631:
described by the co-adaptive evolution of predator and prey. A predator like a wolf cannot always hunt a given deer, because an error in prey choice can lead to energy loss, injury and even death. Predators tend to seek vulnerable prey, and this is the basis of the selective impact of predators on the population of prey species. The low hunting success rate of wild carnivores, may be due to the fact that identification of potentially vulnerable prey from distance is imperfect, the more so that the behaviour of prey compensate for its poor health. In the wild, the capacity for distinguishing odors or a slight difference in prey behaviour are influenced by a number of factors, such as wind strength and direction, the body condition and features of the predator, its experience, conditions for pursuing prey and much more. The microbiota (metabolites at the surface of the body) in animals exposed to long-term stress are responsible for their specific stress odor, this allows predators to evaluate the vulnerability of its potential prey. The causes of reduced health differs and depends on the individual animal's sensitivity to several biotic and abiotic factors such as endogenous, infectious, and parasitic diseases, intra- and interspecific interactions, etc. The host macro-organism, which is the microflora system helps predators to judge the state of its prey.
800:
661:
are often classified as active or sit-and-wait predators by their average hunting behaviour. The locomotor crossover hypothesis states that ambush predators should have more success when hunting fast-moving prey, whereas cursorial predators should be more successful when hunting sedentary prey. Studies reveal that starvation can cause an ambush predator to adopt a pursuit predation hunting method, though ambush predators regularly switch to pursuit predation when prey densities are lower. Experiments show that differences in prey's anti-predator responses to the environment can influence predator behaviour or success. Field observations show that predators can alter their hunting behaviour at larger scales according to prey behaviour, but at smaller scales they seek specific locations where they can facilitate hunting.
640:
ranging from insects to primates, despite the cooperation among the hunters, the hunting success of the larger group size does not increase. Research shows that predator groups of 2–5 animals have the highest hunting success rates, then levels off, or even declines, across larger groups. It has been theorised that the hunting success of predators hunting formidable prey increases with group size. This pattern is caused by the increased cooperation in large groups due to the much lower chance a solitary predator has against such prey. The low hunting success of solitary predators promotes cooperation because an extra hunter can sufficiently improve group hunting success to avoid the risk of injury and energy loss.
369:
545:
649:
831:. Encounter rates may have effects on population dynamics, hunter satisfaction, and hunter retention. In a 12-year span between 2003 and 2015, there were about 3,948 grouse hunts, 19,301 rabbit hunts, and 4,798 bobwhite hunts took place. In this case, hunting success was defined as the number of animals a hunting party flushed out. Hunting success was expected to increase over the hunting season due to cover being reduced and weather being more hospitable for upland hunting. Hunting was usually enhanced when more hunters and dogs were introduced to hunting parties.
572:. In 1993, a female and male were observed for 622 hours, a kill was made every 50 minutes and they had a hunting success of 60%. A total of 550 animals were consumed. About 14 small animals were caught each night. Their hunting success is due to their hunting behaviour and frequency of initiated hunts. They use three different ways of hunting, which includes "fast hunting", "slow hunting" and "sit and wait" hunt. They use these three hunting strategies to ambush or pursue their prey which mostly includes small mammals, insects and small birds.
421:
553:
success is due to their highly co-operative hunting behaviour accompanied with high stamina. Wild dogs typically use their stamina to exhaust their prey, which are usually caught after a chase lasting an average of 2 km (1.2 mi). The wild dog's stamina and the prey animal's exhaustion are the driving factors that cause most successful hunts. Harbour porpoises are not usually social but on multiple occasions they've been recorded hunting cooperatively. The average group size consists of about two individuals. Using
779:
525:
291:
500:
448:
266:
79:
620:
213:
93:
561:
reason for their hunting success is due to many unique evolutionary adaptations, which includes aspects of eyesight and flight. In terms of flight, dragonflies can independently control their fore and hind wings, they can also hover and fly in any direction, including backwards. They can fixate on their prey and predict its next move, catching it midair with extreme accuracy. Each of a dragonfly's eyes is made up of thousands of units known as
186:
240:
342:
29:
557:, they locate prey and capture them. They continuously forage throughout the day and night to meet their body requirements. It is hypothesized that harbour porpoises eat large amounts of food, about 10% of their own body mass. Another theory suggests that harbour porpoises require relatively large energy-rich prey, with high hunting success rates to meet their estimated metabolic requirements.
715:
942:, so hunters have now taken this predatory role. Hunters can indirectly affect prey species, indirect behavioural responses includes altered selection of resource, space use or movement. Deers realize that humans are a threat and adapt behavioural strategies by minimizing movement and showing high resistancy times in established ranges, factors that influence harvest susceptibility.
670:
473:
846:
396:
126:
hunts, for example, 1 in 2 to 20 tiger hunts are guessed to end in success, which means tigers are guessed to have a hunting success rate of between 5–50%. Percentage is the preferred method used to write hunting success rather than raw numbers. Usually a single study is used to represent the hunting success of an entire species or in some cases estimations are used.
317:
581:
also estimate the potential carrying capacity of the populations of predators. Kill rates and functional responses are both influenced by diverse ecological variables. Kill rates defer between males and females, solitary individuals, social individuals, mothers with cubs, different age classes, individual fitness, prey availability, experience, etc.
605:
showed that females with cubs had the highest kill rate, with one adult female with cubs in northern
California having a kill rate of 2.35 ungulates per week. Adult males averaged 0.84 ungulates per week, females with cubs had an average of 1.24 ungulates per week and solitary females had a mean kill
138:
Detailed field studies show that prey are usually successful at escaping predators, with hunting success rates as low as 1–5% in many systems. The result of a predatory attack largest depends on the interaction between the predator's physical performance and any evasive maneuvers by the prey animal.
64:
Similar to hunting success, kill rates are the number of animals an individual predator kills per time unit. Hunting success rate focuses on the percentage of successful hunts. Hunting success is also measured in humans, but due to their unnaturally high hunting success, human hunters can have a big
917:
The exploitation of animal species currently threatens many species with extinction. Particularly in tropical rainforests, where hunting for food poses the most severe threat to many species in tropical rainforests. In some cases, Piro shortgun hunters took a limited number of shotgun cartridges on
908:
Historical, substinence, and sport hunting can greatly differ, with modern hunting regulations addressing the issues of hunting and the most sustainable way to hunt. Techniques vary between government regulations, a hunter's personal ethics, local practices, hunting equipment, and the target animal
684:
time obtained by mobile predators due to the risk of unfavourable conditions. The importance of predators on community functioning in gentle environments, an effect which reduces in stressful situations. Hydrodynamic stress associated with waves decreases the predator's success, as these conditions
660:
Field studies show that different predator hunting methods (ambush, pursuit predation, etc.) can lead to distinct number of individuals or prey captured. Due to this, predators with different hunting strategies can cause competing trophic cascades and function at different trophic levels. Predators
580:
Kill rates is the number of prey or biomass killed by an individual predator per unit time. A predator's functional response refers to how kill rates vary with prey density and are of central importance when predicting the stability threshold for prey populations under the effects of predation, and
552:
Most mammals have a hunting success below 50% but some mammals such as
African wild dogs and harbour porpoises can have hunting success rates of over 90%. The African wild dog is one of the most effective hunters on earth, with hunting success reaching a maximum of 90%. Their high levels of hunting
630:
Hunting success depends on the distance or time the predator has to catch its prey, comparable to the distance (time) that the prey has to escape. In the wild, a discrepancy is observed between the carnivore's low hunting success and highly selective predation on ill animals. This behaviour may be
125:
Hunting success across the animal kingdom vary from 5–97% and hunting success can greatly differ between different populations of the same species. Hunting success can be measured for predators in different trophic levels. Hunting success rate is the percentage of captures in a number of initiated
105:
Predators may actively seek out prey, if the predator spots its preferred target it would decide whether to attack or continue searching, and success ultimately depends on a number of factors. Predators may deploy a variety of hunting methods such as ambush, ballistic interception, pack hunting or
918:
hunting trips, and they usually pay no attention to less profitable prey early in the trip, when the chance for more profitable prey becomes more likely. Human disturbance can influence the behaviour of wild animals, which can have inferences for wildlife populations. For example, in
Northeastern
758:
canopies than coyotes, on the other hand coyotes pursued hares more in dense spruce than lynxes. It is thought that the hunting behaviour of lynxes varies according to cover, while that of coyotes is fixed. However, coyotes appeared to use cover to their advantage when stalking hares, possibly an
639:
Increased hunting success is a frequently cited benefit of group living in social predators and this is also a hypothesis for the evolution of sociality. However, previous research shows that the benefit of increased hunting success is only present in small groups. In several group hunting taxas,
560:
Dragonflies have the highest observed hunting success of any animal, with success rates as high as 97%. They are also opportunistic and pursue a variety of prey. Predatory performance may have consequences in terms of energetics, mortality and potential loss of feeding or mating territories. The
52:
organism that end in success. Hunting success is determined by a number of factors such as the features of the predator, timing, different age classes, conditions for hunting, experience, and physical capabilities. Predators selectivity target certain categories of prey, in particular prey of a
786:
Hunting success in humans differ in methods used, selected prey, the performance of the hunter, weather conditions, etc. A study showed that hunters who used dogs had a hunting success of 60%, while those who employed persistent hunting had a hunting success of 37–100% over 15 attempted hunts.
701:
exhibited much lower foraging success in more rapid flows. As a result, environmental conditions can influence predators by reducing their ability to find or handle prey. Behavioural research shows that environmental conditions like hydrodynamics can have a big effect in
787:
Hunters who hunted with bows and arrows had a hunting success of only 5%, whereas others who hunted with springhare probe had a hunting success of 14% and yet others who used clubs and spears had a success rate of 45%. The study was based on the hunting methods of the
584:
Kill rates are required to further understand functional responses and predator-prey dynamics, as well as develop conservation strategies for predator species around the world. Kill rate studies have been conducted for large carnivores such as
129:
Hunting success can also be used to define the number of kills a human hunter makes over a specific number of hunts. However, hunting success is not used to define the number of animals a poacher, or a canned trophy hunter kills.
2091:
1694:
909:
species. Hunters may use a combined of two or more hunting techniques, though law may forbid hunters from using techniques common in activities like poaching and wildlife management.
2130:
Inoue T, Marsura T. 1983. Foraging strategy of a mantid, Paratenodera angustipennis S.: mechanisms of switching tactics between ambush and active search. Oecologia. 52(2):264–271.
799:
2054:
MacNulty, D.R., Mech, L.D., and Smith, D.W., A Proposed
Ethogram of Large-Carnivore Predatory Behavior, Exemplified by the Wolf, J. Mammal., 2007, vol. 88, no. 3, pp. 595–605.
1610:
2261:
1899:
1552:
1341:
106:
pursuit predation. Hunting success is used to measure a predator's success rate against a species of prey or against all prey species in its diet, for example in the
1176:
2081:
MacNulty DR, Smith DW, Mech LD, Vucetich JA, Packer C (2012) Nonlinear effects of group size on the success of wolves hunting elk. Behavioral
Ecology 23: 75–82.
65:
effect on prey population and behaviour, especially in areas lacking natural predators, recreational hunting can have inferences for wildlife populations.
2141:
2121:
Scarf I, Nulman E, Ovadia O, Bouskila A. 2006. Efficiency evaluation of two competing foraging modes under different conditions. Am Nat. 168(3):350–357.
922:, studies show that hunting and human disturbance decreased the population of large mammals near roads and in more populated areas. In particular,
685:
restrict predator mobility and foraging activity. Environmental conditions may impair a predator's ability to find or consume prey. For instance,
1702:
680:
Conditions in the environment have an influence on a predator's ability to detect prey and vice versa. A primary mechanism is the limiting of
1131:
1989:"Predator-hunting success and prey vulnerability: quantifying the spatial scale over which lethal and non-lethal effects of predation occur"
368:
2036:
Creel, S. and Creel, N.M., Communal
Hunting and Pack Size in African Wild Dogs, Lycaon pictus, Anim. Behav., 1995, vol. 50, pp. 1325–1339.
905:
and much more. Modern regulations differentiate between lawful hunting and illegal poaching, where uncontrolled hunting of animals occur.
722:
A predator's hunting behaviour is suited for hunting in specific types of vegetative cover and is thus a largely custom characteristic in
2045:
Mowat, F., Never Cry Wolf, 2nd ed., Toronto: McClelland and
Stewart, 1973. Translated under the title Ne krichi–volki, Moscow: AST, 2002.
2326:
Ciuti, Simone; Northrup, Joseph M.; Muhly, Tyler B.; Simi, Silvia; Musiani, Marco; Pitt, Justin A.; Boyce, Mark S. (28 November 2012).
1938:
Cristescu, Bogdan; Elbroch, L. Mark; Dellinger, Justin A.; Binder, Wesley; Wilmers, Christopher C.; Wittmer, Heiko U. (1 April 2022).
2279:
819:, US, a study was conducted about the factors influencing the flush and hunting success of hunters in three game species which were
1283:
1151:
57:
can also contribute to hunting success, for example, hunting in groups gives predators an advantage over a solitary predator, and
53:
certain size. Prey animals that are in poor health are targeted and this contributes to the predator's hunting success. Different
693:
with high flow celerities, though they were found at greater densities in high flow rates. Similar incidents happened when fish,
544:
2429:
Marantz, Sierra A.; Long, Jed A.; Webb, Stephen L.; Gee, Kenneth L.; Little, Andrew R.; Demarais, Stephen (27 October 2016).
648:
111:
870:
2435:
2092:
Fear on the move: predator hunting mode predicts variation in prey mortality and plasticity in prey spatial response.
2299:
1077:
2218:
1497:
1378:
565:
that run across its head. This gives them almost 360-degree-vision, which helps them spot prey more efficiently.
2103:
Schmitz OJ. 2008. Effects of predator hunting mode on grassland ecological function. Science. 319(5865):952–954.
2027:
Nelson, M.E. and Mech, L.D., A Single Deer Stands-Off Three Wolves, Am. Midl. Nat., 1993, no. 131, pp. 207–208.
966:
20:
934:
were found far from the roads, this could possibly be due to more intense hunting of these species for either
2112:
Lima SL.2002. Putting predators back into behavioral predator-prey interactions. Trends Ecol Evol 17(2):70–75
2142:"Environmental Context Influences the Outcomes of Predator-prey Interactions and Degree of Top-down Control"
882:
778:
524:
2063:
Alexander RD (1974) The evolution of social behavior. Annual Review of
Ecology and Systematics 5: 325–383.
853:
There are many types of hunting that human hunters employ, these types include recreational hunting (e.g.
2294:"A model of human hunting impacts in multi-prey communities: Modelling hunting in multi-prey communities"
1637:"Adaptations to cursoriality and digit reduction in the forelimb of the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus)"
1357:"Success Rates of the Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) Hunting Dunlin (Calidris alpina) During Winter"
2402:
2255:
1893:
1799:
1546:
1335:
750:
and hunting behaviour in relation to vegetative cover was studied. The main prey for both species were
420:
2339:
2328:"Effects of Humans on Behaviour of Wildlife Exceed Those of Natural Predators in a Landscape of Fear"
2227:
1823:
1763:
1572:
1506:
1428:
1247:
1199:
1086:
1002:
849:
Hunting in
Yorkshire, northern England, in 2005, on the last day of fully legal, proper, fox hunting.
84:
The orca is an intelligent and social species of dolphin. It uses pack hunting and pursuit predation.
1913:
938:
or in retaliation for crop raiding. Most large predators have been extirpated from the range of the
290:
898:
554:
1635:
Smith, Heather F.; Adrian, Brent; Koshy, Rahul; Alwiel, Ryan; Grossman, Aryeh (7 September 2020).
499:
447:
265:
2490:
2243:
2194:
2072:
Packer C, Ruttan L (1988) The evolution of cooperative hunting. American
Naturalist 132: 159–198.
1969:
1840:
1591:
1466:
1429:"Ultra-High Foraging Rates of Harbor Porpoises Make Them Vulnerable to Anthropogenic Disturbance"
1314:
1265:
1234:
Whitford, Malachi D.; Freymiller, Grace A.; Highan, Timothy E.; Clark, Rulon W. (27 March 2019).
1216:
1026:
690:
1379:"Great White Predation – Shark Research & Conservation Program (SRC) | University of Miami"
78:
2375:
2357:
2275:
2186:
2010:
1961:
1881:
1791:
1676:
1658:
1534:
1458:
1170:
1127:
1018:
951:
939:
828:
824:
619:
253:
2274:
Nancy L. Struna, People of Prowess: Sport, Leisure, and Labor in Early Anglo-America (1996),
1116:
548:
Dragonflies having the highest hunting success of any animal, varying anywhere from 90 to 97%
2485:
2480:
2454:
2444:
2431:"Impacts of human hunting on spatial behavior of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus)"
2365:
2347:
2308:
2235:
2178:
2169:
2000:
1951:
1871:
1832:
1781:
1771:
1666:
1648:
1581:
1524:
1514:
1448:
1440:
1323:
1255:
1208:
1094:
1053:
1044:
Lafferty, K. D.; Kuris, A. M. (2002). "Trophic strategies, animal diversity and body size".
1010:
885:(i.e. the use of baits to lure animals), battue (i.e. scaring animals into a killing zone),
723:
486:
434:
303:
226:
2394:
1399:
212:
92:
2415:
2395:"Effects of hunting and human disturbance on wildlife near villages in northeastern Gabon"
1073:"Foraging behaviour and hunting success of lions in Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda"
686:
673:
115:
98:
The tiger is a solitary hunter that specializes in ambush and prefers preying on ungulates
2343:
2293:
2231:
1767:
1510:
1251:
1090:
1006:
2370:
2327:
1859:
1786:
1751:
1671:
1636:
1611:"The number and outcome of nocturnal hunts by lions during moonlit and moonless nights"
1529:
1492:
1327:
1098:
854:
185:
119:
61:
like lions can kill animals that are too powerful for a solitary predator to overcome.
2164:
1057:
239:
2474:
2312:
2213:
2182:
2005:
1988:
1973:
1818:
1356:
1309:
1269:
1220:
1194:
1072:
1030:
990:
961:
820:
804:
751:
653:
623:
199:
2247:
2198:
2163:
Murray, Dennis L.; Boutin, Stan; O'Donoghue, Mark; Nams, Vilis O. (1 January 1995).
1595:
341:
1752:"The effects of social rank and payoff structure on the evolution of group hunting"
1470:
991:"Factors Influencing the Hunting Success of the Predator: A Model with Sighthounds"
956:
902:
866:
858:
755:
2165:"Hunting behaviour of a sympatric felid and canid in relation to vegetative cover"
28:
2352:
1803:
1776:
1519:
1860:"Capture Success and Efficiency of Dragonflies Pursuing Different Types of Prey"
1493:"Feral Cats Are Better Killers in Open Habitats, Revealed by Animal-Borne Video"
1236:"Determinants of predation success: How to survive an attack from a rattlesnake"
894:
739:
586:
58:
1956:
1939:
718:
Vegetative cover can be important when hunting, especially in ambush predators.
714:
1444:
1014:
927:
890:
788:
669:
562:
472:
355:
2361:
2190:
1965:
1662:
1022:
989:
A. V. Shubkina, Aleksey Sergeevich Severtsov, K V Chepeleva (February 2012).
568:
The black-footed cat has the highest hunting success of any member of family
1260:
1235:
845:
703:
395:
54:
49:
33:
2379:
2014:
1885:
1795:
1680:
1538:
1491:
Hugh McGregor, Sarah Legge, Menna E. Jones, Christopher N. Johnson (2015).
1462:
316:
2449:
2430:
1310:"Hunting rates and hunting success in the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta)"
759:
influence of snow on the hunting methods of each of the predator species.
1876:
1858:
S. A. Combes, M. K. Salcedo, M. M. Pandit, J. M. Iwasaki (19 June 2013).
935:
931:
886:
878:
816:
808:
735:
681:
2291:
Rowcliffe, J. Marcus; Cowlishaw, Guy; Long, Janice (26 September 2003).
2212:
Cody M Rhoden, Jeremy Orange, Evan P. Tanner, Danna Baxley (July 2018).
881:. In terms of hunting methods 24 methods are used. This methods include
730:
for instance typically use dense cover to stalk or ambush prey, whereas
676:
can be affected by environmental conditions such as high flow velocities
1844:
1727:
Sliwa, A. (1994). "Diet and feeding behaviour of the Black-footed Cat (
1653:
1453:
923:
874:
862:
840:
768:
731:
727:
698:
598:
569:
382:
41:
2459:
2214:"Factors influencing hunter flush success of three small game species"
1126:(Second ed.). London, Burlington: Academic Press. p. 19−34.
747:
743:
694:
602:
590:
2239:
1836:
1586:
1568:"Motherhood Increases Hunting Success in Southern Kalahari Leopards"
1567:
1308:
Kay E Holekamp, Laura Smale, R. Berg, Susan M. Cooper (March 2009).
1940:"Kill rates and associated ecological factors for an apex predator"
1212:
782:
As in other animals, hunting success in humans differ considerably.
1355:
Joseph B Buchanan, Steven G Herman, Tod M Johnson (January 1986).
919:
844:
798:
777:
713:
668:
647:
618:
594:
543:
278:
107:
27:
172:
1121:
Tigers of the World: The Science, Politics and Conservation of
1152:"Physical and Neurological Processes in the Hunting Dragonfly"
1819:"Hunting Success of African Wild Dogs in Southwestern Kenya"
706:
where predators rely on chemical cues to find their prey.
1987:
Cresswell, Will; Lind, Johan; Quinn, John L. (May 2010).
1731:
Burchell, 1824) in the Kimberley Region, South Africa".
1750:
Julie C. Jarvey, Payam Aminpour, Bohm Clifford (2022).
689:
predation drastically decreased in the vicinity of the
122:, though their overall hunting success was only 27.9%.
754:, the lynx pursued hares more frequently in sparse
2292:
1566:J. du P. Bothma, R. J. Coertze (16 August 2004).
1914:"Dragonflies: Nature's Most Successful Predator"
1195:"Persistence Hunting by Modern Hunter-Gatherers"
1110:
1108:
1427:Wisniewska, D.M.; et al. (6 June 2016).
114:, lions had a hunting success of 54% against
8:
2260:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1898:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1551:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1340:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
795:Factors influencing success of human hunters
1175:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
36:successfully capturing prey with its tongue
1722:
1720:
889:(i.e. using beagles in hunts), the use of
734:do not use vegetative cover when hunting.
48:is the proportion of hunts initiated by a
2458:
2448:
2369:
2351:
2004:
1955:
1875:
1785:
1775:
1670:
1652:
1585:
1528:
1518:
1452:
1259:
2090:Miller JRB, Ament JM, Schmitz OJ. 2014.
1117:"What is a Tiger? Ecology and Behaviour"
656:uses its camouflage to ambush its prey.
146:
1422:
1420:
1284:"Wolves, Big Game, and Hunting – 8.001"
978:
901:(i.e. use of stamina to exhaust prey),
143:List of animals by hunting success rate
2411:
2400:
2253:
1891:
1695:"Long-Held Myth About Cheetahs Busted"
1544:
1333:
1168:
16:Likelihood of a hunt ending in success
7:
1817:Todd Fuller, Pieter Kat (May 1993).
1188:
1186:
1150:read, Archive··7 min (14 May 2022).
1145:
1143:
1119:. In R. Tilson; P. J. Nyhus (eds.).
984:
982:
1864:Integrative and Comparative Biology
857:), medium/small game hunting (e.g.
746:were tracked in the snow for three
442:Pack hunting and pursuit predation
207:Pack hunting and pursuit predation
2393:MacCarthy, James (27 April 2018).
1328:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1997.tb02925.x
1193:Louis Liebenberg (December 2006).
1099:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1984.tb00682.x
14:
606:rate of 0.99 ungulates per week.
2313:10.1046/j.1365-2664.2003.00841.x
2006:10.1111/j.1365-2656.2010.01671.x
540:Reasons for high hunting success
523:
498:
471:
446:
419:
394:
367:
340:
315:
289:
264:
238:
211:
184:
91:
77:
1400:"Behavior, Biology and Hunting"
1701:. 23 July 2013. Archived from
893:to hunt, shooting, the use of
1:
1071:Karl Van Orsdol (June 1984).
1058:10.1016/s0169-5347(02)02615-0
635:Social and solitary predators
112:Queen Elizabeth National Park
2353:10.1371/journal.pone.0050611
2183:10.1016/0003-3472(95)80037-9
1777:10.1371/journal.pone.0269522
1520:10.1371/journal.pone.0133915
2436:Canadian Journal of Zoology
2094:J Anim Ecol. 83(1):214–222.
873:, commercial hunting (e.g.
610:Factors influencing success
2507:
2300:Journal of Applied Ecology
2146:Nature Education Knowledge
1957:10.1007/s42991-022-00240-8
1733:Der Zoologische Garten N.F
1078:African Journal of Ecology
838:
766:
134:Hunting success in animals
18:
2219:Wildlife Society Bulletin
1993:Journal of Animal Ecology
1498:Journal of Animal Ecology
1445:10.1016/j.cub.2016.03.069
1330:– via ResearchGate.
1015:10.1134/S1062359012010074
835:Hunting types and methods
774:Hunting success in humans
2140:Delbert L. Smee (2010).
1609:Karl Van Orsdol (2008).
967:Anti-predator adaptation
665:Environmental influences
415:Pack hunting and ambush
21:Hunting (disambiguation)
1261:10.1111/1365-2435.13318
601:. A kill rate study of
158:Preferred hunting style
2410:Cite journal requires
850:
841:Hunting § Methods
812:
783:
719:
677:
657:
627:
549:
37:
2450:10.1139/cjz-2016-0125
1115:Sunquist, M. (2010).
848:
802:
781:
717:
672:
651:
622:
547:
31:
1824:Journal of Mammalogy
1573:Journal of Mammalogy
1361:Short Communications
1200:Current Anthropology
791:in southern Africa.
164:Hunting success rate
55:predation strategies
19:For other uses, see
2344:2012PLoSO...750611C
2232:2018WSBu...42..414R
1768:2022PLoSO..1769522J
1511:2015PLoSO..1033915M
1252:2019FuEco..33.1099W
1091:1984AfJEc..22...79O
1007:2012BioBu..39...65S
899:persistence hunting
871:nuisance management
807:standing next to a
738:predators like the
148:
1877:10.1093/icb/ict072
1705:on 2 February 2022
1654:10.7717/peerj.9866
1315:Journal of Zoology
1240:Functional Ecology
851:
813:
784:
724:taxonomic families
720:
691:Damariscotta River
678:
658:
628:
550:
467:Pursuit predation
363:Pursuit predation
311:Pursuit predation
234:Pursuit predation
147:
118:and 35.7% against
38:
1944:Mammalian Biology
1439:(11): 1441–1446.
1133:978-0-08-094751-8
1046:Trends Ecol. Evol
952:Pursuit predation
940:white-tailed deer
829:cottontail rabbit
825:northern bobwhite
615:Selective feeding
537:
536:
254:Great white shark
116:African buffaloes
2498:
2465:
2464:
2462:
2452:
2426:
2420:
2419:
2413:
2408:
2406:
2398:
2390:
2384:
2383:
2373:
2355:
2323:
2317:
2316:
2296:
2288:
2282:
2272:
2266:
2265:
2259:
2251:
2209:
2203:
2202:
2177:(5): 1203–1210.
2170:Animal Behaviour
2160:
2154:
2153:
2137:
2131:
2128:
2122:
2119:
2113:
2110:
2104:
2101:
2095:
2088:
2082:
2079:
2073:
2070:
2064:
2061:
2055:
2052:
2046:
2043:
2037:
2034:
2028:
2025:
2019:
2018:
2008:
1984:
1978:
1977:
1959:
1935:
1929:
1928:
1926:
1924:
1910:
1904:
1903:
1897:
1889:
1879:
1855:
1849:
1848:
1814:
1808:
1807:
1789:
1779:
1747:
1741:
1740:
1724:
1715:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1691:
1685:
1684:
1674:
1656:
1632:
1626:
1625:
1623:
1621:
1606:
1600:
1599:
1589:
1563:
1557:
1556:
1550:
1542:
1532:
1522:
1488:
1482:
1481:
1479:
1477:
1456:
1424:
1415:
1414:
1412:
1410:
1396:
1390:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1375:
1369:
1368:
1352:
1346:
1345:
1339:
1331:
1305:
1299:
1298:
1296:
1294:
1280:
1274:
1273:
1263:
1246:(6): 1099–1109.
1231:
1225:
1224:
1207:(6): 1017–1026.
1190:
1181:
1180:
1174:
1166:
1164:
1162:
1147:
1138:
1137:
1112:
1103:
1102:
1068:
1062:
1061:
1041:
1035:
1034:
986:
763:In human hunters
748:seasonal winters
710:Vegetative cover
527:
502:
487:Black-footed cat
475:
450:
435:African wild dog
423:
398:
371:
344:
319:
304:Harbour porpoise
293:
268:
242:
227:Peregrine falcon
215:
188:
149:
95:
81:
2506:
2505:
2501:
2500:
2499:
2497:
2496:
2495:
2471:
2470:
2469:
2468:
2443:(12): 853–861.
2428:
2427:
2423:
2409:
2399:
2392:
2391:
2387:
2325:
2324:
2320:
2290:
2289:
2285:
2273:
2269:
2252:
2240:10.1002/wsb.897
2211:
2210:
2206:
2162:
2161:
2157:
2139:
2138:
2134:
2129:
2125:
2120:
2116:
2111:
2107:
2102:
2098:
2089:
2085:
2080:
2076:
2071:
2067:
2062:
2058:
2053:
2049:
2044:
2040:
2035:
2031:
2026:
2022:
1986:
1985:
1981:
1937:
1936:
1932:
1922:
1920:
1912:
1911:
1907:
1890:
1857:
1856:
1852:
1837:10.2307/1382403
1816:
1815:
1811:
1762:(3): e0269522.
1749:
1748:
1744:
1726:
1725:
1718:
1708:
1706:
1693:
1692:
1688:
1634:
1633:
1629:
1619:
1617:
1608:
1607:
1603:
1587:10.1644/BNS-010
1565:
1564:
1560:
1543:
1505:(8): e0133915.
1490:
1489:
1485:
1475:
1473:
1433:Current Biology
1426:
1425:
1418:
1408:
1406:
1398:
1397:
1393:
1383:
1381:
1377:
1376:
1372:
1354:
1353:
1349:
1332:
1307:
1306:
1302:
1292:
1290:
1282:
1281:
1277:
1233:
1232:
1228:
1192:
1191:
1184:
1167:
1160:
1158:
1149:
1148:
1141:
1134:
1123:Panthera tigris
1114:
1113:
1106:
1070:
1069:
1065:
1052:(11): 507–513.
1043:
1042:
1038:
988:
987:
980:
975:
948:
915:
843:
837:
797:
776:
771:
765:
712:
667:
646:
644:Hunting methods
637:
626:stalking a deer
617:
612:
578:
542:
145:
136:
120:common warthogs
103:
102:
101:
100:
99:
96:
87:
86:
85:
82:
71:
46:hunting success
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2504:
2502:
2494:
2493:
2488:
2483:
2473:
2472:
2467:
2466:
2421:
2412:|journal=
2385:
2338:(11): e50611.
2318:
2307:(5): 872–889.
2283:
2267:
2226:(3): 414–419.
2204:
2155:
2132:
2123:
2114:
2105:
2096:
2083:
2074:
2065:
2056:
2047:
2038:
2029:
2020:
1999:(3): 556–562.
1979:
1950:(2): 291–305.
1930:
1905:
1870:(5): 787–798.
1850:
1831:(2): 464–467.
1809:
1742:
1729:Felis nigripes
1716:
1686:
1627:
1601:
1580:(4): 756–760.
1558:
1483:
1416:
1391:
1370:
1347:
1300:
1275:
1226:
1213:10.1086/508695
1182:
1139:
1132:
1104:
1063:
1036:
977:
976:
974:
971:
970:
969:
964:
959:
954:
947:
944:
914:
911:
855:trophy hunting
836:
833:
796:
793:
775:
772:
764:
761:
752:snowshoe hares
711:
708:
666:
663:
645:
642:
636:
633:
616:
613:
611:
608:
577:
574:
541:
538:
535:
534:
532:
529:
520:
517:
514:
510:
509:
507:
504:
495:
492:
489:
483:
482:
480:
477:
468:
465:
462:
458:
457:
455:
452:
443:
440:
437:
431:
430:
428:
425:
416:
413:
410:
406:
405:
403:
400:
391:
388:
385:
379:
378:
376:
373:
364:
361:
358:
352:
351:
349:
346:
337:
334:
331:
327:
326:
324:
321:
312:
309:
306:
300:
299:
297:
294:
287:
284:
281:
275:
274:
272:
269:
262:
259:
256:
250:
249:
247:
244:
235:
232:
229:
223:
222:
220:
217:
208:
205:
202:
196:
195:
193:
190:
181:
178:
175:
169:
168:
165:
162:
159:
156:
153:
144:
141:
135:
132:
97:
90:
89:
88:
83:
76:
75:
74:
73:
72:
70:
67:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2503:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2478:
2476:
2461:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2437:
2432:
2425:
2422:
2417:
2404:
2396:
2389:
2386:
2381:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2322:
2319:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2301:
2295:
2287:
2284:
2281:
2280:0-252-06552-2
2277:
2271:
2268:
2263:
2257:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2220:
2215:
2208:
2205:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2171:
2166:
2159:
2156:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2136:
2133:
2127:
2124:
2118:
2115:
2109:
2106:
2100:
2097:
2093:
2087:
2084:
2078:
2075:
2069:
2066:
2060:
2057:
2051:
2048:
2042:
2039:
2033:
2030:
2024:
2021:
2016:
2012:
2007:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1983:
1980:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1934:
1931:
1919:
1915:
1909:
1906:
1901:
1895:
1887:
1883:
1878:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1854:
1851:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1825:
1820:
1813:
1810:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1788:
1783:
1778:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1746:
1743:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1723:
1721:
1717:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1690:
1687:
1682:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1655:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1631:
1628:
1616:
1612:
1605:
1602:
1597:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1574:
1569:
1562:
1559:
1554:
1548:
1540:
1536:
1531:
1526:
1521:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1499:
1494:
1487:
1484:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1455:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1423:
1421:
1417:
1405:
1401:
1395:
1392:
1380:
1374:
1371:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1351:
1348:
1343:
1337:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1316:
1311:
1304:
1301:
1289:
1285:
1279:
1276:
1271:
1267:
1262:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1230:
1227:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1201:
1196:
1189:
1187:
1183:
1178:
1172:
1157:
1153:
1146:
1144:
1140:
1135:
1129:
1125:
1122:
1118:
1111:
1109:
1105:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1079:
1074:
1067:
1064:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1040:
1037:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
985:
983:
979:
972:
968:
965:
963:
962:Trophic level
960:
958:
955:
953:
950:
949:
945:
943:
941:
937:
933:
929:
925:
921:
912:
910:
906:
904:
900:
896:
892:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
847:
842:
834:
832:
830:
826:
822:
821:ruffed grouse
818:
810:
809:red deer stag
806:
803:Professional
801:
794:
792:
790:
780:
773:
770:
762:
760:
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
737:
733:
729:
725:
716:
709:
707:
705:
700:
696:
692:
688:
683:
675:
671:
664:
662:
655:
654:Orchid mantis
650:
643:
641:
634:
632:
625:
624:Komodo dragon
621:
614:
609:
607:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
582:
575:
573:
571:
566:
564:
558:
556:
546:
539:
533:
530:
528:
526:
521:
518:
515:
512:
511:
508:
505:
503:
501:
496:
493:
490:
488:
485:
484:
481:
478:
476:
474:
469:
466:
463:
460:
459:
456:
453:
451:
449:
444:
441:
438:
436:
433:
432:
429:
426:
424:
422:
417:
414:
411:
408:
407:
404:
401:
399:
397:
392:
389:
386:
384:
381:
380:
377:
374:
372:
370:
365:
362:
359:
357:
354:
353:
350:
347:
345:
343:
338:
335:
332:
329:
328:
325:
322:
320:
318:
313:
310:
307:
305:
302:
301:
298:
295:
292:
288:
286:Pack hunting
285:
282:
280:
277:
276:
273:
270:
267:
263:
260:
257:
255:
252:
251:
248:
245:
243:
241:
236:
233:
230:
228:
225:
224:
221:
218:
216:
214:
209:
206:
203:
201:
200:Spotted hyena
198:
197:
194:
191:
189:
187:
182:
180:Pack hunting
179:
176:
174:
171:
170:
166:
163:
160:
157:
154:
151:
150:
142:
140:
133:
131:
127:
123:
121:
117:
113:
109:
94:
80:
68:
66:
62:
60:
56:
51:
47:
43:
35:
30:
26:
22:
2440:
2434:
2424:
2403:cite journal
2388:
2335:
2331:
2321:
2304:
2298:
2286:
2270:
2256:cite journal
2223:
2217:
2207:
2174:
2168:
2158:
2149:
2145:
2135:
2126:
2117:
2108:
2099:
2086:
2077:
2068:
2059:
2050:
2041:
2032:
2023:
1996:
1992:
1982:
1947:
1943:
1933:
1921:. Retrieved
1917:
1908:
1894:cite journal
1867:
1863:
1853:
1828:
1822:
1812:
1759:
1755:
1745:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1707:. Retrieved
1703:the original
1698:
1689:
1644:
1640:
1630:
1618:. Retrieved
1615:ResearchGate
1614:
1604:
1577:
1571:
1561:
1547:cite journal
1502:
1496:
1486:
1474:. Retrieved
1436:
1432:
1407:. Retrieved
1403:
1394:
1382:. Retrieved
1373:
1364:
1360:
1350:
1336:cite journal
1319:
1313:
1303:
1291:. Retrieved
1287:
1278:
1243:
1239:
1229:
1204:
1198:
1159:. Retrieved
1155:
1124:
1120:
1085:(2): 79–89.
1082:
1076:
1066:
1049:
1045:
1039:
1001:(1): 65–76.
998:
994:
957:Pack hunting
916:
907:
867:pest control
859:deer hunting
852:
814:
785:
756:white spruce
721:
679:
659:
638:
629:
583:
579:
567:
559:
555:echolocation
551:
522:
497:
470:
445:
418:
393:
366:
339:
314:
308:Phocoenidae
237:
210:
183:
137:
128:
124:
104:
63:
59:pack hunters
45:
39:
25:
1918:wctrust.org
1739:(2): 83–96.
1454:10023/10866
928:chimpanzees
805:deerstalker
740:Canada lynx
674:Green crabs
587:gray wolves
231:Falconidae
152:Common name
2475:Categories
2460:10023/9754
1923:19 January
1804:2687693935
1709:17 January
1620:17 January
1409:17 January
1404:dholes.org
1384:20 January
1367:: 130–131.
1293:17 January
1161:17 January
973:References
891:camouflage
839:See also:
767:See also:
687:green crab
576:Kill rates
356:Dragon fly
204:Hyaenidae
69:Definition
2491:Predation
2362:1932-6203
2191:0003-3472
2152:(10): 58.
1974:247343996
1966:1618-1476
1663:2167-8359
1647:: e9866.
1288:Extension
1270:109158123
1221:224793846
1156:SQ Online
1031:254284993
1023:1062-3590
932:mandrills
736:Sympatric
563:ommatidia
258:Lamnidae
50:predatory
34:chameleon
2380:23226330
2332:PLOS ONE
2248:92127687
2199:53182696
2015:20163490
1886:23784698
1800:ProQuest
1796:35687649
1756:PLOS ONE
1681:33194359
1596:86037687
1539:26288224
1476:18 March
1463:27238281
1322:: 1–15.
1171:cite web
946:See also
936:bushmeat
924:primates
903:stalking
887:beagling
879:poaching
827:and the
817:Kentucky
742:and the
699:copepods
682:foraging
599:leopards
516:Felidae
491:Felidae
464:Felidae
461:Cheetah
439:Canidae
412:Felidae
387:Felidae
333:Felidae
283:Canidae
177:Canidae
110:area of
2486:Ecology
2481:Hunting
2371:3509092
2340:Bibcode
2228:Bibcode
1845:1382403
1787:9187110
1764:Bibcode
1699:Animals
1672:7482643
1530:4545751
1507:Bibcode
1471:3923189
1248:Bibcode
1087:Bibcode
1003:Bibcode
995:Ecology
883:baiting
875:whaling
863:fowling
811:carcass
789:bushmen
769:Hunting
704:systems
695:insects
603:cougars
591:jaguars
570:Felidae
519:Ambush
494:Ambush
479:40–50%
454:60–90%
427:27–34%
402:14–38%
390:Ambush
383:Leopard
336:Ambush
261:Ambush
167:Source
42:ecology
2378:
2368:
2360:
2278:
2246:
2197:
2189:
2013:
1972:
1964:
1884:
1843:
1802:
1794:
1784:
1679:
1669:
1661:
1594:
1537:
1527:
1469:
1461:
1268:
1219:
1130:
1029:
1021:
913:Impact
877:) and
744:coyote
732:canids
728:Felids
595:tigers
531:5–50%
513:Tiger
155:Family
2244:S2CID
2195:S2CID
1970:S2CID
1841:JSTOR
1641:PeerJ
1592:S2CID
1467:S2CID
1266:S2CID
1217:S2CID
1027:S2CID
926:like
920:Gabon
409:Lion
279:Dhole
161:Image
108:Mweya
2416:help
2376:PMID
2358:ISSN
2276:ISBN
2262:link
2187:ISSN
2011:PMID
1962:ISSN
1925:2023
1900:link
1882:PMID
1792:PMID
1711:2023
1677:PMID
1659:ISSN
1622:2023
1553:link
1535:PMID
1478:2017
1459:PMID
1411:2023
1386:2023
1342:link
1295:2023
1177:link
1163:2023
1128:ISBN
1019:ISSN
930:and
895:dogs
697:and
652:The
597:and
506:60%
375:95%
348:30%
330:Cat
323:90%
296:20%
271:48%
246:47%
219:75%
192:20%
173:Wolf
2455:hdl
2445:doi
2366:PMC
2348:doi
2309:doi
2236:doi
2179:doi
2001:doi
1952:doi
1948:102
1872:doi
1833:doi
1782:PMC
1772:doi
1667:PMC
1649:doi
1582:doi
1525:PMC
1515:doi
1449:hdl
1441:doi
1324:doi
1320:242
1256:doi
1209:doi
1095:doi
1054:doi
1011:doi
861:),
815:In
40:In
2477::
2453:.
2441:94
2439:.
2433:.
2407::
2405:}}
2401:{{
2374:.
2364:.
2356:.
2346:.
2334:.
2330:.
2305:40
2303:.
2297:.
2258:}}
2254:{{
2242:.
2234:.
2224:42
2222:.
2216:.
2193:.
2185:.
2175:50
2173:.
2167:.
2148:.
2144:.
2009:.
1997:79
1995:.
1991:.
1968:.
1960:.
1946:.
1942:.
1916:.
1896:}}
1892:{{
1880:.
1868:53
1866:.
1862:.
1839:.
1829:74
1827:.
1821:.
1798:.
1790:.
1780:.
1770:.
1760:17
1758:.
1754:.
1737:64
1735:.
1719:^
1697:.
1675:.
1665:.
1657:.
1643:.
1639:.
1613:.
1590:.
1578:85
1576:.
1570:.
1549:}}
1545:{{
1533:.
1523:.
1513:.
1503:10
1501:.
1495:.
1465:.
1457:.
1447:.
1437:26
1435:.
1431:.
1419:^
1402:.
1365:20
1363:.
1359:.
1338:}}
1334:{{
1318:.
1312:.
1286:.
1264:.
1254:.
1244:33
1242:.
1238:.
1215:.
1205:47
1203:.
1197:.
1185:^
1173:}}
1169:{{
1154:.
1142:^
1107:^
1093:.
1083:22
1081:.
1075:.
1050:17
1048:.
1025:.
1017:.
1009:.
999:39
997:.
993:.
981:^
897:,
865:,
823:,
726:.
593:,
589:,
360:–
44:,
32:A
2463:.
2457::
2447::
2418:)
2414:(
2397:.
2382:.
2350::
2342::
2336:7
2315:.
2311::
2264:)
2250:.
2238::
2230::
2201:.
2181::
2150:3
2017:.
2003::
1976:.
1954::
1927:.
1902:)
1888:.
1874::
1847:.
1835::
1806:.
1774::
1766::
1713:.
1683:.
1651::
1645:8
1624:.
1598:.
1584::
1555:)
1541:.
1517::
1509::
1480:.
1451::
1443::
1413:.
1388:.
1344:)
1326::
1297:.
1272:.
1258::
1250::
1223:.
1211::
1179:)
1165:.
1136:.
1101:.
1097::
1089::
1060:.
1056::
1033:.
1013::
1005::
869:/
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
