26295-1
779:978-0-313-26091-9
678:978-1-317-75992-8
367:Sexual dimorphism
249:brain morphometry
169:Leta Hollingworth
92:Novara Expedition
51:cognitive ability
16:(Redirected from
3601:
3553:
3540:
3527:
3526:
3170:
3166:Related subjects
2953:Adult attachment
2480:Cognitive module
2436:
2423:Social selection
2397:Costly signaling
2392:Sexual selection
2279:Modern synthesis
2224:
2217:
2210:
2201:
2195:
2194:
2177:(5): 1009–1031.
2162:
2156:
2155:
2153:
2152:
2137:
2131:
2130:
2128:
2127:
2119:Retraction Watch
2110:
2104:
2103:
2101:
2100:
2083:
2077:
2076:
2068:
2062:
2061:
2059:
2051:
2045:
2044:
2042:
2037:. Archived from
2006:
2000:
1999:
1996:Inside Higher Ed
1987:
1981:
1980:
1978:
1976:
1962:
1956:
1955:
1927:
1921:
1920:
1910:
1900:
1867:
1861:
1860:
1840:
1834:
1833:
1813:
1807:
1806:
1780:
1771:
1765:
1764:
1736:
1730:
1729:
1719:
1709:
1677:
1671:
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1634:
1628:
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1617:
1607:
1583:
1577:
1576:
1566:
1526:
1520:
1519:
1509:
1485:
1479:
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1476:
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1442:
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1423:
1417:
1416:
1380:
1374:
1373:
1355:
1331:
1325:
1324:
1288:
1282:
1281:
1263:
1239:
1233:
1232:
1222:
1211:10.1037/a0021276
1205:(6): 1123–1135.
1190:
1184:
1183:
1147:
1141:
1140:
1104:
1098:
1097:
1087:
1055:
1049:
1048:
1038:
1028:
996:
990:
989:
961:
955:
954:
910:
904:
903:
867:
858:
850:
844:
843:
825:
819:
818:
790:
784:
783:
765:
756:
755:
752:10.1037/h0077024
735:
718:
717:
689:
683:
682:
660:
651:
650:
630:
615:
614:
608:
600:
593:Nebraska History
590:
581:
566:
565:
529:
518:
517:
507:
491:
485:
484:
458:
438:
425:
424:
414:
397:(4): 1064–1078.
382:
149:Sex in Education
141:Edward Thorndike
82:sexual selection
21:
3609:
3608:
3604:
3603:
3602:
3600:
3599:
3598:
3569:
3568:
3567:
3562:
3504:
3490:Neoevolutionism
3397:
3381:Species complex
3346:Group selection
3284:Research topics
3279:
3255:Neuropsychology
3157:
3143:Substance abuse
3065:Sex differences
3059:
2973:Coolidge effect
2934:
2846:Neuroergonomics
2811:
2802:
2726:
2628:
2562:Folk psychology
2443:
2427:
2297:
2290:
2233:
2228:
2198:
2164:
2163:
2159:
2150:
2148:
2139:
2138:
2134:
2125:
2123:
2112:
2111:
2107:
2098:
2096:
2085:
2084:
2080:
2070:
2069:
2065:
2053:
2052:
2048:
2008:
2007:
2003:
1989:
1988:
1984:
1974:
1972:
1964:
1963:
1959:
1929:
1928:
1924:
1869:
1868:
1864:
1842:
1841:
1837:
1815:
1814:
1810:
1778:
1773:
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1737:
1733:
1679:
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1636:
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1631:
1585:
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1580:
1528:
1527:
1523:
1487:
1486:
1482:
1444:
1443:
1439:
1425:
1424:
1420:
1391:(7098): E1–E2.
1382:
1381:
1377:
1353:10.1038/438031a
1346:(7064): 31–32.
1333:
1332:
1328:
1290:
1289:
1285:
1241:
1240:
1236:
1192:
1191:
1187:
1149:
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1144:
1106:
1105:
1101:
1057:
1056:
1052:
998:
997:
993:
963:
962:
958:
921:(5220): 41–45.
912:
911:
907:
869:
868:
861:
851:
847:
840:
827:
826:
822:
792:
791:
787:
780:
767:
766:
759:
737:
736:
721:
691:
690:
686:
679:
662:
661:
654:
632:
631:
618:
601:
588:
583:
582:
569:
531:
530:
521:
493:
492:
488:
456:10.1.1.605.5483
440:
439:
428:
384:
383:
379:
375:
343:
311:Harvard faculty
289:
188:
171:
165:
153:G. Stanley Hall
118:
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28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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3333:
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3000:
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2930:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2873:Mind-blindness
2870:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2849:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2817:
2815:
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2800:
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2785:
2780:
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2765:
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2747:
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2728:
2727:
2725:
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2719:
2718:
2717:
2707:
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2705:
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2649:
2638:
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2630:
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2625:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2604:
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2594:
2585:
2584:
2583:
2578:
2568:
2566:theory of mind
2559:
2550:
2549:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2512:
2511:
2506:
2501:
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2477:
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2471:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2449:
2447:
2433:
2429:
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2426:
2425:
2420:
2419:
2418:
2413:
2408:
2399:
2389:
2388:
2387:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2361:
2360:
2350:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2333:Baldwin effect
2330:
2329:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2308:
2302:
2300:
2292:
2291:
2289:
2288:
2283:
2282:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2251:
2250:
2249:
2238:
2235:
2234:
2229:
2227:
2226:
2219:
2212:
2204:
2197:
2196:
2157:
2132:
2105:
2078:
2063:
2046:
2001:
1982:
1957:
1922:
1862:
1835:
1808:
1789:(3): 463–480.
1766:
1747:(4): 331–365.
1731:
1672:
1629:
1598:(1): 470–499.
1578:
1521:
1480:
1437:
1418:
1375:
1326:
1299:(4): 505–524.
1283:
1254:(1): 373–398.
1234:
1185:
1142:
1115:(2): 198–206.
1099:
1050:
991:
972:(1–2): 81–92.
956:
905:
859:
845:
838:
820:
801:(2): 299–301.
785:
778:
757:
746:(8): 852–857.
719:
706:10.1086/212287
700:(4): 510–530.
684:
677:
652:
641:(3): 145–151.
616:
567:
546:10.1086/493921
540:(4): 769–797.
519:
486:
449:(6): 518–531.
426:
376:
374:
371:
370:
369:
364:
359:
354:
349:
342:
339:
288:
285:
187:
186:Modern studies
184:
164:
161:
117:
114:
113:
112:
101:Havelock Ellis
78:Charles Darwin
73:
70:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3606:
3595:
3592:
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3520:
3519:
3515:
3514:
3511:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3485:Neo-Darwinism
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3470:Functionalism
3468:
3464:
3461:
3459:
3456:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3428:Connectionism
3426:
3424:
3421:
3420:
3419:
3418:indeterminism
3415:
3412:
3410:
3407:
3406:
3404:
3400:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3382:
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3359:
3357:
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3337:
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3329:
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3309:
3307:
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3302:
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3231:
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3216:
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3203:
3199:
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3187:
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3181:
3178:
3177:
3175:
3171:
3168:
3164:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3138:Schizophrenia
3136:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3123:Mental health
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
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3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2998:Mate guarding
2996:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2958:Age disparity
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2945:
2943:
2941:
2937:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
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2911:
2910:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
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2891:
2889:
2888:Schizophrenia
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
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2859:
2856:
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2829:
2827:
2824:
2823:
2822:
2819:
2818:
2816:
2814:
2813:Mental health
2809:
2808:Human factors
2805:
2799:
2798:Socialization
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2758:paternal bond
2755:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2737:
2735:
2733:
2729:
2723:
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2708:
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2648:
2645:
2644:
2643:
2640:
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2635:
2631:
2623:
2622:NaĂŻve physics
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2609:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2589:
2588:Motor control
2586:
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2579:
2577:
2574:
2573:
2572:
2569:
2567:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2554:
2551:
2547:
2546:Ophidiophobia
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2536:Arachnophobia
2534:
2533:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2510:
2507:
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2463:Display rules
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2365:Kin selection
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2259:Adaptationism
2257:
2256:
2255:
2252:
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2240:
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2232:
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2093:The Scientist
2089:
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2067:
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2036:
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2020:
2016:
2012:
2005:
2002:
1997:
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1986:
1983:
1971:
1967:
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1945:
1941:
1937:
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695:
688:
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659:
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648:
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635:Roeper Review
629:
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623:
621:
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612:
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308:
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303:Larry Summers
299:
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286:
284:
280:
276:
273:
268:
266:
265:dictator game
262:
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250:
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196:meta-analysis
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185:
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179:
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170:
160:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
137:
135:
129:
127:
123:
122:Man and Woman
115:
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109:
108:
106:
102:
96:
93:
89:
88:
83:
79:
71:
69:
67:
63:
62:heterogametic
59:
54:
52:
47:
45:
41:
32:
19:
3555:
3542:
3529:
3516:
3275:Sociobiology
3152:
3133:Neuroscience
3113:Intelligence
2659:Anthropology
2612:Color vision
2597:Multitasking
2576:Flynn effect
2571:Intelligence
2553:Folk biology
2296:Evolutionary
2174:
2170:
2160:
2149:. Retrieved
2145:
2135:
2124:. Retrieved
2117:
2108:
2097:. Retrieved
2091:
2081:
2066:
2049:
2040:the original
2014:
2004:
1995:
1985:
1973:. Retrieved
1969:
1960:
1938:(1): 85–88.
1935:
1931:
1925:
1898:10138/352714
1880:
1876:
1865:
1851:(1): 39–48.
1848:
1844:
1838:
1821:
1817:
1811:
1786:
1782:
1769:
1744:
1740:
1734:
1689:
1685:
1675:
1645:(1): 50–63.
1642:
1638:
1632:
1595:
1591:
1581:
1538:
1534:
1524:
1497:
1493:
1483:
1454:
1450:
1440:
1432:The Guardian
1431:
1421:
1388:
1384:
1378:
1343:
1339:
1329:
1296:
1292:
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1251:
1247:
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1102:
1067:
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1008:
1004:
994:
969:
965:
959:
918:
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829:
823:
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769:
743:
739:
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693:
687:
668:
638:
634:
605:cite journal
596:
592:
537:
533:
495:
489:
446:
442:
394:
390:
380:
334:
328:
326:
315:
300:
296:Nel Noddings
293:
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269:
258:
246:
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234:
230:
222:
218:
214:
210:
203:
200:
193:
189:
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176:
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148:
138:
130:
126:Karl Pearson
121:
119:
104:
97:
85:
75:
55:
48:
43:
39:
37:
3414:Determinism
3326:Coevolution
3270:Primatology
3108:Gender role
3013:Orientation
2893:Screen time
2750:Affectional
2732:Development
2411:Mate choice
2338:By-products
2306:Adaptations
2269:Cognitivism
1824:(1): 3–39.
1541:(1): 3777.
1457:(4): 1–16.
1070:(1): 1–51.
362:Lek paradox
66:homogametic
3589:Hypotheses
3573:Categories
3361:Population
3356:Lamarckism
3202:behavioral
3180:Behavioral
3128:Narcissism
3073:Aggression
2863:Hypophobia
2853:Depression
2740:Attachment
2722:Universals
2686:Psychology
2664:Biological
2652:Musicology
2642:Aesthetics
2541:Basophobia
2348:Exaptation
2326:Reciprocal
2151:2023-01-30
2126:2023-01-30
2099:2018-11-03
2035:2226778958
2031:2226788294
1883:: 103229.
1516:2178957909
815:1289796105
373:References
167:See also:
3206:cognitive
3198:Affective
3083:Cognition
3037:Sexuality
3023:Pair bond
2783:Education
2440:Cognition
2358:Inclusive
2298:processes
2286:Criticism
2191:221060074
2023:433279425
1952:144302157
1761:0162-3532
1667:228101677
1413:148898739
986:144659213
966:Sex Roles
714:144414476
562:143951248
451:CiteSeerX
309:from the
3475:Memetics
3235:Ethology
3193:genetics
3028:Physical
2993:Jealousy
2948:Activity
2754:maternal
2710:Religion
2698:Morality
2676:Language
2557:taxonomy
2370:Mismatch
2316:Cheating
2311:Altruism
2027:93250011
2019:ProQuest
1917:36115145
1803:16953957
1726:34088838
1659:33301379
1624:33044802
1573:30254267
1512:ProQuest
1405:16888850
1362:16267535
1321:14005582
1313:16248939
1278:30544410
1270:23808917
1229:21038941
1180:28135226
1172:18653867
1137:21802694
1129:19031491
1094:25530726
1045:19487665
951:15312296
900:38847707
892:19039123
811:ProQuest
481:22884415
473:26158978
421:29635328
341:See also
3376:Species
3148:Suicide
2983:Fantasy
2963:Arousal
2745:Bonding
2634:Culture
2458:Display
2445:Emotion
2353:Fitness
2242:History
1908:9791915
1717:8201935
1694:Bibcode
1615:8675415
1564:6156605
1543:Bibcode
1370:3181219
1220:3057475
1152:Science
1085:4270278
1036:2689999
1013:Bibcode
943:7604277
923:Bibcode
915:Science
872:Science
807:1417431
554:3173639
514:3675083
412:5892150
204:Science
194:A 2007
72:History
3554:
3541:
3528:
3118:Memory
3078:Autism
3045:female
2978:Desire
2715:Origin
2691:Speech
2681:Origin
2453:Affect
2189:
2021:
1975:2 July
1950:
1915:
1905:
1801:
1759:
1724:
1714:
1692:(23).
1665:
1657:
1622:
1612:
1571:
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1514:
1411:
1403:
1385:Nature
1368:
1360:
1340:Nature
1319:
1311:
1276:
1268:
1227:
1217:
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409:
318:Google
3088:Crime
2671:Crime
2602:Sleep
2592:skill
2432:Areas
2187:S2CID
1948:S2CID
1779:(PDF)
1663:S2CID
1500:(1).
1409:S2CID
1366:S2CID
1317:S2CID
1274:S2CID
1176:S2CID
1133:S2CID
982:S2CID
947:S2CID
896:S2CID
803:JSTOR
710:S2CID
589:(PDF)
558:S2CID
550:JSTOR
534:Signs
477:S2CID
145:ASVAB
3041:male
2402:Male
1977:2019
1913:PMID
1799:PMID
1757:ISSN
1722:PMID
1655:PMID
1620:PMID
1569:PMID
1401:PMID
1358:PMID
1309:PMID
1266:PMID
1225:PMID
1168:PMID
1125:PMID
1090:PMID
1041:PMID
939:PMID
888:PMID
834:ISBN
774:ISBN
673:ISBN
611:link
510:OCLC
469:PMID
417:PMID
242:STEM
155:and
38:The
2940:Sex
2617:Eye
2179:doi
1940:doi
1903:PMC
1893:hdl
1885:doi
1881:171
1853:doi
1826:doi
1791:doi
1749:doi
1712:PMC
1702:doi
1690:118
1647:doi
1610:PMC
1600:doi
1559:PMC
1551:doi
1502:doi
1469:hdl
1459:doi
1393:doi
1389:442
1348:doi
1344:438
1301:doi
1256:doi
1215:PMC
1207:doi
1203:136
1160:doi
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1080:PMC
1072:doi
1031:PMC
1021:doi
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974:doi
931:doi
919:269
880:doi
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643:doi
542:doi
500:hdl
461:doi
407:PMC
399:doi
84:in
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516:.
502::
483:.
463::
447:3
423:.
401::
20:)
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