235:. Despite their very different theoretical approaches – hardiness arose from existential psychology and philosophy, SOC has its roots in sociology, whereas locus of control, self-efficacy, and dispositional optimism are all based on a learning/social cognitive perspective – some striking similarities are present. People with a strong SOC perceive life as comprehensible, cognitively meaningful, and manageable. Persons with strong SOC are more likely to adapt to demanding situations and can cope successfully with strenuous life events. Both SOC and the commitment dimension of hardiness emphasize an ability to feel deeply involved in the aspects of our lives. Furthermore, both SOC and control emphasize personal resources in facing the demands of stressful situations. The most notable difference between SOC and hardiness is the challenge facet, with the former highlighting stability whereas the latter emphasizes change.
139:, which transforms stressful events into less stressful ones. At the cognitive level this involves setting the event into a broader perspective in which it does not seem so terrible. At the level of action, people high in hardiness are believed to react to stressful events by increasing their interaction with them, trying to turn them into an advantage and opportunity for growth. In the process they achieve greater understanding. In support of this notion, two studies demonstrated that the effects of hardiness on symptoms of illness were partly mediated through the positive relation of hardiness to presumed beneficial coping styles and the negative relation to presumed harmful styles of coping.
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symbolization, imagination, and judgement. Whereas the premorbid personality accepts social roles as given, feels powerless to influence actions, and merely tries to play the roles as well as possible; the ideal identity, through expression of his or her psychological side, does not feel powerless in the face of social pressure. This person can perceive alternatives to mere role-playing, can switch roles more easily, and even redefine existing roles. As a consequence of this deeper psychological understanding of the self, the ideal identity is actively engaged in and interested in life, is willing to act to influence events, and is interested in new experiences and in learning new things.
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qualities that are the least unique for him or her when compared to other species (biological needs) or other people (social roles). According to Maddi, people with a premorbid identity can continue with their life for a long time and ostensibly feel adequate and reasonably successful. However, this personality type is also prone to being precipitated into a state of chronic existential neurosis under conditions of stress. This existential neurosis is characterized by the belief that one's life is meaningless, by feelings of apathy and boredom, and by a sense that one's activities are not chosen.
89:. In 1967, Maddi argued that chronic states of meaninglessness and alienation from existence were becoming typical features of modern life. Like other existential psychologists before him, Maddi believed that feelings of apathy and boredom, and inability to believe in the interest-value of the things one is engaged in—feelings that characterised modern living—were caused by upheavals in culture and society, increased industrialization and technological power, and more rigidly differentiated social structures in which people's identities were defined in terms of their social roles.
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person. Research on self-reported stressors, real-life stressful experiences, and laboratory-induced stress support this claim. For example, two studies used military cadets undergoing stressful training as participants and found that cadets that scored high on hardiness appraised the combat training in less threatening terms, and at the same time viewed themselves as more capable of coping with the training.
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we respond to adversity by continuing our efforts or by disengagement. Holding a positive outlook leads to continuous effort to obtain a goal, whereas negative expectations of the future lead to giving up. Similarly, in
Bandura's writings on self-efficacy, our beliefs about our ability to do what is required to manage prospective situations highly influences the situations we seek out and the goals we set.
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buffer-effect has been demonstrated in a large variety of occupational groups as well as non-professionals, including military groups, teachers and university staff, firefighters, and students. However, not every investigation has demonstrated such moderating or buffering effects and there is a debate whether the effects of hardiness are interactive or primarily independent of levels of stress.
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executives ranked low in hardiness, support from the boss did not promote health and family support worsened their health status. These results suggested that hardy people know what type of support to use in a given situation. Another study found support for an indirect effect of hardiness through social support on post-traumatic stress symptomatology in
American veterans of the Vietnam War.
190:, usually considered a beneficial type of cholesterol. This study showed that participants high in hardiness were more than two times as likely to have high levels of high-density lipoprotein compared with participants low in hardiness. Although hardiness might be related to lower levels of the “stress-hormone”
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Hardiness and the remaining constructs of locus of control, dispositional optimism, and self-efficacy all emphasize goal-directed behaviour in some form. For instance, in accordance with the theory of dispositional optimism, what we expect will be the outcomes of our behaviour helps determine whether
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Hardiness, like many personality variables in the field of psychology, measures a continuous dimension. People vary in their levels of hardiness along a continuum from low to high, with a small percentage scoring at the extreme low/high ends. Given large enough samples, the distribution of scores on
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Several investigations found hardiness and physical exercise to be uncorrelated. However, one study examined a broad array of health-protective behaviours, including exercise, and found that hardiness worked indirectly through these behaviours to influence health. Another study found that hardiness
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Transformational coping can also include health-promoting behaviour and recruiting or making adequate use of social resources. One study showed that in relation to work-environment stress, support from the boss but not support from home promoted health among executives high in hardiness. For those
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Maddi went on to outline two distinct personality types, based on how people identify or see themselves. The premorbid personality sees him- or herself in fairly simple terms, as nothing more than “a player of social roles and an embodiment of biological needs.” This type of identity thus stresses
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Maddi characterized hardiness as a combination of three attitudes (commitment, control, and challenge) that provide the courage and motivation needed to turn stressful circumstances from potential calamities into opportunities for personal growth. P.T. Bartone considers hardiness as something more
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in the literature, is a personality style first introduced by
Suzanne C. Kobasa in 1979. Kobasa described a pattern of personality characteristics that distinguished managers and executives who remained healthy under life stress, as compared to those who developed health problems. In the following
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Several instruments measure hardiness. The most frequently used are the
Personal Views Survey, the Dispositional Resilience Scale, and the Cognitive Hardiness Scale. Other scales based on hardiness theory have been designed to measure hardiness in specific contexts and in special populations, for
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According to Kobasa, people high in hardiness tend to put stressful circumstances into perspective and interpret them as less threatening. As a consequence of these optimistic appraisals, the impact of the stressful events is reduced and they are less likely to negatively affect the health of the
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or an individual-level pathway leading to resilient outcomes. A body of research suggests that hardiness has beneficial effects and buffers the detrimental effect of stress on health and performance. Although early studies relied almost exclusively on male business executives, over the years this
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Hardiness appears to confer resiliency by means of a combination of cognitive and behavioural mechanisms, and biophysical processes. Very simplified: as stressful circumstances mount, so does the physical and mental strain on the person, and if this strain is sufficiently intense and prolonged,
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In stark contrast to the premorbid personality, one finds the ideal identity. Though still a player of social roles and an expression of the biological sides of man, this personality type also has a deeper and richer understanding of his or her unique psychological side – mental processes like
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breakdowns in health and performance are to be expected. The personality style of hardiness moderates this process by encouraging effective mental and behavioural coping, building and utilizing social support, and engaging in effective self-care and health practices.
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In early research on hardiness, it was usually defined as a personality structure that functions as a resistance resource in encounters with stressful conditions. The personality structure is composed of the three related general dispositions:
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Although several studies found hardiness to be related to making good use of social resources, some studies failed to support this, finding instead that the two concepts made independent contributions to positive health outcomes.
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following stimulation by invading microorganisms. Results showed that participants who scored high on hardiness had significantly higher mean antigen- and mitogen-induced proliferative responses.
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or generalized mode of functioning that includes cognitive, emotional, and behavioural qualities. This style of functioning affects how one views oneself and interacts with the world around.
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Other studies associated hardiness with variations in cholesterol and hormone levels. Bartone and associates examined hardiness levels against a full lipid profile including
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a tendency to involve oneself in activities in life and to have a genuine interest in and curiosity about the surrounding world (activities, things, other people)
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Clark, L.M.; Hartman, M. (1996). "Effects of hardiness and appraisal on the psychological distress and physical health of caregivers to elderly relatives".
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Hardiness appears to be related to differences in physiological arousal. Hardiness helps decrease how much stressful events produce arousal in the
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was negatively correlated with self-reported alcohol use and with drug use obtained through both urine screens and self-report.
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the belief that change, rather than stability, is the normal mode of life and constitutes motivating opportunities for
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a tendency to believe and act as if one can influence the events taking place around oneself through one's own efforts
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194:, one of the few studies that investigated this found higher hardiness associated with higher levels of cortisol.
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1071:10.1037/0022-3514.56.2.257
1009:10.1037/0278-6133.11.5.335
884:10.1207/s15327043hup0303_1
829:10.1348/135910704773891014
564:10.1037/0022-3514.45.4.839
443:10.1037/0022-3514.42.1.168
370:10.1037/0022-3514.42.4.707
166:sympathetic nervous system
2194:10.1037/0278-6133.4.3.219
1631:10.3109/00952999609001657
1596:10.1037/0278-6133.5.5.425
1322:10.1037/1061-4087.51.2.83
1287:10.1037/0022-3514.60.1.89
1206:10.1037/0022-3514.56.1.81
971:10.1080/00313830903180349
916:10.5926/jjep1953.50.3_283
778:10.1037/0003-066X.59.1.20
644:10.1080/17439760600619609
2253:Hardiness-Resilience.com
1835:Psychoneuroendocrinology
1807:10.7205/milmed.171.5.436
1774:10.1093/eurheartj/sui036
1145:10.1177/0164027596184001
604:10.1177/0022167804266101
315:10.1037/0022-3514.37.1.1
261:Psychological resilience
188:high-density lipoprotein
107:psychological resilience
2144:Antonovsky, A. (1987).
1943:A short hardiness scale
1711:10.1023/A:1010762606006
1397:10.1023/A:1024786030358
1353:10.1023/A:1005514310142
137:transformational coping
17:Psychological hardiness
3345:
3329:
3281:
3258:
3249:
3240:
1941:Bartone, P.T. (1995).
1932:Bartone, P.T. (1991).
1893:Journal of Personality
1038:10.1006/jrpe.1999.2265
897:Nishizaka, S. (2002).
760:Bonanno, G.A. (2004).
233:dispositional optimism
2834:Righteous indignation
2125:Rotter, J.B. (1966).
766:American Psychologist
209:Gaussian distribution
101:Resiliency mechanisms
87:premorbid personality
30:University of Chicago
21:personality hardiness
2352:Bodhipakkhiyā dhammā
2166:. New York: Freeman.
2162:Bandura, A. (1997).
118:Cognitive appraisals
3379:Positive psychology
2422:Theological virtues
2325:Positive psychology
2258:Hardiness Institute
1755:Barter, P. (2005).
667:Military Psychology
25:cognitive hardiness
3374:1979 introductions
2854:Self-transcendence
2446:Individual virtues
2390:Nine Noble Virtues
2319:Nicomachean Ethics
2010:10.1007/BF00846548
1521:10.1007/BF00845369
1443:10.1007/BF02206867
1108:10.1007/BF00906070
518:10.1007/BF00845275
225:sense of coherence
3361:
3360:
3357:
3356:
2508:Conscientiousness
2375:Epistemic virtues
2182:Health Psychology
2093:10.1080/716100345
1794:Military Medicine
1584:Health Psychology
1174:10.1002/nur.10107
1133:Research on Aging
997:Health Psychology
872:Human Performance
279:Stress management
175:proliferation of
127:Behavioral coping
71:personality style
3386:
3350:
3334:
3286:
3263:
3254:
3245:
3121:
3024:
3015:
2992:
2958:
2935:
2920:
2849:Self-cultivation
2402:Prussian virtues
2365:Cardinal virtues
2287:
2280:
2273:
2264:
2241:
2240:
2223:(6): 1063–1078.
2212:
2206:
2205:
2177:
2168:
2167:
2159:
2150:
2149:
2141:
2132:
2130:
2122:
2116:
2112:
2075:
2044:Nursing Research
2036:
2030:
2029:
1993:
1987:
1983:
1946:
1937:
1926:
1920:
1916:
1886:
1875:
1869:
1868:
1850:
1826:
1820:
1819:
1809:
1785:
1779:
1778:
1776:
1752:
1746:
1745:
1737:
1731:
1730:
1694:
1688:
1687:
1669:
1649:
1643:
1642:
1614:
1608:
1607:
1579:
1573:
1569:
1540:
1501:
1495:
1491:
1462:
1423:
1417:
1416:
1379:
1373:
1372:
1332:
1326:
1325:
1305:
1299:
1298:
1270:
1261:
1260:
1232:
1221:
1217:
1185:
1156:
1127:
1090:
1051:
1045:
1041:
1020:
989:
983:
982:
954:
948:
947:
927:
921:
920:
918:
894:
888:
887:
867:
856:
855:
847:
841:
840:
812:
801:
797:
756:
745:
739:
738:
727:10.1037/h0020103
710:
701:
700:
682:
662:
656:
655:
627:
616:
615:
587:
576:
575:
547:
538:
537:
501:
495:
494:
466:
455:
454:
426:
417:
416:
380:
374:
373:
353:
342:
341:
333:
327:
326:
298:
255:Mental toughness
221:locus of control
77:Historical roots
3394:
3393:
3389:
3388:
3387:
3385:
3384:
3383:
3364:
3363:
3362:
3353:
3296:
3214:
3041:
2968:
2918:
2441:
2427:Three Treasures
2344:Virtue families
2339:
2313:Moral character
2296:
2291:
2249:
2244:
2214:
2213:
2209:
2179:
2178:
2171:
2161:
2160:
2153:
2143:
2142:
2135:
2124:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2087:(10): 851–880.
2078:
2041:
2037:
2033:
1995:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1949:
1940:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1889:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1828:
1827:
1823:
1787:
1786:
1782:
1754:
1753:
1749:
1739:
1738:
1734:
1696:
1695:
1691:
1667:10.1.1.507.1970
1651:
1650:
1646:
1616:
1615:
1611:
1581:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1543:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1465:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1381:
1380:
1376:
1334:
1333:
1329:
1307:
1306:
1302:
1272:
1271:
1264:
1234:
1233:
1224:
1220:
1188:
1159:
1130:
1093:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1023:
994:
990:
986:
956:
955:
951:
929:
928:
924:
896:
895:
891:
869:
868:
859:
849:
848:
844:
814:
813:
804:
800:
759:
750:
746:
742:
712:
711:
704:
680:10.1.1.529.7394
664:
663:
659:
629:
628:
619:
589:
588:
579:
549:
548:
541:
503:
502:
498:
468:
467:
458:
428:
427:
420:
397:10.2307/2136678
382:
381:
377:
355:
354:
345:
335:
334:
330:
300:
299:
292:
288:
245:
217:
200:
162:
145:
129:
120:
103:
79:
62:personal growth
38:
12:
11:
5:
3392:
3390:
3382:
3381:
3376:
3366:
3365:
3359:
3358:
3355:
3354:
3352:
3351:
3342:
3335:
3326:
3319:
3312:
3304:
3302:
3298:
3297:
3295:
3294:
3287:
3278:
3271:
3264:
3255:
3246:
3237:
3230:
3222:
3220:
3216:
3215:
3213:
3212:
3205:
3198:
3185:
3178:
3171:
3164:
3157:
3150:
3143:
3136:
3129:
3122:
3113:
3106:
3099:
3092:
3085:
3078:
3071:
3064:
3057:
3049:
3047:
3043:
3042:
3040:
3039:
3032:
3025:
3016:
3007:
3000:
2993:
2984:
2976:
2974:
2970:
2969:
2967:
2966:
2959:
2950:
2943:
2936:
2926:
2924:
2917:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2785:
2784:
2774:
2769:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2749:
2744:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2699:
2694:
2693:
2692:
2687:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2526:
2525:
2520:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2453:Accountability
2449:
2447:
2443:
2442:
2440:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2355:
2347:
2345:
2341:
2340:
2338:
2337:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2315:
2310:
2304:
2302:
2298:
2297:
2292:
2290:
2289:
2282:
2275:
2267:
2261:
2260:
2255:
2248:
2247:External links
2245:
2243:
2242:
2207:
2188:(3): 219–247.
2169:
2151:
2133:
2131:Whole No. 609.
2117:
2114:
2113:
2076:
2050:(4): 218–222.
2038:
2031:
2004:(2): 145–158.
1988:
1985:
1984:
1958:(6): 317–328.
1947:
1938:
1928:
1921:
1918:
1917:
1899:(2): 575–597.
1887:
1877:
1870:
1841:(6): 591–601.
1821:
1800:(5): 436–442.
1780:
1747:
1732:
1705:(3): 219–229.
1689:
1660:(5): 895–903.
1644:
1625:(2): 247–257.
1609:
1590:(5): 425–438.
1574:
1571:
1570:
1552:(1): 136–142.
1541:
1515:(4): 391–404.
1503:
1496:
1493:
1492:
1474:(6): 813–820.
1463:
1437:(4): 407–416.
1425:
1418:
1374:
1347:(3): 311–328.
1327:
1300:
1262:
1243:(4): 687–695.
1222:
1219:
1218:
1186:
1168:(6): 445–458.
1157:
1139:(4): 379–401.
1128:
1091:
1065:(2): 257–266.
1053:
1046:
1043:
1042:
1021:
1003:(5): 335–345.
991:
984:
965:(5): 421–429.
949:
938:(3): 413–418.
922:
909:(3): 283–290.
889:
878:(3): 141–155.
857:
842:
823:(2): 137–161.
802:
799:
798:
757:
747:
740:
721:(4): 311–325.
702:
657:
638:(3): 160–168.
617:
598:(3): 279–298.
577:
558:(4): 839–850.
539:
496:
477:(5): 525–533.
456:
437:(1): 168–177.
418:
391:(4): 368–378.
375:
364:(4): 707–717.
343:
328:
289:
287:
284:
283:
282:
276:
270:
264:
258:
252:
249:Existentialism
244:
241:
216:
213:
199:
196:
161:
158:
144:
141:
128:
125:
119:
116:
102:
99:
83:ideal identity
78:
75:
66:
65:
58:
55:
52:
49:
46:
37:
34:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3391:
3380:
3377:
3375:
3372:
3371:
3369:
3349:
3348:
3343:
3341:
3340:
3336:
3333:
3332:
3327:
3325:
3324:
3320:
3318:
3317:
3313:
3311:
3310:
3306:
3305:
3303:
3299:
3293:
3292:
3288:
3285:
3284:
3279:
3277:
3276:
3272:
3270:
3269:
3265:
3262:
3261:
3256:
3253:
3252:
3247:
3244:
3243:
3238:
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3235:
3231:
3229:
3228:
3224:
3223:
3221:
3217:
3211:
3210:
3206:
3204:
3203:
3199:
3197:
3196:
3191:
3190:
3186:
3184:
3183:
3179:
3177:
3176:
3172:
3170:
3169:
3165:
3163:
3162:
3158:
3156:
3155:
3151:
3149:
3148:
3144:
3142:
3141:
3137:
3135:
3134:
3130:
3128:
3127:
3123:
3120:
3119:
3114:
3112:
3111:
3107:
3105:
3104:
3100:
3098:
3097:
3093:
3091:
3090:
3086:
3084:
3083:
3079:
3077:
3076:
3072:
3070:
3069:
3065:
3063:
3062:
3058:
3056:
3055:
3051:
3050:
3048:
3044:
3038:
3037:
3033:
3031:
3030:
3026:
3023:
3022:
3017:
3014:
3013:
3008:
3006:
3005:
3001:
2999:
2998:
2994:
2991:
2990:
2985:
2983:
2982:
2978:
2977:
2975:
2971:
2965:
2964:
2960:
2957:
2956:
2951:
2949:
2948:
2944:
2942:
2941:
2937:
2934:
2933:
2928:
2927:
2925:
2921:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2874:Sportsmanship
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2839:Righteousness
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2783:
2780:
2779:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2753:
2752:Nonattachment
2750:
2748:
2745:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2695:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2682:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
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2578:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2528:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2515:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
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2491:
2489:
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2444:
2438:
2435:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2412:Seven virtues
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2397:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2360:
2359:Brahmavihārās
2356:
2354:
2353:
2349:
2348:
2346:
2342:
2336:
2335:Virtue ethics
2333:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2320:
2316:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2305:
2303:
2301:About virtues
2299:
2295:
2288:
2283:
2281:
2276:
2274:
2269:
2268:
2265:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2250:
2246:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2211:
2208:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2176:
2174:
2170:
2165:
2158:
2156:
2152:
2147:
2140:
2138:
2134:
2128:
2121:
2118:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2081:Death Studies
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2040:
2039:
2035:
2032:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1992:
1989:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1948:
1944:
1939:
1935:
1930:
1929:
1925:
1922:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1888:
1884:
1879:
1878:
1874:
1871:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1849:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1825:
1822:
1817:
1813:
1808:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1784:
1781:
1775:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1751:
1748:
1743:
1736:
1733:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
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1700:
1693:
1690:
1685:
1681:
1677:
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1668:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1648:
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1613:
1610:
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1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
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1578:
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1563:
1559:
1555:
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1547:
1542:
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1518:
1514:
1510:
1505:
1504:
1500:
1497:
1489:
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1477:
1473:
1469:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1427:
1426:
1422:
1419:
1414:
1410:
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1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1378:
1375:
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1323:
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1315:
1311:
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1296:
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1276:
1269:
1267:
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1250:
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1242:
1238:
1231:
1229:
1227:
1223:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1190:Rhodewalt, F.
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1055:
1054:
1050:
1047:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
993:
992:
988:
985:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
953:
950:
945:
941:
937:
933:
926:
923:
917:
912:
908:
904:
900:
893:
890:
885:
881:
877:
873:
866:
864:
862:
858:
853:
846:
843:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
818:
811:
809:
807:
803:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
771:
767:
763:
758:
754:
749:
748:
744:
741:
736:
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
709:
707:
703:
698:
694:
690:
686:
681:
676:
673:: S131–S148.
672:
668:
661:
658:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
626:
624:
622:
618:
613:
609:
605:
601:
597:
593:
586:
584:
582:
578:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
546:
544:
540:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
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492:
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484:
480:
476:
472:
465:
463:
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457:
452:
448:
444:
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436:
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410:
406:
402:
398:
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379:
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367:
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359:
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332:
329:
324:
320:
316:
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308:
304:
297:
295:
291:
285:
280:
277:
274:
273:Salutogenesis
271:
268:
265:
262:
259:
256:
253:
250:
247:
246:
242:
240:
236:
234:
230:
229:self-efficacy
226:
222:
214:
212:
210:
204:
197:
195:
193:
189:
184:
182:
178:
174:
169:
167:
160:Biophysiology
159:
157:
153:
149:
142:
140:
138:
134:
126:
124:
117:
115:
111:
108:
100:
98:
94:
90:
88:
84:
76:
74:
72:
63:
59:
56:
53:
50:
47:
44:
43:
42:
35:
33:
31:
26:
22:
18:
3337:
3321:
3314:
3307:
3289:
3273:
3266:
3232:
3225:
3207:
3200:
3193:
3187:
3180:
3173:
3166:
3159:
3152:
3145:
3138:
3131:
3124:
3108:
3101:
3096:Brahmacharya
3094:
3087:
3080:
3073:
3066:
3059:
3052:
3034:
3027:
3002:
2995:
2979:
2961:
2945:
2938:
2894:Tranquillity
2844:Self-control
2814:Renunciation
2772:Philanthropy
2767:Perspicacity
2727:Magnificence
2680:Intelligence
2660:Impartiality
2580:Faithfulness
2468:Authenticity
2394:
2380:Five virtues
2357:
2350:
2330:Trait theory
2317:
2220:
2216:
2210:
2185:
2181:
2163:
2145:
2126:
2120:
2084:
2080:
2047:
2043:
2034:
2001:
1997:
1991:
1955:
1951:
1942:
1933:
1924:
1896:
1892:
1882:
1873:
1838:
1834:
1824:
1797:
1793:
1783:
1764:
1760:
1750:
1741:
1735:
1702:
1698:
1692:
1657:
1653:
1647:
1622:
1618:
1612:
1587:
1583:
1577:
1549:
1545:
1512:
1508:
1499:
1471:
1467:
1434:
1430:
1421:
1388:
1384:
1377:
1344:
1340:
1330:
1316:(2): 83–94.
1313:
1309:
1303:
1281:(1): 89–99.
1278:
1274:
1240:
1236:
1200:(1): 81–88.
1197:
1193:
1165:
1161:
1136:
1132:
1102:(1): 25–37.
1099:
1095:
1062:
1058:
1049:
1029:
1025:
1000:
996:
987:
962:
958:
952:
935:
931:
925:
906:
902:
892:
875:
871:
851:
845:
820:
816:
772:(1): 20–28.
769:
765:
752:
743:
718:
714:
670:
666:
660:
635:
631:
595:
591:
555:
551:
512:(1): 41–51.
509:
505:
499:
474:
470:
434:
430:
388:
384:
378:
361:
357:
337:
331:
306:
302:
237:
218:
205:
201:
185:
170:
163:
154:
150:
146:
136:
133:coping style
130:
121:
112:
104:
95:
91:
86:
82:
80:
67:
39:
24:
20:
16:
15:
2914:Workmanship
2804:Punctuality
2722:Magnanimity
2645:Hospitality
2595:Forgiveness
2540:Discernment
2498:Cleanliness
1391:(1): 3–23.
309:(1): 1–11.
198:Measurement
177:lymphocytes
36:Definitions
3368:Categories
3227:Auctoritas
3075:Aparigraha
3054:Adhiṭṭhāna
3036:Sophrosyne
3004:Eutrapelia
2889:Temperance
2869:Solidarity
2859:Simplicity
2819:Resilience
2794:Politeness
2762:Patriotism
2742:Moderation
2615:Good faith
2605:Generosity
2565:Equanimity
2545:Discipline
2503:Compassion
932:Psicothema
286:References
267:Psychology
45:commitment
3275:Humanitas
3021:Phronesis
3012:Philotimo
2864:Sincerity
2829:Reverence
2697:Judgement
2685:Emotional
2675:Integrity
2665:Innocence
2620:Gratitude
2600:Frugality
2590:Foresight
2570:Etiquette
2560:Endurance
2535:Diligence
2458:Alertness
2407:Scout Law
2308:Endowment
1767:: F4–F8.
1662:CiteSeerX
1153:144383438
979:145768328
675:CiteSeerX
612:144560796
57:challenge
3268:Gravitas
3251:Dignitas
2997:Ataraxia
2879:Sympathy
2809:Religion
2799:Prudence
2757:Patience
2732:Meekness
2707:Kindness
2655:Humility
2650:Humanity
2585:Fidelity
2530:Courtesy
2493:Chivalry
2488:Chastity
2478:Charisma
2473:Calmness
2463:Altruism
2109:42736676
2101:14610777
2072:35931025
2026:25676210
1980:25271993
1913:16529587
1865:45160923
1816:16761896
1719:11436543
1537:25441196
1488:10877469
1459:33166578
1413:42254899
1405:10027139
1369:18136669
1361:10863680
1182:14689461
1124:30533552
1087:13936888
1032:: 1–25.
944:17296065
837:15125801
786:14736317
652:32269322
243:See also
192:cortisol
173:in vitro
3323:Sadaqah
3309:Ganbaru
3242:Decorum
3234:Caritas
3189:Śraddhā
3175:Shaucha
3140:Kshanti
3068:Akrodha
2923:Chinese
2824:Respect
2747:Modesty
2717:Loyalty
2702:Justice
2670:Insight
2630:Honesty
2625:Heroism
2555:Empathy
2513:Courage
2483:Charity
2396:Pāramīs
2294:Virtues
2237:7815302
2202:4029106
2064:2367202
2018:2760920
1972:2723619
1857:8584600
1727:1593054
1684:2810029
1639:8727058
1604:3757991
1566:2754600
1529:7154062
1451:1778957
1295:1995836
1257:7738771
1214:2926618
1116:3369380
1079:2926628
1017:1425552
794:6296189
735:6058470
697:9515376
572:6631665
534:8314905
526:6876154
491:4067890
451:7057354
413:7320474
405:2136678
227:(SOC),
181:in vivo
51:control
3291:Virtus
3283:Pietas
3202:Upekṣā
3195:Saddhā
3161:Prajñā
3154:Muditā
3133:Kshama
3126:Karuṇā
3089:Asteya
3082:Ārjava
3061:Ahimsa
3046:Indian
3029:Sophia
2904:Wisdom
2782:Filial
2690:Social
2635:Honour
2235:
2200:
2107:
2099:
2070:
2062:
2024:
2016:
1978:
1970:
1911:
1863:
1855:
1814:
1725:
1717:
1682:
1664:
1637:
1602:
1564:
1535:
1527:
1486:
1457:
1449:
1411:
1403:
1367:
1359:
1293:
1255:
1212:
1180:
1151:
1122:
1114:
1085:
1077:
1015:
977:
942:
835:
792:
784:
733:
695:
677:
650:
610:
570:
532:
524:
489:
449:
411:
403:
323:458548
321:
231:, and
3347:Virtù
3301:Other
3260:Fides
3219:Latin
3209:Vīrya
3168:Satya
3147:Mettā
3110:Dhṛti
2989:Arete
2981:Agape
2973:Greek
2899:Trust
2884:Taste
2777:Piety
2737:Mercy
2610:Glory
2575:Faith
2523:Moral
2518:Civil
2437:Yamas
2105:S2CID
2068:S2CID
2022:S2CID
1976:S2CID
1861:S2CID
1723:S2CID
1533:S2CID
1455:S2CID
1409:S2CID
1365:S2CID
1149:S2CID
1120:S2CID
1083:S2CID
975:S2CID
790:S2CID
693:S2CID
648:S2CID
608:S2CID
530:S2CID
401:JSTOR
3339:Sisu
3331:Seny
3316:Giri
3182:Sevā
3103:Dāna
2940:Jing
2789:Pity
2712:Love
2640:Hope
2550:Duty
2233:PMID
2198:PMID
2097:PMID
2060:PMID
2014:PMID
1968:PMID
1909:PMID
1853:PMID
1812:PMID
1715:PMID
1680:PMID
1635:PMID
1600:PMID
1562:PMID
1525:PMID
1484:PMID
1447:PMID
1401:PMID
1357:PMID
1291:PMID
1253:PMID
1210:PMID
1178:PMID
1112:PMID
1075:PMID
1013:PMID
940:PMID
833:PMID
782:PMID
731:PMID
568:PMID
522:PMID
487:PMID
447:PMID
409:PMID
319:PMID
131:The
85:and
3118:Hrī
2955:Ren
2909:Wit
2225:doi
2190:doi
2089:doi
2052:doi
2006:doi
1960:doi
1956:177
1901:doi
1843:doi
1802:doi
1798:171
1769:doi
1707:doi
1672:doi
1627:doi
1592:doi
1554:doi
1517:doi
1476:doi
1439:doi
1393:doi
1349:doi
1318:doi
1283:doi
1245:doi
1202:doi
1170:doi
1141:doi
1104:doi
1067:doi
1034:doi
1005:doi
967:doi
911:doi
880:doi
825:doi
774:doi
723:doi
685:doi
640:doi
600:doi
560:doi
514:doi
479:doi
439:doi
393:doi
366:doi
311:doi
23:or
3370::
2963:Yi
2947:Li
2932:De
2231:.
2221:67
2219:.
2196:.
2184:.
2172:^
2154:^
2136:^
2103:.
2095:.
2085:27
2083:.
2066:.
2058:.
2048:39
2046:.
2020:.
2012:.
2002:12
2000:.
1974:.
1966:.
1954:.
1907:.
1897:74
1895:.
1859:.
1851:.
1839:20
1837:.
1833:.
1810:.
1796:.
1792:.
1763:.
1759:.
1721:.
1713:.
1703:24
1701:.
1678:.
1670:.
1658:57
1656:.
1633:.
1623:22
1621:.
1598:.
1586:.
1560:.
1550:57
1548:.
1531:.
1523:.
1511:.
1482:.
1472:56
1470:.
1453:.
1445:.
1435:21
1433:.
1407:.
1399:.
1389:12
1387:.
1363:.
1355:.
1345:23
1343:.
1339:.
1314:51
1312:.
1289:.
1279:60
1277:.
1265:^
1251:.
1241:68
1239:.
1225:^
1208:.
1198:56
1196:.
1176:.
1166:26
1164:.
1147:.
1137:18
1135:.
1118:.
1110:.
1100:16
1098:.
1081:.
1073:.
1063:56
1061:.
1030:34
1028:.
1011:.
1001:11
999:.
973:.
963:53
961:.
936:18
934:.
907:50
905:.
901:.
874:.
860:^
831:.
819:.
805:^
788:.
780:.
770:59
768:.
764:.
729:.
719:72
717:.
705:^
691:.
683:.
671:18
669:.
646:.
634:.
620:^
606:.
596:44
594:.
580:^
566:.
556:45
554:.
542:^
528:.
520:.
508:.
485:.
475:29
473:.
459:^
445:.
435:42
433:.
421:^
407:.
399:.
389:22
387:.
362:42
360:.
346:^
317:.
307:37
305:.
293:^
223:,
211:.
32:.
3192:/
2286:e
2279:t
2272:v
2239:.
2227::
2204:.
2192::
2186:4
2111:.
2091::
2074:.
2054::
2028:.
2008::
1982:.
1962::
1915:.
1903::
1867:.
1845::
1818:.
1804::
1777:.
1771::
1765:7
1729:.
1709::
1686:.
1674::
1641:.
1629::
1606:.
1594::
1588:5
1568:.
1556::
1539:.
1519::
1513:5
1490:.
1478::
1461:.
1441::
1415:.
1395::
1371:.
1351::
1324:.
1320::
1297:.
1285::
1259:.
1247::
1216:.
1204::
1184:.
1172::
1155:.
1143::
1126:.
1106::
1089:.
1069::
1040:.
1036::
1019:.
1007::
981:.
969::
946:.
919:.
913::
886:.
882::
876:3
839:.
827::
821:9
796:.
776::
737:.
725::
699:.
687::
654:.
642::
636:1
614:.
602::
574:.
562::
536:.
516::
510:6
493:.
481::
453:.
441::
415:.
395::
372:.
368::
325:.
313::
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