949:
909:
231:
940:
erosion, pole piece erosion is still a concern. As an alternative, an unconventional Hall thruster design called external discharge Hall thruster or external discharge plasma thruster (XPT) has been introduced. The external discharge Hall thruster does not possess any discharge channel walls or pole pieces. Plasma discharge is produced and sustained completely in the open space outside the thruster structure, and thus erosion-free operation is achieved.
493:
33:
3058:
562:
inside the thruster and are able to ionize almost all of the xenon propellant, allowing mass use of 90–99%. The mass use efficiency of the thruster is thus around 90%, while the discharge current efficiency is around 70%, for a combined thruster efficiency of around 63% (= 90% × 70%). Modern Hall thrusters have achieved efficiencies as high as 75% through advanced designs.
1027:, which are used to adjust and maintain the station's orbit. Hall-effect thrusters are created with crewed mission safety in mind with effort to prevent erosion and damage caused by the accelerated ion particles. A magnetic field and specially designed ceramic shield was created to repel damaging particles and maintain integrity of the thrusters. According to the
242:, was launched December 1971. They were mainly used for satellite stabilization in north–south and in east–west directions. Since then until the late 1990s 118 SPT engines completed their mission and some 50 continued to be operated. Thrust of the first generation of SPT engines, SPT-50 and SPT-60 was 20 and 30 mN respectively. In 1982, the SPT-70 and
468:
innovation that sets them apart from the competition by increasing life and redundancy of the system. The spacetech startup had earlier developed world’s first commercial
Microwave Plasma Thruster, which used water as fuel instantaneously heating it by microwave-induced plasma, and for which the company had bagged an order from ISRO.
627:. Xenon is relatively easy to store, and as a gas at spacecraft operating temperatures does not need to be vaporized before usage, unlike metallic propellants such as bismuth. Xenon's high atomic weight means that the ratio of energy expended for ionization per mass unit is low, leading to a more efficient thruster.
526:
gas, is fed through the anode, which has numerous small holes in it to act as a gas distributor. As the neutral xenon atoms diffuse into the channel of the thruster, they are ionized by collisions with circulating high-energy electrons (typically 10–40 eV, or about 10% of the discharge voltage).
638:
is another choice of propellant for Hall thrusters. Xenon has an ionization potential of 12.1298 eV, while krypton has an ionization potential of 13.996 eV. This means that thrusters utilizing krypton need to expend a slightly higher energy per mole to ionize, which reduces efficiency. Additionally,
144:
between 10 and 80 km/s (1,000–8,000 s specific impulse), with most models operating between 15 and 30 km/s. The thrust produced depends on the power level. Devices operating at 1.35 kW produce about 83 mN of thrust. High-power models have demonstrated up to 5.4 N in the
960:
Hall thrusters have been flying in space since
December 1971, when the Soviet Union launched an SPT-50 on a Meteor satellite. Over 240 thrusters have flown in space since that time, with a 100% success rate. Hall thrusters are now routinely flown on commercial LEO and GEO communications satellites,
452:
In 2013, ISRO funded development of another class of electric thruster called
Magnetoplasmadynamic Electric Propulsion Thruster. The project subsequently developed a technology demonstrator prototype Magneto Plasma Dynamic Thruster (MPD) using Argon propellant with a specific impulse of 2500s at a
930:
profile. The cylindrical Hall thruster more readily lends itself to miniaturization and low-power operation than a conventional (annular) Hall thruster. The primary reason for cylindrical Hall thrusters is that it is difficult to achieve a regular Hall thruster that operates over a broad envelope
295:
Since in the early 1990s, Hall thrusters have been the subject of a large number of research efforts throughout the United States, India, France, Italy, Japan, and Russia (with many smaller efforts scattered in various countries across the globe). Hall thruster research in the US is conducted at
939:
Sputtering erosion of discharge channel walls and pole pieces that protect the magnetic circuit causes failure of thruster operation. Therefore, annular and cylindrical Hall thrusters have limited lifetime. Although magnetic shielding has been shown to dramatically reduce discharge channel wall
561:
About 20–30% of the discharge current is an electron current, which does not produce thrust, thus limiting the energetic efficiency of the thruster; the other 70–80% of the current is in the ions. Because the majority of electrons are trapped in the Hall current, they have a long residence time
467:
became the first commercial firm to bring out commercial hall effect thrusters. The current model of the thruster uses Xenon as fuel. Tests were carried out at the spacecraft propulsion research laboratory in the Indian
Institute of Science, Bengaluru. Heaterless Cathode Technology is the key
534:
between the anode and the cathode. For discharge voltages of 300 V, the ions reach speeds of around 15 km/s (9.3 mi/s) for a specific impulse of 1,500 s (15 kN·s/kg). Upon exiting, however, the ions pull an equal number of electrons with them, creating a
1042:, for its Magnetically Shielded Miniature (MaSMi) Hall thruster technology. In January 2021, Apollo Fusion announced they had secured a contract with York Space Systems for an order of its latest iteration named the "Apollo Constellation Engine".
1031:, the ion drive used on Tiangong has burned continuously for 8,240 hours without a glitch, indicating their suitability for the Chinese space station's designated 15-year lifespan. This is the world's first Hall thruster on a human-rated mission.
999:(GEO). Like most Hall thruster propulsion systems used in commercial applications, the Hall thruster on SMART-1 could be throttled over a range of power, specific impulse, and thrust. It has a discharge power range of 0.46–1.19 kW, a
398:
GEO communications satellite. At 4.5 kW, the BPT-4000 is also the highest power Hall thruster ever flown in space. Besides the usual stationkeeping tasks, the BPT-4000 is also providing orbit-raising capability to the spacecraft. The
558:, and it is from this that the Hall thruster gets its name. Collisions with other particles and walls, as well as plasma instabilities, allow some of the electrons to be freed from the magnetic field, and they drift towards the anode.
288:, visited Russian laboratories and experimentally evaluated the SPT-100 (i.e., a 100 mm diameter SPT thruster). Hall thrusters continue to be used on Russian spacecraft and have also flown on European and American spacecraft.
448:
carried by GSLV Mk2 D3. It had four Xenon powered thrusters for North-South station keeping. Two of them were
Russian and the other two were Indian. The Indian thrusters were rated at 13mN. However, GSLV D3 didn't make it to orbit.
456:
The following year in 2014, ISRO was pursuing development of 75mN & 250 mN SPT thrusters to be used in its future high power communication satellites. The 75 mN thrusters were put to use for the GSAT-9 communication satellite.
410:
constellation, the largest satellite constellation in the world, uses Hall-effect thrusters. Starlink initially used krypton gas, but with its V2 satellites swapped to argon due to its cheaper price and widespread availability.
920:
power regime, they become inefficient when scaled to small sizes. This is due to the difficulties associated with holding the performance scaling parameters constant while decreasing the channel size and increasing the applied
489:) is used to confine the electrons, where the combination of the radial magnetic field and axial electric field cause the electrons to drift in azimuth thus forming the Hall current from which the device gets its name.
172:. They were first described publicly in the US in the early 1960s. However, the Hall thruster was first developed into an efficient propulsion device in the Soviet Union. In the US, scientists focused on developing
925:
strength. This led to the design of the cylindrical Hall thruster. The cylindrical Hall thruster can be more readily scaled to smaller sizes due to its nonconventional discharge-chamber geometry and associated
480:
to accelerate ions up to high speeds. In a Hall thruster, the attractive negative charge is provided by an electron plasma at the open end of the thruster instead of a grid. A radial magnetic field of about
1693:
Using the
Reference Price column, as the cost per unit weight values are inconsistent. The table provides dates that appear to be when quotes were obtained, but has links only to generic supplier websites.
1363:
565:
Compared to chemical rockets, the thrust is very small, on the order of 83 mN for a typical thruster operating at 300 V and 1.5 kW. For comparison, the weight of a coin like the
403:
has been used as a testbed for the Hall thruster for the AEHF satellite series. Several countries worldwide continue efforts to qualify Hall thruster technology for commercial uses. The
2316:
1811:
Goebel, Dan M.; Jorns, Benjamin; Hofer, Richard R.; Mikellides, Ioannis G.; Katz, Ira (2014). "Pole-piece
Interactions with the Plasma in a Magnetically Shielded Hall Thruster".
603:
Another advantage is that these thrusters can use a wider variety of propellants supplied to the anode, even oxygen, although something easily ionized is needed at the cathode.
639:
krypton is a lighter ion, so the unit mass per ionization energy is further reduced compared to xenon. However, xenon can be more than ten times as expensive as krypton per
1844:
Karadag, Burak; Cho, Shinatora; Oshio, Yuya; Hamada, Yushi; Funaki, Ikkoh; Komurasaki, Kimiya (2016). "Preliminary
Investigation of an External Discharge Plasma Thruster".
460:
By 2021 development of a 300 mN thruster was complete. Alongside it, RF powered 10kW plasma engine & Krypton based low power electric propulsion were being pursued.
2392:
2788:
1359:
2906:
546:
and are hardly impeded. The majority of electrons are thus stuck orbiting in the region of high radial magnetic field near the thruster exit plane, trapped in
542:
The radial magnetic field is designed to be strong enough to substantially deflect the low-mass electrons, but not the high-mass ions, which have a much larger
2273:
Daniel A. Herman, Todd A. Tofil, Walter
Santiago, Hani Kamhawi, James E. Polk, John S. Snyder, Richard R. Hofer, Frank Q. Picha, Jerry Jackson and May Allen.
1902:"Low–voltage External Discharge Plasma Thruster and Hollow Cathodes Plasma Plume Diagnostics Utilising Electrostatic Probes and Retarding Potential Analyser"
1884:
1905:
2527:
2329:
574:
1443:
1013:
constellation used krypton-fueled Hall thrusters for position-keeping and deorbiting, while later
Starlink satellites used argon-fueled Hall thrusters.
619:
has been the typical choice of propellant for many electric propulsion systems, including Hall thrusters. Xenon propellant is used because of its high
1088:'s 100 kW X3 Nested Channel Hall Thruster. The thruster is approximately 80 cm in diameter and weighs 230 kg, and has demonstrated a thrust of 5.4 N.
325:
1248:. Proceedings of the NASA-University Conference on the Science and Technology of Space Exploration. Vol. 2. Chicago, Illinois. pp. 171–176.
2804:
2078:
156:
and efficiency in the range of 45–60 percent. The applications of Hall-effect thrusters include control of the orientation and position of orbiting
2277:(PDF). NASA; NASA/TM–2018-219761. 35th International Electric Propulsion Conference. Atlanta, Georgia, October 8–12, 2017. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
1502:
1144:
1045:
The NASA mission to the asteroid Psyche utilizes xenon gas Hall thrusters. The electricity comes from the craft's 75 square meter solar panels.
678:'s previous thruster that used krypton. Argon is approximately 100 times less expensive than Krypton and 1000 times less expensive than Xenon.
285:
1613:
1934:
1861:
1828:
1666:
1323:
2313:
3087:
1736:
313:
2293:
2037:
1965:
1926:
2385:
1784:
Preliminary Results of Performance Measurements on a Cylindrical Hall-Effect Thruster with Magnetic Field Generated by Permanent Magnets
1092:
1053:
519:
and is surrounded by an annular space, and around that is the other pole of the electromagnet, with a radial magnetic field in between.
2709:
1711:
2229:
2783:
1341:
1072:. The high specific impulse of Hall thrusters will allow for efficient orbit raising and station keep for the Lunar Gateway's polar
395:
333:
2308:
2093:
2059:
1111:
Hofer, Richard R. (June 2004). Development and Characterization of High-Efficiency, High-Specific Impulse Xenon Hall Thrusters.
1480:
264:
Over 200 Hall thrusters have been flown on Soviet/Russian satellites since the 1980s. No failures have ever occurred on orbit.
2151:
2809:
2674:
2378:
296:
several government laboratories, universities and private companies. Government and government funded centers include NASA's
2302:
2913:
2768:
2737:
2732:
305:
281:
102:
s) space propulsion technology and has benefited from considerable theoretical and experimental research since the 1960s.
2339:
1989:
1259:
1061:
272:
Soviet-built thrusters were introduced to the West in 1992 after a team of electric propulsion specialists from NASA's
1073:
1039:
1028:
390:
technology demonstration spacecraft. The first flight of an American Hall thruster on an operational mission, was the
3097:
1516:
1048:
NASA's first Hall thrusters on a human-rated mission will be a combination of 6 kW Hall thrusters provided by
996:
292:, an American commercial satellite manufacturer, now flies Fakel SPT-100's on their GEO communications spacecraft.
238:
The SPT design was largely the work of A. I. Morozov. The first SPT to operate in space, an SPT-50 aboard a Soviet
141:
1877:
1231:. Proceedings of Third Symposium on Advanced Propulsion Concepts. Vol. 1. Cincinnati, Ohio. pp. 177–190.
1216:. Proceedings of third symposium on advanced propulsion concepts. Vol. 2. Cincinnati, Ohio. pp. 153–175.
527:
Most of the xenon atoms are ionized to a net charge of +1, but a noticeable fraction (c. 20%) have +2 net charge.
2868:
2727:
2203:
2123:
1901:
1035:
976:
309:
297:
273:
40:
2901:
2660:
2634:
2576:
2560:
2550:
908:
2326:
2957:
2930:
2885:
2873:
2853:
2619:
2581:
2555:
1878:"Numerical Investigation of an External Discharge Hall Thruster Design Utilizing Plasma-lens Magnetic Field"
1391:
962:
644:
592:, is that the generation and acceleration of the ions takes place in a quasi-neutral plasma, so there is no
477:
995:. This use of the PPS-1350-G, starting on September 28, 2003, was the first use of a Hall thruster outside
3008:
2858:
2758:
2500:
1085:
1016:
968:
The first Hall thruster to fly on a western satellite was a Russian D-55 built by TsNIIMASH, on the NRO's
554:(axial electric field and radial magnetic field). This orbital rotation of the electrons is a circulating
496:
Hall thruster. Hall thrusters are largely axially symmetric. This is a cross-section containing that axis.
317:
1586:
2593:
2586:
2401:
2274:
980:
600:
limitation on the thrust density. This allows much smaller thrusters compared to gridded ion thrusters.
301:
277:
230:
86:
to limit the electrons' axial motion and then use them to ionize propellant, efficiently accelerate the
47:
2347:
2275:"Overview of the Development and Mission Application of the Advanced Electric Propulsion System (AEPS)"
2253:
1494:
1136:
588:
that are typical for electric propulsion. One particular advantage of Hall thrusters, as compared to a
3092:
3082:
2699:
2603:
2517:
1286:
1178:
624:
589:
378:
Hall thrusters were first demonstrated on a western satellite on the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL)
329:
173:
2863:
2848:
2763:
2650:
2629:
2598:
1624:
566:
464:
415:
321:
289:
3057:
1755:
Comparisons in Performance of Electromagnet and Permanent-Magnet Cylindrical Hall-Effect Thrusters
1243:
382:
spacecraft, which flew the Russian D-55. The first American Hall thruster to fly in space was the
3062:
3028:
2993:
2833:
2178:
1535:
1302:
1057:
1020:
597:
501:
371:
The first use of Hall thrusters on lunar orbit was the European Space Agency (ESA) lunar mission
239:
148:
As of 2009, Hall-effect thrusters ranged in input power levels from 1.35 to 10 kilowatts and had
1958:
1786:. 3rd Spacecraft Propulsion Subcommittee (SPS) meeting/JANNAF Interagency Propulsion Committee.
1729:
2290:
2029:
948:
437:
Research in India is carried out by both public and private research institutes and companies.
3023:
2978:
2878:
2778:
2480:
2454:
1930:
1920:
1857:
1824:
1662:
1481:"Spacetech Startup Bellatrix Aerospace Test Fires India's First Privately Built Hall Thruster"
1327:
1194:
365:
1419:
1360:"Aerojet Rocketdyne's Modified XR-5 Hall Thruster Demonstrates Successful On-Orbit Operation"
1095:(AEPS), meant to propel large-scale science missions and cargo transportation in deep space.
3043:
3033:
2983:
2689:
2442:
2011:
1849:
1816:
1791:
1762:
1658:
1654:
1461:
1294:
1186:
1116:
1000:
585:
578:
536:
361:
211:
189:
149:
145:
laboratory. Power levels up to 100 kW have been demonstrated for xenon Hall thrusters.
95:
1704:
2655:
2459:
2425:
2351:
2333:
2320:
2297:
1520:
1069:
956:
in orbit around the Moon. The orbit of the Gateway will be maintained with Hall thrusters.
357:
341:
94:, and neutralize the ions in the plume. The Hall-effect thruster is classed as a moderate
1345:
1277:
Morozov, A.I. (March 2003). "The conceptual development of stationary plasma thrusters".
674:
V2 mini. The new thruster had 2.4 times the thrust and 1.5 times the specific impulse as
246:
were introduced, their thrusts being 40 and 83 mN, respectively. In the post-Soviet
1559:
1290:
1182:
2988:
2923:
2624:
2464:
2101:
2010:. 43rd AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference & Exhibit. Cincinnati, Ohio.
927:
922:
531:
83:
63:
1190:
3076:
2998:
2918:
2773:
2742:
2522:
2512:
2507:
2430:
2420:
2362:
2156:
2128:
1306:
1065:
953:
620:
516:
422:
2008:
PPS®1350 Qualification Demonstration: 10500 hrs on the Ground and 5000 hrs in Flight
912:
An Exotrail ExoMG – nano (60 W) Hall Effect Thruster firing in a vacuum chamber
3003:
2962:
2935:
2694:
2490:
2485:
1682:
1420:"NASA's Psyche spacecraft will blaze an unusual blue trail across the solar system"
1024:
593:
486:
482:
337:
258:, SPT-160, SPT-200, T-160, and low-power (less than 500 W) SPT-35 were introduced.
169:
55:
32:
991:-G Hall thruster. SMART-1 was a technology demonstration mission that orbited the
931:
from c.1 kW down to c. 100 W while maintaining an efficiency of 45–55%.
414:
The first deployment of Hall thrusters beyond Earth's sphere of influence was the
1982:
1514:
3018:
3013:
2819:
2006:
Cornu, Nicolas; Marchandise, Frédéric; Darnon, Franck; Estublier, Denis (2007).
555:
492:
153:
79:
2357:
340:. A considerable amount of development is being conducted in industry, such as
261:
Soviet and Russian TAL-type thrusters include the D-38, D-55, D-80, and D-100.
3038:
2495:
543:
134:
67:
59:
2256:. Plasmadynamics & Electric Propulsion Laboratory, University of Michigan
1263:
17:
1796:
1767:
1396:
1121:
570:
426:
223:
205:
160:
and use as a main propulsion engine for medium-size robotic space vehicles.
157:
126:
1922:
Rocket and Spacecraft Propulsion: Principles, Practice and New Developments
1198:
1137:"Ion Thruster Prototype Breaks Records in Tests, Could Send Humans to Mars"
900:
As well as the Soviet SPT and TAL types mentioned above, there are :
1649:
Shuen-Chen Hwang; Robert D. Lein; Daniel A. Morgan (2005). "Noble Gases".
1084:
The highest power Hall-effect thruster in development (as of 2021) is the
105:
Hall thrusters operate on a variety of propellants, the most common being
1010:
988:
917:
671:
652:
640:
407:
387:
251:
2370:
2015:
1853:
1820:
1782:
Polzin, K. A.; Raitses, Y.; Merino, E.; Fisch, N. J. (8 December 2008).
1753:
Polzin, K. A.; Raitses, Y.; Gayoso, J. C.; Fisch, N. J. (25 July 2010).
476:
The essential working principle of the Hall thruster is that it uses an
2814:
2447:
2060:"Three Decades in the Making, China's Space Station Launches This Week"
984:
758:
635:
509:
391:
372:
345:
255:
243:
168:
Hall thrusters were studied independently in the United States and the
118:
110:
2152:"Apollo Fusion wins electric propulsion order from York Space Systems"
1298:
1038:(JPL) granted exclusive commercial licensing to Apollo Fusion, led by
2437:
2415:
1344:. Air Force Institute of Technology. 13 November 2007. Archived from
1007:
860:
675:
663:
648:
445:
404:
353:
247:
122:
91:
2030:"Ion engine gets SMART-1 to the Moon: Electric Propulsion Subsystem"
1730:"Experimental and theoretical studies of cylindrical Hall thrusters"
1056:(AEPS) Hall thrusters. They will serve as the primary propulsion on
916:
Although conventional (annular) Hall thrusters are efficient in the
1049:
947:
907:
792:
724:
667:
616:
523:
505:
500:
A schematic of a Hall thruster is shown in the adjacent image. An
491:
400:
383:
349:
229:
114:
106:
2305:—Page presenting Hall effect thruster products & data sheets
1983:"National Reconnaissance Office Satellite Successfully Launched"
1587:"The elements of the periodic table sorted by ionization energy"
992:
969:
826:
441:
379:
184:
Two types of Hall thrusters were developed in the Soviet Union:
130:
37:
2374:
2230:"We're Fired Up! Gateway's Propulsion System Passes First Test"
2079:"How China's space station could help power astronauts to Mars"
2033:
1988:. Naval Research Laboratory (Press Release). October 3, 1998.
1705:"Parametric Investigations of a Nonconventional Hall Thruster"
87:
2344:
1169:
Choueiri, Edgar Y. (2009). "New Dawn for Electric Rockets".
655:
V1, whose original Hall thrusters were fueled with krypton.
643:, making krypton a more economical choice for building out
2124:"Apollo Fusion obtains Hall thruster technology from JPL"
1536:"Krypton Hall effect thruster for spacecraft propulsion"
1326:(in Russian). Novosti Kosmonavtiki. 1999. Archived from
577:, thrust is limited by available power, efficiency, and
1757:. 46th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference.
140:
Hall thrusters are able to accelerate their exhaust to
152:
of 10–50 kilometers per second, with thrust of 40–600
1091:
Other high power thrusters include NASA's 40 kW
394:
BPT-4000, which launched August 2010 on the military
1392:"SpaceX launches first upgraded Starlink satellites"
504:
of between 150 and 800 volts is applied between the
2971:
2950:
2894:
2841:
2832:
2797:
2751:
2720:
2682:
2673:
2643:
2612:
2569:
2543:
2536:
2473:
2408:
1813:
50th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference
1003:of 1,100–1,600 s and thrust of 30–70 mN.
66:. Hall-effect thrusters (based on the discovery by
1362:(Press release). Aerojet Rocketdyne. 1 July 2015.
573:is approximately 60 mN. As with all forms of
2309:Snecma SA (France) page on PPS-1350 Hall thruster
1023:is propelled by both chemical thrusters and four
1444:"ISRO to Test Electric Propulsion on Satellites"
1245:Generation of Thrust – Electromagnetic Thrusters
1651:Kirk Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology
1462:"ISRO Electric Propulsion - General Discussion"
687:Noble gas properties and cost comparison table
224:Central Research Institute for Machine Building
1846:52nd AIAA/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference
1499:Electric Propulsion for Inter-Orbital Vehicles
1385:
1383:
1381:
961:where they are used for orbital insertion and
463:With private firms entering the space domain,
210:thrusters with narrow acceleration zone, DAS (
2386:
1229:Momentum Transfer Through the Electric Fields
444:used Hall effect ion propulsion thrusters in
8:
584:However, Hall thrusters operate at the high
188:thrusters with wide acceleration zone, SPT (
36:6 kW Hall thruster in operation at the
1581:
1579:
530:The xenon ions are then accelerated by the
2838:
2679:
2540:
2393:
2379:
2371:
1342:"AFIT SPASS Lab Achieves '(AF) Blue Glow'"
1324:"Native Electric Propulsion Engines Today"
1212:Janes, G.; Dotson, J.; Wilson, T. (1962).
1164:
1162:
575:electrically powered spacecraft propulsion
1795:
1766:
1495:"Hall-Effect Stationary Plasma thrusters"
1214:Momentum transfer through magnetic fields
1120:
972:spacecraft, launched on October 3, 1998.
326:The Massachusetts Institute of Technology
113:. Other propellants of interest include
2805:Atmosphere-breathing electric propulsion
2358:"How the Hall Effect Still Reverberates"
1735:. Physics of Plasmas 14, 057106 (2007).
685:
31:
2204:"Up Close With a Solar Panel on Psyche"
1995:from the original on November 13, 2011.
1957:Meyer, Mike; et al. (April 2012).
1728:Smirnov, A.; Raitses, Y.; Fisch, N. J.
1659:10.1002/0471238961.0701190508230114.a01
1530:
1528:
1103:
515:The central spike forms one pole of an
1710:. Physics of Plasmas, 8, 2579 (2001).
1019:is fitted with Hall-effect thrusters.
286:Ballistic Missile Defense Organization
194:СПД, стационарный плазменный двигатель
2092:张 (Zhang), 保淑 (Baoshu) (2021-06-21).
2040:from the original on January 29, 2011
1959:"In-space propulsion systems roadmap"
1927:Springer Science & Business Media
1608:
1606:
222:, Thruster with Anode Layer), at the
7:
1318:
1316:
1285:(3). Nauka/Interperiodica: 235–250.
314:US Air Force Institute of Technology
2254:"X3 – Nested Channel Hall Thruster"
1683:"Chemical elements by market price"
1093:Advanced Electric Propulsion System
1054:Advanced Electric Propulsion System
666:developed a new thruster that used
2710:Field-emission electric propulsion
1147:from the original on 20 March 2018
27:Type of electric propulsion system
25:
2784:Microwave electrothermal thruster
1191:10.1038/scientificamerican0209-58
396:Advanced Extremely High Frequency
334:Michigan Technological University
3056:
2150:Foust, Jeff (January 27, 2021).
1971:from the original on 2022-10-09.
1908:from the original on 2017-08-29.
1890:from the original on 2017-08-14.
1742:from the original on 2010-05-27.
1717:from the original on 2010-05-27.
1479:Gautam, Kushagr (May 28, 2021).
1390:Foust, Jeff (28 February 2023).
1366:from the original on 9 July 2015
935:External discharge Hall thruster
704:unit mass per ionization energy
234:Soviet and Russian SPT thrusters
2314:Electric Propulsion Sub-Systems
2058:Jones, Andrew (28 April 2021).
1505:from the original on 2013-07-17
421:, launched in 2023 towards the
308:(Edwards AFB, California), and
70:) are sometimes referred to as
2914:Pulsed nuclear thermal rocket
2810:High Power Electric Propulsion
2208:NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory
2183:NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory
1006:Early small satellites of the
216:ДАС, двигатель с анодным слоем
1:
2769:Helicon double-layer thruster
2738:Electrodeless plasma thruster
2733:Magnetoplasmadynamic thruster
2291:New Dawn for Electric Rockets
2077:Chen, Stephen (2 June 2021).
1919:Turner, Martin J. L. (2008).
1788:NASA Technical Reports Server
1759:NASA Technical Reports Server
1623:. 15 May 2019. Archived from
1113:NASA Technical Reports Server
306:Air Force Research Laboratory
282:Air Force Research Laboratory
2100:(in Chinese). Archived from
1418:Lewis, Briley (2023-10-17).
1262:. 2004-01-14. Archived from
1062:Power and Propulsion Element
3088:Magnetic propulsion devices
2327:Stationary plasma thrusters
2228:Sands, Kelly (2021-03-30).
2122:Foust, Jeff (May 7, 2019).
2094:"配置4台霍尔电推进发动机 "天宫"掀起太空动力变革"
1653:. Wiley. pp. 343–383.
1074:near-rectilinear halo orbit
1029:Chinese Academy of Sciences
312:. Universities include the
284:, under the support of the
3114:
2340:ESA page on Hall thrusters
1703:Raitses, Y.; Fisch, N. J.
997:geosynchronous Earth orbit
904:Cylindrical Hall thrusters
719:cost relative to cheapest
701:ionization potential (eV)
682:Comparison of noble gasses
539:plume with no net charge.
202:Stationary Plasma Thruster
52:Hall-effect thruster (HET)
3054:
2728:Pulsed inductive thruster
1466:forum.nasaspaceflight.com
1036:Jet Propulsion Laboratory
987:spacecraft used a Snecma
977:solar electric propulsion
310:The Aerospace Corporation
298:Jet Propulsion Laboratory
274:Jet Propulsion Laboratory
219:
215:
197:
193:
41:Jet Propulsion Laboratory
2902:Nuclear pulse propulsion
2661:Electric-pump-fed engine
2561:Hybrid-propellant rocket
2551:Liquid-propellant rocket
2179:"Psyche's Hall Thruster"
1227:Meyerand, R. G. (1962).
670:as propellant for their
645:satellite constellations
522:The propellant, such as
2958:Beam-powered propulsion
2931:Fission-fragment rocket
2886:Nuclear photonic rocket
2854:Nuclear electric rocket
2620:Staged combustion cycle
2556:Solid-propellant rocket
1560:"Hall Thruster Project"
1125:. NASA/CR – 2004-21309.
952:An illustration of the
478:electrostatic potential
3009:Non-rocket spacelaunch
2859:Nuclear thermal rocket
2759:Pulsed plasma thruster
1448:The New Indian Express
1279:Plasma Physics Reports
1242:Seikel, G. R. (1962).
1086:University of Michigan
1017:Tiangong space station
957:
913:
497:
472:Principle of operation
318:University of Michigan
235:
76:Hall-current thrusters
43:
2675:Electrical propulsion
2402:Spacecraft propulsion
2303:SITAEL S.p.A. (Italy)
1348:on February 22, 2014.
1266:on February 28, 2004.
981:European Space Agency
951:
911:
594:Child-Langmuir charge
495:
302:Glenn Research Center
278:Glenn Research Center
233:
174:gridded ion thrusters
62:is accelerated by an
48:spacecraft propulsion
35:
2907:Antimatter-catalyzed
2705:Hall-effect thruster
2518:Solar thermal rocket
1614:"Starlink Press Kit"
625:ionization potential
590:gridded ion thruster
330:Princeton University
2849:Direct Fusion Drive
2764:Vacuum arc thruster
2651:Pressure-fed engine
2630:Gas-generator cycle
2537:Chemical propulsion
2474:Physical propulsion
2036:. August 31, 2006.
2016:10.2514/6.2007-5197
1854:10.2514/6.2016-4951
1821:10.2514/6.2014-3899
1291:2003PlPhR..29..235M
1183:2009SciAm.300b..58C
1171:Scientific American
1143:. 13 October 2017.
688:
465:Bellatrix Aerospace
322:Stanford University
290:Space Systems/Loral
206:Design Bureau Fakel
3063:Spaceflight portal
3029:Reactionless drive
2994:Aerogravity assist
2834:Nuclear propulsion
2350:2021-03-14 at the
2332:2019-07-11 at the
2319:2014-01-07 at the
2296:2016-10-18 at the
2289:Edgar, Y. (2009).
1519:2007-10-10 at the
1021:Tianhe core module
958:
914:
686:
502:electric potential
498:
268:Non-Soviet designs
250:high-power (a few
236:
150:exhaust velocities
44:
3098:Soviet inventions
3070:
3069:
3024:Atmospheric entry
2979:Orbital mechanics
2946:
2945:
2828:
2827:
2779:Resistojet rocket
2669:
2668:
2644:Intake mechanisms
2577:Liquid propellant
2481:Cold gas thruster
1936:978-3-540-69203-4
1863:978-1-62410-406-0
1830:978-1-62410-303-2
1668:978-0-471-23896-6
1299:10.1134/1.1561119
893:
892:
598:saturated current
586:specific impulses
453:thrust of 25 mN.
366:Satrec Initiative
240:Meteor spacecraft
16:(Redirected from
3105:
3060:
3044:Alcubierre drive
3034:Field propulsion
2984:Orbital maneuver
2972:Related concepts
2839:
2690:Colloid thruster
2680:
2541:
2443:Specific impulse
2395:
2388:
2381:
2372:
2367:
2278:
2271:
2265:
2264:
2262:
2261:
2250:
2244:
2243:
2241:
2240:
2225:
2219:
2218:
2216:
2214:
2200:
2194:
2193:
2191:
2189:
2175:
2169:
2168:
2166:
2164:
2147:
2141:
2140:
2138:
2136:
2119:
2113:
2112:
2110:
2109:
2089:
2083:
2082:
2074:
2068:
2067:
2055:
2049:
2048:
2046:
2045:
2026:
2020:
2019:
2003:
1997:
1996:
1994:
1987:
1979:
1973:
1972:
1970:
1963:
1954:
1948:
1947:
1945:
1943:
1916:
1910:
1909:
1898:
1892:
1891:
1889:
1882:
1874:
1868:
1867:
1841:
1835:
1834:
1808:
1802:
1801:
1799:
1797:2060/20090014067
1779:
1773:
1772:
1770:
1768:2060/20100035731
1750:
1744:
1743:
1741:
1734:
1725:
1719:
1718:
1716:
1709:
1700:
1694:
1692:
1690:
1689:
1679:
1673:
1672:
1646:
1640:
1639:
1637:
1635:
1629:
1618:
1610:
1601:
1600:
1598:
1597:
1591:www.lenntech.com
1583:
1574:
1573:
1571:
1570:
1556:
1550:
1549:
1547:
1546:
1532:
1523:
1513:
1511:
1510:
1491:
1485:
1484:
1476:
1470:
1469:
1458:
1452:
1451:
1440:
1434:
1433:
1431:
1430:
1415:
1409:
1408:
1406:
1404:
1387:
1376:
1375:
1373:
1371:
1356:
1350:
1349:
1338:
1332:
1331:
1320:
1311:
1310:
1274:
1268:
1267:
1260:"Hall thrusters"
1256:
1250:
1249:
1239:
1233:
1232:
1224:
1218:
1217:
1209:
1203:
1202:
1166:
1157:
1156:
1154:
1152:
1133:
1127:
1126:
1124:
1122:2060/20040084644
1108:
1001:specific impulse
707:Reference Price
689:
579:specific impulse
368:in South Korea.
221:
217:
199:
195:
101:
96:specific impulse
82:thrusters use a
21:
3113:
3112:
3108:
3107:
3106:
3104:
3103:
3102:
3073:
3072:
3071:
3066:
3050:
2967:
2942:
2890:
2824:
2793:
2747:
2721:Electromagnetic
2716:
2665:
2656:Pump-fed engine
2639:
2608:
2565:
2532:
2469:
2460:Rocket equation
2426:Reaction engine
2404:
2399:
2356:
2352:Wayback Machine
2334:Wayback Machine
2321:Wayback Machine
2298:Wayback Machine
2286:
2281:
2272:
2268:
2259:
2257:
2252:
2251:
2247:
2238:
2236:
2227:
2226:
2222:
2212:
2210:
2202:
2201:
2197:
2187:
2185:
2177:
2176:
2172:
2162:
2160:
2149:
2148:
2144:
2134:
2132:
2121:
2120:
2116:
2107:
2105:
2091:
2090:
2086:
2076:
2075:
2071:
2057:
2056:
2052:
2043:
2041:
2028:
2027:
2023:
2005:
2004:
2000:
1992:
1985:
1981:
1980:
1976:
1968:
1961:
1956:
1955:
1951:
1941:
1939:
1937:
1929:. p. 197.
1918:
1917:
1913:
1900:
1899:
1895:
1887:
1880:
1876:
1875:
1871:
1864:
1843:
1842:
1838:
1831:
1810:
1809:
1805:
1781:
1780:
1776:
1752:
1751:
1747:
1739:
1732:
1727:
1726:
1722:
1714:
1707:
1702:
1701:
1697:
1687:
1685:
1681:
1680:
1676:
1669:
1648:
1647:
1643:
1633:
1631:
1627:
1616:
1612:
1611:
1604:
1595:
1593:
1585:
1584:
1577:
1568:
1566:
1558:
1557:
1553:
1544:
1542:
1534:
1533:
1526:
1521:Wayback Machine
1508:
1506:
1493:
1492:
1488:
1478:
1477:
1473:
1460:
1459:
1455:
1442:
1441:
1437:
1428:
1426:
1424:Popular Science
1417:
1416:
1412:
1402:
1400:
1389:
1388:
1379:
1369:
1367:
1358:
1357:
1353:
1340:
1339:
1335:
1330:on 6 June 2011.
1322:
1321:
1314:
1276:
1275:
1271:
1258:
1257:
1253:
1241:
1240:
1236:
1226:
1225:
1221:
1211:
1210:
1206:
1168:
1167:
1160:
1150:
1148:
1135:
1134:
1130:
1110:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1082:
1070:Artemis program
946:
937:
906:
898:
684:
661:
633:
614:
609:
596:(space charge)
474:
435:
342:IHI Corporation
270:
182:
166:
99:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3111:
3109:
3101:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3075:
3074:
3068:
3067:
3055:
3052:
3051:
3049:
3048:
3047:
3046:
3041:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2989:Gravity assist
2986:
2981:
2975:
2973:
2969:
2968:
2966:
2965:
2960:
2954:
2952:
2951:External power
2948:
2947:
2944:
2943:
2941:
2940:
2939:
2938:
2928:
2927:
2926:
2924:Bussard ramjet
2916:
2911:
2910:
2909:
2898:
2896:
2892:
2891:
2889:
2888:
2883:
2882:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2856:
2851:
2845:
2843:
2836:
2830:
2829:
2826:
2825:
2823:
2822:
2817:
2812:
2807:
2801:
2799:
2795:
2794:
2792:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2755:
2753:
2752:Electrothermal
2749:
2748:
2746:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2724:
2722:
2718:
2717:
2715:
2714:
2713:
2712:
2707:
2702:
2692:
2686:
2684:
2677:
2671:
2670:
2667:
2666:
2664:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2647:
2645:
2641:
2640:
2638:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2625:Expander cycle
2622:
2616:
2614:
2610:
2609:
2607:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2594:Monopropellant
2591:
2590:
2589:
2584:
2573:
2571:
2567:
2566:
2564:
2563:
2558:
2553:
2547:
2545:
2538:
2534:
2533:
2531:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2504:
2503:
2493:
2488:
2483:
2477:
2475:
2471:
2470:
2468:
2467:
2465:Thermal rocket
2462:
2457:
2452:
2451:
2450:
2445:
2435:
2434:
2433:
2428:
2418:
2412:
2410:
2406:
2405:
2400:
2398:
2397:
2390:
2383:
2375:
2369:
2368:
2354:
2342:
2337:
2324:
2311:
2306:
2300:
2285:
2284:External links
2282:
2280:
2279:
2266:
2245:
2220:
2195:
2170:
2142:
2114:
2084:
2069:
2050:
2021:
1998:
1974:
1949:
1935:
1911:
1893:
1869:
1862:
1836:
1829:
1803:
1774:
1745:
1720:
1695:
1674:
1667:
1641:
1630:on 15 May 2019
1602:
1575:
1551:
1524:
1486:
1471:
1453:
1435:
1410:
1377:
1351:
1333:
1312:
1269:
1251:
1234:
1219:
1204:
1158:
1128:
1102:
1100:
1097:
1081:
1080:In development
1078:
1064:(PPE) for the
979:system of the
963:stationkeeping
945:
942:
936:
933:
928:magnetic field
923:magnetic field
905:
902:
897:
894:
891:
890:
887:
884:
881:
878:
875:
872:
869:
866:
863:
857:
856:
853:
850:
847:
844:
841:
838:
835:
832:
829:
823:
822:
819:
816:
813:
810:
809:$ 0.12 / cu ft
807:
804:
801:
798:
795:
789:
788:
785:
782:
779:
776:
773:
770:
767:
764:
761:
755:
754:
751:
748:
745:
742:
739:
736:
733:
730:
727:
721:
720:
717:
714:
711:
708:
705:
702:
699:
696:
693:
683:
680:
660:
657:
632:
629:
613:
610:
608:
605:
532:electric field
473:
470:
434:
433:Indian designs
431:
364:in Italy, and
269:
266:
228:
227:
208:
181:
180:Soviet designs
178:
165:
162:
84:magnetic field
72:Hall thrusters
64:electric field
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3110:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3080:
3078:
3065:
3064:
3059:
3053:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3036:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2999:Oberth effect
2997:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2976:
2974:
2970:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2955:
2953:
2949:
2937:
2934:
2933:
2932:
2929:
2925:
2922:
2921:
2920:
2919:Fusion rocket
2917:
2915:
2912:
2908:
2905:
2904:
2903:
2900:
2899:
2897:
2893:
2887:
2884:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2861:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2846:
2844:
2842:Closed system
2840:
2837:
2835:
2831:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2802:
2800:
2796:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2774:Arcjet rocket
2772:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2756:
2754:
2750:
2744:
2743:Plasma magnet
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2725:
2723:
2719:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2697:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2687:
2685:
2683:Electrostatic
2681:
2678:
2676:
2672:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2648:
2646:
2642:
2636:
2635:Tap-off cycle
2633:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2617:
2615:
2611:
2605:
2604:Tripropellant
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2580:
2579:
2578:
2575:
2574:
2572:
2568:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2548:
2546:
2542:
2539:
2535:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2523:Photon rocket
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2513:Magnetic sail
2511:
2509:
2508:Electric sail
2506:
2502:
2499:
2498:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2478:
2476:
2472:
2466:
2463:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2440:
2439:
2436:
2432:
2431:Reaction mass
2429:
2427:
2424:
2423:
2422:
2421:Rocket engine
2419:
2417:
2414:
2413:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2396:
2391:
2389:
2384:
2382:
2377:
2376:
2373:
2366:. 2022-01-28.
2365:
2364:
2363:IEEE Spectrum
2359:
2355:
2353:
2349:
2346:
2345:Apollo Fusion
2343:
2341:
2338:
2335:
2331:
2328:
2325:
2322:
2318:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2295:
2292:
2288:
2287:
2283:
2276:
2270:
2267:
2255:
2249:
2246:
2235:
2231:
2224:
2221:
2209:
2205:
2199:
2196:
2184:
2180:
2174:
2171:
2159:
2158:
2157:spacenews.com
2153:
2146:
2143:
2131:
2130:
2129:Spacenews.com
2125:
2118:
2115:
2104:on 2021-07-06
2103:
2099:
2095:
2088:
2085:
2080:
2073:
2070:
2065:
2061:
2054:
2051:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2025:
2022:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2002:
1999:
1991:
1984:
1978:
1975:
1967:
1960:
1953:
1950:
1938:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1923:
1915:
1912:
1907:
1903:
1897:
1894:
1886:
1879:
1873:
1870:
1865:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1840:
1837:
1832:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1807:
1804:
1798:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1778:
1775:
1769:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1749:
1746:
1738:
1731:
1724:
1721:
1713:
1706:
1699:
1696:
1684:
1678:
1675:
1670:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1645:
1642:
1626:
1622:
1615:
1609:
1607:
1603:
1592:
1588:
1582:
1580:
1576:
1565:
1561:
1555:
1552:
1541:
1537:
1531:
1529:
1525:
1522:
1518:
1515:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1490:
1487:
1482:
1475:
1472:
1467:
1463:
1457:
1454:
1449:
1445:
1439:
1436:
1425:
1421:
1414:
1411:
1399:
1398:
1393:
1386:
1384:
1382:
1378:
1365:
1361:
1355:
1352:
1347:
1343:
1337:
1334:
1329:
1325:
1319:
1317:
1313:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1273:
1270:
1265:
1261:
1255:
1252:
1247:
1246:
1238:
1235:
1230:
1223:
1220:
1215:
1208:
1205:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1165:
1163:
1159:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1132:
1129:
1123:
1118:
1114:
1107:
1104:
1098:
1096:
1094:
1089:
1087:
1079:
1077:
1075:
1071:
1068:under NASA's
1067:
1066:Lunar Gateway
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1046:
1043:
1041:
1037:
1032:
1030:
1026:
1025:ion thrusters
1022:
1018:
1014:
1012:
1009:
1004:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
986:
982:
978:
973:
971:
966:
964:
955:
950:
943:
941:
934:
932:
929:
924:
919:
910:
903:
901:
895:
888:
885:
882:
879:
876:
873:
870:
867:
864:
862:
859:
858:
854:
851:
848:
845:
842:
839:
836:
833:
830:
828:
825:
824:
820:
817:
814:
811:
808:
805:
802:
799:
796:
794:
791:
790:
786:
783:
780:
777:
774:
771:
768:
765:
762:
760:
757:
756:
752:
749:
746:
743:
740:
737:
734:
731:
728:
726:
723:
722:
718:
715:
712:
709:
706:
703:
700:
698:At wt (g/mol)
697:
694:
691:
690:
681:
679:
677:
673:
669:
665:
658:
656:
654:
650:
647:like that of
646:
642:
637:
630:
628:
626:
622:
621:atomic weight
618:
611:
606:
604:
601:
599:
595:
591:
587:
582:
580:
576:
572:
569:or a 20-cent
568:
563:
559:
557:
553:
549:
545:
540:
538:
533:
528:
525:
520:
518:
517:electromagnet
513:
511:
507:
503:
494:
490:
488:
484:
481:100–300
479:
471:
469:
466:
461:
458:
454:
450:
447:
443:
438:
432:
430:
428:
424:
423:Asteroid Belt
420:
418:
412:
409:
406:
402:
397:
393:
389:
385:
381:
376:
374:
369:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
293:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
267:
265:
262:
259:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
232:
225:
213:
209:
207:
203:
191:
187:
186:
185:
179:
177:
175:
171:
163:
161:
159:
155:
151:
146:
143:
138:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
103:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
58:in which the
57:
54:is a type of
53:
49:
42:
39:
34:
30:
19:
18:Hall thruster
3061:
3004:Space launch
2936:Fission sail
2864:Radioisotope
2704:
2695:Ion thruster
2613:Power cycles
2599:Bipropellant
2491:Steam rocket
2486:Water rocket
2361:
2269:
2258:. Retrieved
2248:
2237:. Retrieved
2233:
2223:
2211:. Retrieved
2207:
2198:
2186:. Retrieved
2182:
2173:
2161:. Retrieved
2155:
2145:
2133:. Retrieved
2127:
2117:
2106:. Retrieved
2102:the original
2097:
2087:
2072:
2063:
2053:
2042:. Retrieved
2024:
2007:
2001:
1977:
1952:
1940:. Retrieved
1921:
1914:
1896:
1872:
1845:
1839:
1812:
1806:
1787:
1783:
1777:
1758:
1754:
1748:
1723:
1698:
1686:. Retrieved
1677:
1650:
1644:
1632:. Retrieved
1625:the original
1620:
1594:. Retrieved
1590:
1567:. Retrieved
1563:
1554:
1543:. Retrieved
1540:ScienceDaily
1539:
1507:. Retrieved
1498:
1489:
1474:
1465:
1456:
1447:
1438:
1427:. Retrieved
1423:
1413:
1401:. Retrieved
1395:
1368:. Retrieved
1354:
1346:the original
1336:
1328:the original
1282:
1278:
1272:
1264:the original
1254:
1244:
1237:
1228:
1222:
1213:
1207:
1177:(2): 58–65.
1174:
1170:
1149:. Retrieved
1140:
1131:
1112:
1106:
1090:
1083:
1047:
1044:
1040:Mike Cassidy
1033:
1015:
1005:
974:
967:
959:
944:Applications
938:
915:
899:
877:$ 7.21 / m^3
741:25 € / liter
662:
634:
615:
602:
583:
567:U.S. quarter
564:
560:
556:Hall current
551:
547:
541:
529:
521:
514:
499:
485:(10–30
475:
462:
459:
455:
451:
439:
436:
416:
413:
377:
370:
360:in Ukraine,
338:Georgia Tech
294:
271:
263:
260:
237:
226:(TsNIIMASH).
201:
183:
170:Soviet Union
167:
154:millinewtons
147:
139:
104:
75:
71:
56:ion thruster
51:
45:
29:
3093:Ion engines
3083:Hall effect
3019:Aerocapture
3014:Aerobraking
2895:Open system
2879:"Lightbulb"
2820:Mass driver
2570:Propellants
2501:Diffractive
2163:January 27,
2135:January 27,
1634:12 November
1564:w3.pppl.gov
843:€ 504 / m^3
775:3 € / liter
607:Propellants
425:to explore
386:BHT-200 on
356:in France,
352:in the US,
218:; English:
196:; English:
90:to produce
80:Hall-effect
3077:Categories
3039:Warp drive
2869:Salt-water
2587:Hypergolic
2496:Solar sail
2260:2021-04-27
2239:2021-04-27
2108:2021-07-18
2044:2011-07-25
1942:28 October
1688:2023-09-17
1596:2021-04-28
1569:2021-04-28
1545:2021-04-28
1509:2014-06-16
1429:2023-10-17
1403:5 December
1370:11 October
1115:(Report).
1099:References
883:0.1786 g/l
849:0.9002 g/l
710:cost / m^3
544:gyroradius
419:spacecraft
344:in Japan,
280:, and the
158:satellites
135:adamantane
68:Edwin Hall
60:propellant
2582:Cryogenic
1397:SpaceNews
1307:122072987
1141:space.com
1052:and NASA
815:1.784 g/l
781:3.749 g/l
750:€ 4241.60
747:5.894 g/l
716:Cost / kg
571:euro coin
440:In 2010,
427:16 Psyche
375:in 2003.
300:, NASA's
252:kilowatts
127:magnesium
2874:Gas core
2409:Concepts
2348:Archived
2330:Archived
2317:Archived
2294:Archived
2038:Archived
1990:Archived
1966:Archived
1906:Archived
1885:Archived
1737:Archived
1712:Archived
1517:Archived
1503:Archived
1364:Archived
1199:19186707
1151:27 April
1145:Archived
1011:Starlink
989:PPS-1350
918:kilowatt
896:Variants
852:€ 559.88
784:€ 800.21
672:Starlink
653:Starlink
641:kilogram
623:and low
408:Starlink
388:TacSat-2
2963:Tethers
2815:MagBeam
2700:Gridded
2455:Staging
2448:Delta-v
2213:8 March
2188:8 March
1287:Bibcode
1179:Bibcode
985:SMART-1
954:Gateway
886:€ 37.84
759:Krypton
744:€ 25000
713:density
636:Krypton
631:Krypton
510:cathode
392:Aerojet
373:SMART-1
346:Aerojet
256:SPT-140
244:SPT-100
212:Russian
190:Russian
164:History
119:bismuth
111:krypton
2789:VASIMR
2438:Thrust
2416:Rocket
1933:
1860:
1827:
1665:
1621:SpaceX
1305:
1197:
1008:SpaceX
880:€ 6.76
861:Helium
818:€ 2.23
812:€ 3.97
778:€ 3000
766:83.798
738:10.824
732:131.29
695:Symbol
676:SpaceX
664:SpaceX
649:SpaceX
537:plasma
446:GSAT-4
417:Psyche
405:SpaceX
362:SITAEL
354:SNECMA
336:, and
304:, the
248:Russia
142:speeds
123:iodine
100:
98:(1,600
92:thrust
2798:Other
2544:State
2336:(PDF)
2323:(PDF)
2098:中国新闻网
1993:(PDF)
1986:(PDF)
1969:(PDF)
1962:(PDF)
1888:(PDF)
1881:(PDF)
1740:(PDF)
1733:(PDF)
1715:(PDF)
1708:(PDF)
1628:(PDF)
1617:(PDF)
1303:S2CID
1058:Maxar
1050:Busek
874:0.163
871:24.59
868:4.002
846:€ 504
840:0.933
837:21.64
834:20.18
806:2.527
803:15.81
800:39.95
793:Argon
772:5.986
769:14.00
753:1905
735:12.13
725:Xenon
668:argon
659:Argon
617:Xenon
612:Xenon
524:xenon
506:anode
401:X-37B
384:Busek
350:Busek
204:) at
115:argon
107:xenon
2528:WINE
2234:NASA
2215:2022
2190:2022
2165:2021
2137:2021
2064:IEEE
1944:2015
1931:ISBN
1858:ISBN
1825:ISBN
1663:ISBN
1636:2019
1405:2023
1372:2016
1195:PMID
1153:2018
1034:The
993:Moon
975:The
970:STEX
855:251
827:Neon
787:359
508:and
442:ISRO
380:STEX
358:LAJP
348:and
133:and
131:zinc
109:and
88:ions
50:, a
38:NASA
2034:ESA
2012:doi
1850:doi
1817:doi
1792:hdl
1763:hdl
1655:doi
1295:doi
1187:doi
1175:300
1117:hdl
1060:'s
983:'s
889:17
692:Gas
651:'s
220:TAL
198:SPT
74:or
46:In
3079::
2360:.
2232:.
2206:.
2181:.
2154:.
2126:.
2096:.
2062:.
2032:.
1964:.
1925:.
1904:.
1883:.
1856:.
1848:.
1823:.
1815:.
1790:.
1761:.
1661:.
1619:.
1605:^
1589:.
1578:^
1562:.
1538:.
1527:^
1501:.
1497:.
1464:.
1446:.
1422:.
1394:.
1380:^
1315:^
1301:.
1293:.
1283:29
1281:.
1193:.
1185:.
1173:.
1161:^
1139:.
1076:.
965:.
865:He
831:Ne
821:1
797:Ar
763:Kr
729:Xe
581:.
512:.
487:mT
429:.
332:,
328:,
324:,
320:,
316:,
276:,
254:)
214::
200:,
192::
176:.
137:.
129:,
125:,
121:,
117:,
78:.
2394:e
2387:t
2380:v
2263:.
2242:.
2217:.
2192:.
2167:.
2139:.
2111:.
2081:.
2066:.
2047:.
2018:.
2014::
1946:.
1866:.
1852::
1833:.
1819::
1800:.
1794::
1771:.
1765::
1691:.
1671:.
1657::
1638:.
1599:.
1572:.
1548:.
1512:.
1483:.
1468:.
1450:.
1432:.
1407:.
1374:.
1309:.
1297::
1289::
1201:.
1189::
1181::
1155:.
1119::
552:B
550:×
548:E
483:G
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
