1116:
are not well understood. As the extracellular potassium levels increase, potassium conductance is increased so that more potassium leaves the myocyte in any given time period. To summarize, classic ECG changes associated with hyperkalemia are seen in the following progression: peaked T wave, shortened QT interval, lengthened PR interval, increased QRS duration, and eventually absence of the P wave with the QRS complex becoming a sine wave. Bradycardia, junctional rhythms and QRS widening are particularly associated with increased risk of adverse outcomes
1260:. Its effects last a few hours, so it sometimes must be repeated while other measures are taken to suppress potassium levels more permanently. The insulin is usually given with an appropriate amount of glucose to help prevent hypoglycemia following the insulin administration, though hypoglycaemia remains common especially in the context of acute or chronic renal impairment and capillary blood glucose measurements should be taken regularly after administration to identify this.
53:
1409:
936:
dietary intake of potassium. When kidney function becomes compromised, the ability of the body to effectively regulate serum potassium via the kidney declines. To compensate for this deficit in function, the colon increases its potassium secretion as part of an adaptive response. However, serum potassium remains elevated as the colonic compensating mechanism reaches its limits.
2810:
Goldsmith D, Hallan SI, He J, Herzog CA, Hoenig MP, Hoorn EJ, Leipziger JG, Leonberg-Yoo AK, Lerma EV, Lopez-Almaraz JE, Małyszko J, Mann JF, Marklund M, McDonough AA, Nagahama M, Navaneethan SD, Pitt B, Pochynyuk OM, Proença de Moraes T, Rafique Z, Robinson BM, Roger SD, Rossignol P, Singer AJ, Smyth A, Sood MM, Walsh M, Weir MR, Wingo CS (January 2020).
993:
1231:
mmol for typical EKG findings of hyperkalemia. This is 10 mL of 10% calcium chloride or 30 mL of 10% calcium gluconate. Though calcium chloride is more concentrated, it is caustic to the veins and should only be given through a central line. Onset of action is less than one to three minutes and lasts
1115:
causes the tenting of the T waves, and the inactivation of sodium channels causes a sluggish conduction of the electrical wave around the heart, which leads to smaller P waves and widening of the QRS complex. Some of potassium currents are sensitive to extracellular potassium levels, for reasons that
725:
Exercise can cause a release of potassium into bloodstream by increasing the number of potassium channels in the cell membrane. The degree of potassium elevation varies with the degree of exercise, which range from 0.3 meq/L in light exercise to 2 meq/L in heavy exercise, with or without accompanying
1662:
Soar J, Perkins GD, Abbas G, Alfonzo A, Barelli A, Bierens JJ, Brugger H, Deakin CD, Dunning J, Georgiou M, Handley AJ, Lockey DJ, Paal P, Sandroni C, Thies KC, Zideman DA, Nolan JP (October 2010). "European
Resuscitation Council Guidelines for Resuscitation 2010 Section 8. Cardiac arrest in special
1274:
mg). This medication also lowers blood levels of K by promoting its movement into cells, and will work within 30 minutes. It is recommended to use 20 mg for maximum potassium lowering effect, but to use lower doses if the patient is tachycardic or has ischaemic heart disease. Note that 12-40%
813:
hormone secretion and increasing the number of potassium secreting channels in kidney tubules. Acute hyperkalemia in infants is also rare even though their body volume is small, with accidental ingestion of potassium salts or potassium medications. Hyperkalemia usually develops when there are other
835:
of the blood sample. Repeated fist clenching during the blood draw can cause a transient rise in potassium levels. Prolonged length of blood storage can also increase serum potassium levels. Hyperkalemia may become apparent when a person's platelet concentration is more than 500,000/microL in a
1343:(Kayexalate) has been approved for this use and can be given by mouth or rectally. However, high quality evidence to demonstrate the effectiveness of sodium polystyrene are lacking, and use of sodium polystyrene sulfonate, particularly with high sorbitol content, is uncommonly but convincingly
935:
Regulation of serum potassium is a function of intake, appropriate distribution between intracellular and extracellular compartments, and effective bodily excretion. In healthy individuals, homeostasis is maintained when cellular uptake and kidney excretion naturally counterbalance a patient's
2809:
Clase CM, Carrero JJ, Ellison DH, Grams ME, Hemmelgarn BR, Jardine MJ, Kovesdy CP, Kline GA, Lindner G, Obrador GT, Palmer BF, Cheung M, Wheeler DC, Winkelmayer WC, Pecoits-Filho R, Ashuntantang GE, Bakker SJ, Bakris GL, Bhandari S, Burdmann EA, Campbell KL, Charytan DM, Clegg DJ, Cuppari L,
844:
increases the fragility of red blood cells, thus causing pseudohyperkalemia during blood processing. This problem can be avoided by processing serum samples, because clot formation protects the cells from haemolysis during processing. A familial form of pseudohyperkalemia, a benign condition
1481:
is the last of the three drugs administered and actually causes death. Injecting potassium chloride into the heart muscle disrupts the signal that causes the heart to beat. This same amount of potassium chloride would do no harm if taken orally and not injected directly into the blood.
830:
Pseudohyperkalemia occurs when the measured potassium level is falsely elevated. This condition is usually suspected when the patient is clinically well without any ECG changes. Mechanical trauma during blood drawing can cause potassium leakage out of the red blood cells due to
1244:
Several medical treatments shift potassium ions from the bloodstream into the cellular compartment, thereby reducing the risk of complications. The effect of these measures tends to be short-lived, but may temporise the problem until potassium can be removed from the body.
429:
Hyperkalemia is rare among those who are otherwise healthy. Among those who are hospitalized, rates are between 1% and 2.5%. It is associated with an increased mortality, whether due to hyperkalaemia itself or as a marker of severe illness, especially in those without
1119:
The serum potassium concentration at which electrocardiographic changes develop is somewhat variable. Although the factors influencing the effect of serum potassium levels on cardiac electrophysiology are not entirely understood, the concentrations of other
944:
Hyperkalemia develops when there is excess production (oral intake, tissue breakdown) or ineffective elimination of potassium. Ineffective elimination can be hormonal (in aldosterone deficiency) or due to causes in the kidney that impair excretion.
709:
can raise potassium levels by blocking beta-2 receptors. However, the rise in potassium levels is not marked unless there are other co-morbidities present. Examples of drugs that can raise the serum potassium are non-selective beta-blockers such as
618:
674:
in extracellular fluid, increasing water diffusion out of the cells and causes potassium to move alongside water out of the cells also. The co-existence of insulin deficiency, hyperglycemia, and hyperosmolality is often seen in those affected by
1218:
through a mechanism that is still unclear, thus restoring normal gradient between threshold potential and resting membrane potential, which is elevated abnormally in hyperkalemia. A standard ampule of 10% calcium chloride is 10 mL and contains
1235:
Some textbooks suggest that calcium should not be given in digoxin toxicity as it has been linked to cardiovascular collapse in humans and increased digoxin toxicity in animal models. Recent literature questions the validity of this concern.
3434:
3419:
1298:, which are the most rapid methods of removing potassium from the body. These are typically used if the underlying cause cannot be corrected swiftly while temporising measures are instituted or there is no response to these measures.
1372:
ions for exchange, thus lowering the amount of potassium available for absorption into the bloodstream and increasing the amount lost via the feces. The net effect is a reduction of potassium levels in the blood serum.
1159:(combined as Kayexalate) are occasionally used on an ongoing basis to maintain lower serum levels of potassium though the safety of long-term use of sodium polystyrene sulfonate for this purpose is not well understood.
614:
610:
808:
Excessive intake of potassium is not a primary cause of hyperkalemia because the human body usually can adapt to the rise in the potassium levels by increasing the excretion of potassium into urine through
771:
to people with conditions such as burns, trauma, infection, prolonged immobilisation can cause hyperkalemia due to widespread activation of acetylcholine receptors rather than a specific group of muscles.
2204:
Cyclosporine may reduce potassium excretion by altering the function of several transporters, decreasing the activity of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, and impairing tubular responsiveness to
606:
726:
ECG changes or lactic acidosis. However, peak potassium levels can be reduced by prior physical conditioning and potassium levels are usually reversed several minutes after exercise. High levels of
960:, but also increases the inactivation at the same time. Since depolarization due to concentration change is slow, it never generates an action potential by itself; instead, it results in
2138:
756:
to occur. But in hyperkalemic periodic paralysis, sodium channels are slow to close after exercise, causing excessive influx of sodium and displacement of potassium out of the cells.
509:. This can lead to a dramatically elevated potassium in conditions of increased cell breakdown as the potassium is released from the cells and cannot be eliminated in the kidney. In
1107:
shape. There appears to be a direct effect of elevated potassium on some of the potassium channels that increases their activity and speeds membrane repolarisation. Also, (as noted
734:
have a protective effect on the cardiac electrophysiology because they bind to beta 2 adrenergic receptors, which, when activated, extracellularly decrease potassium concentration.
410:. Medications that might worsen the condition should be stopped and a low potassium diet should be started. Measures to remove potassium from the body include diuretics such as
3576:
1663:
circumstances: Electrolyte abnormalities, poisoning, drowning, accidental hypothermia, hyperthermia, asthma, anaphylaxis, cardiac surgery, trauma, pregnancy, electrocution".
652:
can cause hyperkalemia as the elevated hydrogen ions in the cells can displace potassium, causing the potassium ions to leave the cell and enter the bloodstream. However, in
3304:
Harel Z, Harel S, Shah PS, Wald R, Perl J, Bell CM (March 2013). "Gastrointestinal
Adverse Events with Sodium Polystyrene Sulfonate (Kayexalate) Use: A Systematic Review".
1198:
mmol/L. Several agents are used to temporarily lower K levels. The choice depends on the degree and cause of the hyperkalemia, and other aspects of the person's condition.
1127:
ECG findings are not a reliable finding in hyperkalemia. In a retrospective review, blinded cardiologists documented peaked T-waves in only 3 of 90 ECGs with hyperkalemia.
845:
characterised by increased serum potassium in whole blood stored at cold temperatures, also exists. This is due to increased potassium permeability in red blood cells.
2812:"Potassium homeostasis and management of dyskalemia in kidney diseases: conclusions from a Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Controversies Conference"
1986:
461:
The symptoms of an elevated potassium level are generally few and nonspecific. Nonspecific symptoms may include feeling tired, numbness and weakness. Occasionally
2400:
3019:"Part 12: cardiac arrest in special situations: 2010 American Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care"
447:
1194:
Emergency lowering of potassium levels is needed when new arrhythmias occur at any level of potassium in the blood, or when potassium levels exceed 6.5
3339:
2912:
1139:
Preventing recurrence of hyperkalemia typically involves reduction of dietary potassium, removal of an offending medication, and/or the addition of a
780:
metabolic alkalosis. The arginine ions can enter cells and displace potassium out of the cells, causing hyperkalemia. Calcineurin inhibitors such as
3768:
2615:
Mathialahan T, Maclennan KA, Sandle LN, Verbeke C, Sandle GI (2005). "Enhanced large intestinal potassium permeability in end-stage renal disease".
360:
3569:
840:
blood sample). Potassium leaks out of platelets after clotting has occurred. A high white cell count (greater than 120,000/microL) in people with
636:
type II) ("familial hypertension with hyperkalemia"), a rare genetic disorder caused by defective modulators of salt transporters, including the
3537:
2746:
1232:
about 30–60 minutes. The goal of treatment is to normalise the EKG and doses can be repeated if the EKG does not improve within a few minutes.
1275:
of patients do not respond to salbutamol therapy for reasons unknown, especially if on beta-blockers, so it should not be used as monotherapy
561:
3671:
1111:), hyperkalemia causes an overall membrane depolarization that inactivates many sodium channels. The faster repolarisation of the cardiac
1937:
1906:
3787:
2363:
Lindinger MI (April 1995). "Potassium regulation during exercise and recovery in humans: implications for skeletal and cardiac muscle".
356:
3562:
525:
2334:
964:. Above a certain level of potassium the depolarization inactivates sodium channels, opens potassium channels, thus the cells become
3857:
2599:
2451:
1931:
1900:
1718:
1456:
1033:
513:, hyperkalemia occurs as a result of reduced aldosterone responsiveness and reduced sodium and water delivery in distal tubules.
556:; both the drugs block epithelial sodium channels in the collecting tubules, thereby preventing potassium excretion into urine.
3763:
3631:
3619:
2590:
Weiner ID, Linas SL, Wingo CS (2010). "Chapter 9 Disorder of
Potassium Metabolism". In Fluege J, Johnson R, Feehally J (eds.).
737:
3545:
3834:
3782:
1434:
1376:
965:
602:
419:
1395:
Hyperkalemia is rare among those who are otherwise healthy. Among those who are in hospital, rates are between 1% and 2.5%.
2937:
2309:
1430:
1000:
To gather enough information for diagnosis, the measurement of potassium must be repeated, as the elevation can be due to
3528:
1982:
932:. In sweat glands potassium elimination is quite similar to the kidney, its excretion is also controlled by aldosterone.
517:
3862:
3344:
841:
679:. Apart from diabetic ketoacidosis, there are other causes that reduce insulin levels such as the use of the medication
1128:
312:
mmol/L defined as hyperkalemia. Typically hyperkalemia does not cause symptoms. Occasionally when severe it can cause
3017:
Vanden Hoek TL, Morrison LJ, Shuster M, Donnino M, Sinz E, Lavonas EJ, Jeejeebhoy FM, Gabrielli A (2 November 2010).
1419:
877:. The potassium gradient is critically important for many physiological processes, including maintenance of cellular
752:
in skeletal muscles. During exercise, sodium channels would open to allow influx of sodium into the muscle cells for
2013:
1344:
1056:
1438:
1423:
1043:(ECG) may be performed to determine if there is a significant risk of abnormal heart rhythms. Physicians taking a
3636:
2703:"Hyperkalemia Associated With Inhibitors of the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System: Balancing Risk and Benefit"
660:, the effect on serum potassium are much less significant although the mechanisms are not completely understood.
637:
767:
can cause hyperkalemia in infants due to leakage of potassium out of the red blood cells during storage. Giving
469:, which is one of the possible causes of hyperkalemia. Often, however, the problem is detected during screening
3665:
3661:
3449:
977:
921:
744:
clinical condition where there is a mutation in gene located at 17q23 that regulates the production of protein
702:
670:
increases the uptake of potassium into the cells. Hyperglycemia can also contribute to hyperkalemia by causing
580:
synthesis, leading to reduced production of renin and aldosterone, causing potassium retention. The antibiotic
520:
is one of the most common causes of hyperkalemia. Examples of medications that can cause hyperkalemia include
1387:
in exchange for sodium and hydrogen ions. Onset of effects occurs in one to six hours. It is taken by mouth.
633:
175:
3350:
2909:
3824:
1384:
1365:
925:
897:
819:
768:
626:
510:
498:
431:
305:
223:
140:
2351:
In children, hypoaldosteronism can result from a deficiency of enzymes required for aldosterone synthesis
3829:
3585:
1336:
1152:
676:
533:
415:
1252:(e.g. intravenous injection of 10 units of regular insulin along with 50 mL of 50% dextrose to prevent
1091:
With mild to moderate hyperkalemia, there is prolongation of the PR interval and development of peaked
597:(aldosterone) deficiency or resistance can also cause hyperkalemia. Primary adrenal insufficiency are:
3375:
3727:
3704:
3626:
1354:. There are no systematic studies (>6 months) looking at the long-term safety of this medication.
961:
741:
696:
653:
598:
478:
3183:"Asking the question again: Are cation exchange resins effective for the treatment of hyperkalemia?"
2742:
591:
inhibits potassium excretion, which is similar to mechanism of action by amiloride and triamterene.
3867:
3438:
1325:
1215:
1148:
1131:
of peaked-Ts for hyperkalemia ranged from 0.18 to 0.52 depending on the criteria for peak-T waves.
1100:
1068:
1040:
1017:
909:
870:
866:
502:
376:
298:
60:
3872:
3593:
3060:"Incidence of hypoglycemia following insulin-based acute stabilization of hyperkalemia treatment"
2683:
2640:
1621:
1478:
1474:
1282:
1278:
953:
878:
649:
474:
466:
407:
267:
228:
151:
763:
toxicity may cause hyperkalemia through the inhibition of sodium-potassium-ATPase pump. Massive
505:
where the glomerular filtration rate and tubular flow are markedly decreased, characterized by
3735:
3489:
3460:
3321:
3286:
3245:
3204:
3163:
3132:
3081:
3040:
2990:
2892:
2843:
2791:
2724:
2675:
2632:
2595:
2569:
2528:
2501:
2447:
2380:
2289:
2248:
2219:"Electrolyte and Acid-Base Disturbances Associated with Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs"
2195:
2095:
1927:
1921:
1896:
1890:
1871:
1822:
1768:
1714:
1680:
1613:
1565:
1211:
815:
764:
594:
387:
344:
251:
216:
206:
194:
135:
2441:
1840:
Einhorn LM, Zhan M, Hsu VD, Walker LD, Moen MF, Seliger SL, Weir MR, Fink JC (22 June 2009).
3740:
3651:
3313:
3276:
3235:
3194:
3122:
3112:
3071:
3030:
2980:
2972:
2882:
2874:
2833:
2823:
2781:
2714:
2667:
2624:
2561:
2491:
2483:
2372:
2279:
2238:
2230:
2185:
2177:
2087:
1861:
1853:
1812:
1804:
1758:
1750:
1706:
1672:
1605:
1555:
1547:
1470:
1207:
1112:
973:
886:
671:
465:
and shortness of breath may occur. Hyperventilation may indicate a compensatory response to
391:
329:
80:
1596:
McDonald TJ, Oram RA, Vaidya B (20 October 2015). "Investigating hyperkalaemia in adults".
1223:
mmol of calcium. A standard ampule of 10% calcium gluconate is also 10 mL but has only 2.26
3712:
3549:
3532:
2916:
1348:
1257:
1044:
1025:
1009:
913:
874:
657:
321:
164:
64:
2423:
2008:
1956:
1676:
1256:) leads to a shift of potassium ions into cells, secondary to increased activity of the
976:
organ systems. Of most concern is the impairment of cardiac conduction, which can cause
3812:
3717:
3689:
3681:
3601:
3127:
3100:
2985:
2960:
2887:
2862:
2786:
2769:
2496:
2471:
2243:
2218:
2190:
2165:
2078:
Kovesdy CP (December 2015). "Management of
Hyperkalemia: An Update for the Internist".
1866:
1841:
1817:
1792:
1763:
1738:
1560:
1535:
1329:
1301:
1183:
957:
949:
865:
and about 98% of the body's potassium is found inside cells, with the remainder in the
759:
Rare causes of hyperkalemia are discussed as follows. Acute digitalis overdose such as
753:
749:
731:
684:
585:
557:
380:
352:
348:
340:
333:
198:
190:
180:
3525:
3443:
3035:
3018:
2719:
2702:
2565:
3851:
3807:
3694:
3657:
3647:
3614:
3606:
3265:"Ion-exchange resins for the treatment of hyperkalemia: are they safe and effective?"
2376:
1625:
1321:
917:
859:
837:
797:
577:
521:
291:
3500:
2687:
683:, and fasting which can also cause hyperkalemia. Increased tissue breakdown such as
17:
3819:
3542:
2644:
1857:
1754:
1295:
1253:
706:
699:
can cause the release of intracellular potassium into blood, causing hyperkalemia.
581:
529:
462:
423:
313:
239:
156:
52:
996:
An ECG of a person with a potassium of 5.7 showing large T waves and small P waves
3454:
3317:
3224:"Damned if You Do, Damned if You Don't: Potassium Binding Resins in Hyperkalemia"
2878:
2091:
1332:) can increase kidney potassium excretion in people with intact kidney function.
1067:
Normal serum potassium levels are generally considered to be between 3.5 and 5.3
3777:
3484:
2933:
2487:
1408:
1121:
1096:
1080:
981:
929:
905:
882:
810:
781:
711:
588:
553:
537:
325:
317:
168:
160:
2828:
2811:
2520:
1335:
Potassium can bind to a number of agents in the gastrointestinal tract. Sodium
3643:
3506:
3465:
3428:
3151:
2552:
Brown R (5 November 1984). "Potassium
Homeostasis and clinical implications".
2443:
Medical
Emergencies Caused by Aquatic Animals: A Zoological and Clinical Guide
1842:"The Frequency of Hyperkalemia and Its Significance in Chronic Kidney Disease"
1808:
1551:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1263:
1144:
1052:
1048:
1013:
890:
832:
785:
777:
727:
719:
680:
541:
470:
411:
403:
263:
246:
144:
2671:
2234:
2181:
1710:
3750:
3511:
3495:
2428:
1380:
1361:
1357:
1163:
1104:
1001:
793:
789:
715:
565:
549:
287:
3325:
3290:
3281:
3264:
3249:
3208:
3167:
3136:
3085:
3044:
2994:
2959:
Elliott MJ, Ronksley PE, Clase CM, Ahmed SB, Hemmelgarn BR (October 2010).
2896:
2847:
2795:
2728:
2679:
2636:
2532:
2505:
2293:
2284:
2267:
2252:
2199:
2099:
1875:
1826:
1772:
1684:
1617:
1569:
473:
for a medical disorder, or after hospitalization for complications such as
2573:
2384:
2166:"Electrolyte and Acid-Base Disturbances Induced by Clacineurin Inhibitors"
394:. Other medications used to rapidly reduce blood potassium levels include
3554:
3240:
3223:
3199:
3182:
3117:
2143:
1701:
Pathy MJ (2006). "Appendix 1: Conversion of SI Units to
Standard Units".
1351:
1340:
1317:
1156:
1140:
1029:
869:
including the blood. Membrane potential is maintained principally by the
773:
692:
573:
569:
545:
506:
255:
2976:
2838:
1737:
Mahoney BA, Smith WA, Lo D, Tsoi K, Tonelli M, Clase C (20 April 2005).
351:. A number of medications can also cause high blood potassium including
1369:
1249:
1167:
1021:
992:
969:
873:
and membrane permeability to potassium with some contribution from the
760:
667:
664:
399:
395:
259:
3411:
2628:
2335:"Etiology, diagnosis, and treatment of hypoaldosteronism (type 4 RTA)"
1609:
1285:, though time to effectiveness is longer and its use is controversial.
705:
act on beta-2 receptors to drive potassium into the cells. Therefore,
3799:
3423:
1281:
may be used with the above measures if it is believed the person has
1179:
1175:
1171:
1092:
901:
862:
745:
3076:
3059:
1705:. Vol. 2 (4th ed.). Chichester : Wiley. p. Appendix.
1036:
can sometimes help in distinguishing the cause of the hyperkalemia.
1004:
in the first sample. The normal serum level of potassium is 3.5 to 5
516:
Medications that interfere with urinary excretion by inhibiting the
908:. In the kidneys, elimination of potassium is passive (through the
501:
is a major cause of hyperkalemia. This is especially pronounced in
3526:
USDA National
Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 26
2131:
2129:
1270:-selective catecholamine, is administered by nebuliser (e.g. 10–20
1227:
mmol of calcium. Clinical practice guidelines recommend giving 6.8
991:
2127:
2125:
2123:
2121:
2119:
2117:
2115:
2113:
2111:
2109:
688:
3558:
952:
of the membrane potentials of cells due to the increase in the
2920:
1793:"Updates in hyperkalemia: Outcomes and therapeutic strategies"
1402:
386:
Initial treatment in those with ECG changes is salts, such as
383:
during or after taking the blood sample, should be ruled out.
110:
95:
3543:
National Kidney
Foundation site on potassium content of foods
3101:"The management of hyperkalaemia in the emergency department"
2268:"Mechanisms in Hyperkalemic Renal Tubular Acidosis: Figure 1"
3376:"Sodium Zirconium Cyclosilicate Monograph for Professionals"
560:
acts by competitively inhibiting the action of aldosterone.
1075:
mmol/L generally indicate hyperkalemia, and those below 3.5
956:
of potassium. This depolarization opens some voltage-gated
119:
116:
101:
89:
3263:
Sterns RH, Rojas M, Bernstein P, Chennupati S (May 2010).
1124:, as well as levels of catecholamines, play a major role.
3058:
Schafers S, Naunheim R, Vijayan A, Tobin G (March 2012).
485:
mmol/L) have been associated with cardiovascular events.
2768:
Parham WA, Mehdirad AA, Biermann KM, Fredman CS (2006).
2658:
Evans KJ, Greenberg A (2005). "Hyperkalemia: A review".
2310:"Hyponatremia and hyperkalemia in adrenal insufficiency"
1536:"Pathogenesis, diagnosis and management of hyperkalemia"
2863:"Hass avocado composition and potential health effects"
3228:
Clinical
Journal of the American Society of Nephrology
3150:
Hollander-Rodriguez JC, Calvert JF (15 January 2006).
2585:
2583:
98:
83:
3401:
107:
92:
3798:
3749:
3726:
3703:
3680:
3592:
3475:
3405:
1095:. Severe hyperkalemia results in a widening of the
1059:), both of which are known causes of hyperkalemia.
948:Increased extracellular potassium levels result in
273:
245:
234:
222:
205:
186:
174:
150:
134:
113:
104:
86:
71:
42:
37:
2399:
2398:Gutmann L, Conwit R, M shefner J, L Wilterdink J.
2333:
2308:
2137:
1895:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 326.
896:Potassium is eliminated from the body through the
2139:"Causes and evaluation of hyperkalemia in adults"
2136:B Mount D, H Sterns R, P Forman J (5 June 2017).
1469:In the United States, hyperkalemia is induced by
968:. This leads to the impairment of neuromuscular,
663:Insulin deficiency can cause hyperkalemia as the
294:. Normal potassium levels are between 3.5 and 5.0
3349:(Press release). 22 October 2015. Archived from
2961:"Management of patients with acute hyperkalemia"
920:. There is active excretion of potassium in the
629:(aldosterone resistance of the kidney's tubules)
2527:, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing,
2073:
2071:
2069:
2067:
2065:
2063:
2061:
2059:
2057:
2055:
2053:
379:(ECG). Pseudohyperkalemia, due to breakdown of
3370:
3368:
2465:
2463:
2307:B Mount D, H Sterns R, Lacroix A, Forman P J.
2051:
2049:
2047:
2045:
2043:
2041:
2039:
2037:
2035:
2033:
3570:
3340:"FDA approves new drug to treat hyperkalemia"
2272:Journal of the American Society of Nephrology
1703:Principles and practice of geriatric medicine
426:. Hemodialysis is the most effective method.
8:
2594:(4th ed.). Elsevier. pp. 118–129.
1797:Reviews in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders
1360:is taken by mouth and works by binding free
363:. The severity is divided into mild (5.5–5.9
2743:"Hyperkalaemia - ECG Features - Management"
1739:"Emergency interventions for hyperkalaemia"
1437:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
375:mmol/L). High levels can be detected on an
3577:
3563:
3555:
3402:
3012:
3010:
3008:
3006:
3004:
1951:
1949:
1947:
1529:
1527:
1525:
1523:
1521:
1519:
1517:
1515:
51:
34:
3280:
3239:
3198:
3126:
3116:
3075:
3034:
2984:
2886:
2837:
2827:
2785:
2718:
2495:
2283:
2242:
2189:
1926:. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 487.
1892:Medical Terminology: An Illustrated Guide
1865:
1816:
1786:
1784:
1782:
1762:
1696:
1694:
1657:
1655:
1591:
1589:
1587:
1585:
1583:
1581:
1579:
1559:
1513:
1511:
1509:
1507:
1505:
1503:
1501:
1499:
1497:
1495:
1457:Learn how and when to remove this message
2519:Simon LV, Hashmi MF, Farrell MW (2024),
2164:Hwa Lee C, Ho Kim G (31 December 2007).
1732:
1730:
1653:
1651:
1649:
1647:
1645:
1643:
1641:
1639:
1637:
1635:
722:do not increase serum potassium levels.
361:angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors
1743:Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
1491:
605:(including enzyme deficiencies such as
2910:Avocado has more potassium than banana
1940:from the original on 8 September 2017.
1909:from the original on 8 September 2017.
638:thiazide-sensitive Na-Cl cotransporter
339:Common causes of hyperkalemia include
3222:Watson M, Abbott KC, Yuan CM (2010).
2940:from the original on 22 December 2015
1989:from the original on 28 February 2014
1534:Lehnhardt A, Kemper MJ (March 2011).
1254:the blood sugar from dropping too low
912:), and reabsorption is active in the
748:. SCN4A is an important component of
7:
3672:Familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia
2936:. National Kidney Foundation (NKF).
1923:The Human Body in Health and Illness
1435:adding citations to reliable sources
885:of cell volume, and transmission of
718:. Beta-1 selective blockers such as
603:congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)
481:. High levels of potassium (> 5.5
3788:Hypokalemic sensory overstimulation
3187:Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation
1677:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2010.08.015
1008:mmol/L. Generally, blood tests for
800:venom can also cause hyperkalemia.
2749:from the original on 25 March 2016
2332:F Young W, H Sterns R, Forman JP.
2217:Kim S, Joo KW (31 December 2007).
25:
3036:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.971069
2720:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.807917
2592:Comprehensive Clinical Nephrology
2401:"Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis"
1985:. Mayo Clinic. 18 November 2011.
238:Medications, low potassium diet,
3306:The American Journal of Medicine
2861:Dreher ML, Davenport AJ (2013).
2554:The American Journal of Medicine
2080:The American Journal of Medicine
1407:
1034:trans-tubular potassium gradient
79:
3764:Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis
3632:Disorders of calcium metabolism
3538:List of foods rich in potassium
3099:Ahee P, Crowe AV (1 May 2000).
1983:"High potassium (hyperkalemia)"
1108:
1032:are performed. Calculating the
858:Potassium is the most abundant
776:hydrochloride is used to treat
738:Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis
691:, or any cause of rapid tissue
3835:Cerebral salt-wasting syndrome
3783:Hypokalemic periodic paralysis
3181:Kamel KS, Schreiber M (2012).
1858:10.1001/archinternmed.2009.132
1755:10.1002/14651858.CD003235.pub2
1377:Sodium zirconium cyclosilicate
916:and the ascending limb of the
420:sodium zirconium cyclosilicate
1:
2934:"Potassium And Your CKD Diet"
2566:10.1016/s0002-9343(84)80002-9
1889:Cohen BJ, DePetris A (2013).
1846:Archives of Internal Medicine
1162:High dietary sources include
982:abnormally slow heart rhythms
526:angiotensin receptor blockers
27:Excess potassium in the blood
3345:Food and Drug Administration
3318:10.1016/j.amjmed.2012.08.016
3064:Journal of Hospital Medicine
2879:10.1080/10408398.2011.556759
2470:Smellie WS (31 March 2007).
2377:10.1016/0022-2828(95)90070-5
2092:10.1016/j.amjmed.2015.05.040
842:chronic lymphocytic leukemia
656:or organic acidosis such as
645:Excessive release from cells
414:, potassium-binders such as
371:mmol/L), and severe (>6.5
328:. Hyperkalemia can cause an
3637:Hypercalcemia of malignancy
2701:Desai A (14 October 2008).
2488:10.1136/bmj.39119.607986.47
1379:is a medication that binds
1057:potassium-sparing diuretics
536:immunosuppressants such as
3889:
3105:Emergency Medicine Journal
2829:10.1016/j.kint.2019.09.018
2266:Karet FE (February 2009).
2014:National Kidney Foundation
1961:National Kidney Foundation
367:mmol/L), moderate (6.0–6.4
3156:American Family Physician
1809:10.1007/s11154-016-9384-x
1791:Kovesdy CP (March 2017).
1552:10.1007/s00467-010-1699-3
928:; both are controlled by
703:Beta2-adrenergic agonists
499:Decreased kidney function
59:
50:
3858:Electrolyte disturbances
3666:Dystrophic calcification
3662:Metastatic calcification
2770:"Hyperkalemia Revisited"
2672:10.1177/0885066605278969
2472:"Spurious hyperkalaemia"
2446:. Springer. p. 11.
2235:10.5049/EBP.2007.5.2.116
2182:10.5049/EBP.2007.5.2.126
1711:10.1002/047009057X.app01
1103:complex can evolve to a
978:ventricular fibrillation
796:can cause hyperkalemia.
586:antiparasitic medication
544:. For potassium-sparing
518:renin–angiotensin system
286:is an elevated level of
277:~2% (people in hospital)
211:Blood potassium > 5.5
3029:(18 Suppl 3): S829–61.
2223:Electrolyte Blood Press
2170:Electrolyte Blood Press
2009:"What is Hyperkalemia?"
1957:"What is Hyperkalemia?"
1258:sodium-potassium ATPase
1202:Myocardial excitability
814:co-morbidities such as
634:pseudohypoaldosteronism
494:Ineffective elimination
308:) with levels above 5.5
3586:Electrolyte imbalances
3282:10.1681/ASN.2010010079
2867:Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr
2285:10.1681/ASN.2008020166
1385:gastrointestinal tract
1366:gastrointestinal tract
997:
898:gastrointestinal tract
871:concentration gradient
836:clotted blood sample (
820:chronic kidney disease
627:renal tubular acidosis
511:chronic kidney disease
432:chronic kidney disease
224:Differential diagnosis
141:Critical care medicine
3312:(3): 264.e9–264.e24.
2365:J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol
1337:polystyrene sulfonate
1294:Severe cases require
1153:polystyrene sulfonate
995:
954:equilibrium potential
677:diabetic ketoacidosis
534:calcineurin inhibitor
416:polystyrene sulfonate
330:abnormal heart rhythm
201:, certain medications
3627:Milk-alkali syndrome
3531:1 March 2014 at the
3241:10.2215/CJN.03700410
3118:10.1136/emj.17.3.188
2816:Kidney International
2660:J Intensive Care Med
2617:Journal of Pathology
1540:Pediatric Nephrology
1431:improve this section
697:tumor lysis syndrome
654:respiratory acidosis
507:reduced urine output
479:sudden cardiac death
332:which can result in
18:High blood potassium
3863:Medical emergencies
3611:Symptoms and signs
3548:8 July 2014 at the
3269:J. Am. Soc. Nephrol
2977:10.1503/cmaj.100461
1399:Society and culture
1326:hydrochlorothiazide
1216:threshold potential
1149:hydrochlorothiazide
1041:electrocardiography
1018:blood urea nitrogen
867:extracellular fluid
632:Gordon's syndrome (
503:acute kidney injury
61:Electrocardiography
3476:External resources
3353:on 7 November 2015
3200:10.1093/ndt/gfs293
2915:2017-02-03 at the
2774:Tex. Heart Inst. J
2424:Digitalis Toxicity
1920:Herlihy B (2014).
1479:Potassium chloride
1475:capital punishment
1283:metabolic acidosis
1279:Sodium bicarbonate
1240:Temporary measures
1071:. Levels above 5.5
998:
940:Elevated potassium
879:membrane potential
826:Pseudohyperkalemia
742:autosomal dominant
650:Metabolic acidosis
475:cardiac arrhythmia
467:metabolic acidosis
457:Signs and symptoms
408:sodium bicarbonate
268:sodium bicarbonate
229:Pseudohyperkalemia
3845:
3844:
3521:
3520:
2713:(16): 1609–1611.
2629:10.1002/path.1750
2482:(7595): 693–695.
2440:Haddad V (2016).
2018:. 8 February 2016
1963:. 8 February 2016
1852:(12): 1156–1162.
1671:(10): 1400–1433.
1610:10.1136/bmj.h4762
1467:
1466:
1459:
1320:diuretics (e.g.,
1212:calcium gluconate
1178:, fruits such as
1024:and occasionally
887:action potentials
816:hypoaldosteronism
765:blood transfusion
599:Addison's disease
595:Mineralocorticoid
451:'blood condition'
418:(Kayexalate) and
388:calcium gluconate
377:electrocardiogram
345:hypoaldosteronism
281:
280:
252:Calcium gluconate
217:electrocardiogram
207:Diagnostic method
195:hypoaldosteronism
32:Medical condition
16:(Redirected from
3880:
3652:Calcinosis cutis
3579:
3572:
3565:
3556:
3403:
3391:
3390:
3388:
3386:
3372:
3363:
3362:
3360:
3358:
3336:
3330:
3329:
3301:
3295:
3294:
3284:
3260:
3254:
3253:
3243:
3219:
3213:
3212:
3202:
3178:
3172:
3171:
3147:
3141:
3140:
3130:
3120:
3096:
3090:
3089:
3079:
3055:
3049:
3048:
3038:
3014:
2999:
2998:
2988:
2956:
2950:
2949:
2947:
2945:
2930:
2924:
2907:
2901:
2900:
2890:
2858:
2852:
2851:
2841:
2831:
2806:
2800:
2799:
2789:
2765:
2759:
2758:
2756:
2754:
2739:
2733:
2732:
2722:
2698:
2692:
2691:
2655:
2649:
2648:
2612:
2606:
2605:
2587:
2578:
2577:
2549:
2543:
2542:
2541:
2539:
2516:
2510:
2509:
2499:
2467:
2458:
2457:
2437:
2431:
2420:
2414:
2413:
2411:
2409:
2403:
2395:
2389:
2388:
2371:(4): 1011–1022.
2360:
2354:
2353:
2348:
2346:
2337:
2329:
2323:
2322:
2320:
2318:
2312:
2304:
2298:
2297:
2287:
2263:
2257:
2256:
2246:
2214:
2208:
2207:
2193:
2161:
2155:
2154:
2152:
2150:
2141:
2133:
2104:
2103:
2075:
2028:
2027:
2025:
2023:
2005:
1999:
1998:
1996:
1994:
1979:
1973:
1972:
1970:
1968:
1953:
1942:
1941:
1917:
1911:
1910:
1886:
1880:
1879:
1869:
1837:
1831:
1830:
1820:
1788:
1777:
1776:
1766:
1734:
1725:
1724:
1698:
1689:
1688:
1659:
1630:
1629:
1593:
1574:
1573:
1563:
1531:
1471:lethal injection
1462:
1455:
1451:
1448:
1442:
1411:
1403:
1273:
1266:(albuterol), a β
1230:
1226:
1222:
1208:calcium chloride
1197:
1113:action potential
1079:mmol/L indicate
1078:
1074:
1007:
974:gastrointestinal
804:Excessive intake
619:3β dehydrogenase
528:, non-selective
484:
392:calcium chloride
374:
370:
366:
311:
304:
297:
214:
126:
125:
122:
121:
118:
115:
112:
109:
106:
103:
100:
97:
94:
91:
88:
85:
67:in hyperkalemia.
65:precordial leads
55:
35:
21:
3888:
3887:
3883:
3882:
3881:
3879:
3878:
3877:
3848:
3847:
3846:
3841:
3794:
3745:
3722:
3699:
3676:
3588:
3583:
3550:Wayback Machine
3533:Wayback Machine
3522:
3517:
3516:
3471:
3470:
3414:
3400:
3395:
3394:
3384:
3382:
3374:
3373:
3366:
3356:
3354:
3338:
3337:
3333:
3303:
3302:
3298:
3262:
3261:
3257:
3221:
3220:
3216:
3180:
3179:
3175:
3149:
3148:
3144:
3098:
3097:
3093:
3077:10.1002/jhm.977
3057:
3056:
3052:
3016:
3015:
3002:
2958:
2957:
2953:
2943:
2941:
2932:
2931:
2927:
2917:Wayback Machine
2908:
2904:
2860:
2859:
2855:
2808:
2807:
2803:
2767:
2766:
2762:
2752:
2750:
2741:
2740:
2736:
2700:
2699:
2695:
2657:
2656:
2652:
2614:
2613:
2609:
2602:
2589:
2588:
2581:
2551:
2550:
2546:
2537:
2535:
2518:
2517:
2513:
2469:
2468:
2461:
2454:
2439:
2438:
2434:
2421:
2417:
2407:
2405:
2397:
2396:
2392:
2362:
2361:
2357:
2344:
2342:
2331:
2330:
2326:
2316:
2314:
2306:
2305:
2301:
2265:
2264:
2260:
2216:
2215:
2211:
2163:
2162:
2158:
2148:
2146:
2135:
2134:
2107:
2077:
2076:
2031:
2021:
2019:
2007:
2006:
2002:
1992:
1990:
1981:
1980:
1976:
1966:
1964:
1955:
1954:
1945:
1934:
1919:
1918:
1914:
1903:
1888:
1887:
1883:
1839:
1838:
1834:
1790:
1789:
1780:
1749:(2): CD003235.
1736:
1735:
1728:
1721:
1700:
1699:
1692:
1661:
1660:
1633:
1595:
1594:
1577:
1533:
1532:
1493:
1488:
1463:
1452:
1446:
1443:
1428:
1412:
1401:
1393:
1292:
1271:
1269:
1242:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1204:
1195:
1192:
1137:
1089:
1076:
1072:
1065:
1045:medical history
1026:creatine kinase
1010:kidney function
1005:
990:
958:sodium channels
942:
926:collecting duct
914:proximal tubule
856:
851:
828:
806:
769:succinylcholine
750:sodium channels
672:hyperosmolality
658:lactic acidosis
647:
615:11β hydroxylase
611:17α hydroxylase
607:21α hydroxylase
496:
491:
482:
459:
372:
368:
364:
322:muscle weakness
309:
302:
295:
212:
165:muscle weakness
130:
82:
78:
33:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3886:
3884:
3876:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3850:
3849:
3843:
3842:
3840:
3839:
3838:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3817:
3816:
3815:
3813:Salt poisoning
3804:
3802:
3796:
3795:
3793:
3792:
3791:
3790:
3785:
3775:
3774:
3773:
3772:
3771:
3755:
3753:
3747:
3746:
3744:
3743:
3738:
3732:
3730:
3724:
3723:
3721:
3720:
3715:
3709:
3707:
3701:
3700:
3698:
3697:
3692:
3686:
3684:
3678:
3677:
3675:
3674:
3669:
3655:
3641:
3640:
3639:
3629:
3624:
3623:
3622:
3620:Trousseau sign
3617:
3609:
3604:
3598:
3596:
3590:
3589:
3584:
3582:
3581:
3574:
3567:
3559:
3553:
3552:
3540:
3535:
3519:
3518:
3515:
3514:
3503:
3492:
3480:
3479:
3477:
3473:
3472:
3469:
3468:
3457:
3446:
3431:
3415:
3410:
3409:
3407:
3406:Classification
3399:
3398:External links
3396:
3393:
3392:
3364:
3331:
3296:
3255:
3234:(10): 1723–6.
3214:
3193:(12): 4294–7.
3173:
3162:(2): 283–290.
3152:"Hyperkalemia"
3142:
3111:(3): 188–191.
3091:
3070:(3): 239–242.
3050:
3000:
2971:(15): 1631–5.
2951:
2925:
2902:
2853:
2801:
2760:
2734:
2693:
2666:(5): 272–290.
2650:
2607:
2600:
2579:
2544:
2521:"Hyperkalemia"
2511:
2459:
2452:
2432:
2415:
2390:
2355:
2324:
2299:
2278:(2): 251–254.
2258:
2229:(2): 116–125.
2209:
2176:(2): 126–130.
2156:
2105:
2086:(12): 1281–7.
2029:
2000:
1974:
1943:
1932:
1912:
1901:
1881:
1832:
1778:
1726:
1719:
1690:
1631:
1575:
1546:(3): 377–384.
1490:
1489:
1487:
1484:
1465:
1464:
1415:
1413:
1406:
1400:
1397:
1392:
1389:
1368:and releasing
1330:chlorothiazide
1302:Loop diuretics
1291:
1288:
1287:
1286:
1276:
1267:
1261:
1241:
1238:
1203:
1200:
1191:
1188:
1136:
1133:
1088:
1085:
1064:
1061:
1049:kidney disease
989:
986:
950:depolarization
941:
938:
855:
852:
850:
847:
827:
824:
805:
802:
754:depolarization
685:rhabdomyolysis
646:
643:
642:
641:
630:
558:Spironolactone
522:ACE inhibitors
495:
492:
490:
487:
458:
455:
446:'potassium' +
353:spironolactone
349:rhabdomyolysis
341:kidney failure
334:cardiac arrest
279:
278:
275:
271:
270:
249:
243:
242:
236:
232:
231:
226:
220:
219:
209:
203:
202:
199:rhabdomyolysis
191:Kidney failure
188:
184:
183:
181:Cardiac arrest
178:
172:
171:
154:
148:
147:
138:
132:
131:
129:
128:
75:
73:
69:
68:
57:
56:
48:
47:
44:
40:
39:
31:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3885:
3874:
3871:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3856:
3855:
3853:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3822:
3821:
3818:
3814:
3811:
3810:
3809:
3806:
3805:
3803:
3801:
3797:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3780:
3779:
3776:
3770:
3767:
3766:
3765:
3762:
3761:
3760:
3757:
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3748:
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3733:
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3710:
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3693:
3691:
3688:
3687:
3685:
3683:
3679:
3673:
3670:
3667:
3663:
3659:
3658:Calcification
3656:
3653:
3649:
3648:Calciphylaxis
3645:
3642:
3638:
3635:
3634:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3621:
3618:
3616:
3615:Chvostek sign
3613:
3612:
3610:
3608:
3605:
3603:
3600:
3599:
3597:
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3591:
3587:
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3110:
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3009:
3007:
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2966:
2962:
2955:
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2935:
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2918:
2914:
2911:
2906:
2903:
2898:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2873:(7): 738–50.
2872:
2868:
2864:
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2825:
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2601:9780323058766
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2477:
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2466:
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2453:9783319202884
2449:
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2050:
2048:
2046:
2044:
2042:
2040:
2038:
2036:
2034:
2030:
2017:
2015:
2010:
2004:
2001:
1988:
1984:
1978:
1975:
1962:
1958:
1952:
1950:
1948:
1944:
1939:
1935:
1933:9781455756421
1929:
1925:
1924:
1916:
1913:
1908:
1904:
1902:9781451187564
1898:
1894:
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1720:9780470090558
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1697:
1695:
1691:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1665:Resuscitation
1658:
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1654:
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1650:
1648:
1646:
1644:
1642:
1640:
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1436:
1432:
1426:
1425:
1421:
1416:This section
1414:
1410:
1405:
1404:
1398:
1396:
1390:
1388:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1353:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1333:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1322:chlortalidone
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1297:
1289:
1284:
1280:
1277:
1265:
1262:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1248:
1247:
1246:
1239:
1237:
1233:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1201:
1199:
1189:
1187:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1160:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1134:
1132:
1130:
1125:
1123:
1117:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1086:
1084:
1082:
1070:
1062:
1060:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1047:may focus on
1046:
1042:
1037:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1003:
994:
987:
985:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
962:accommodation
959:
955:
951:
946:
939:
937:
933:
931:
927:
923:
922:distal tubule
919:
918:loop of Henle
915:
911:
907:
903:
899:
894:
892:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
861:
860:intracellular
853:
848:
846:
843:
839:
834:
825:
823:
821:
817:
812:
803:
801:
799:
798:Box jellyfish
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
770:
766:
762:
757:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
733:
732:noradrenaline
729:
723:
721:
717:
713:
708:
707:beta blockers
704:
700:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
673:
669:
666:
661:
659:
655:
651:
644:
639:
635:
631:
628:
624:
623:
622:
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
590:
587:
583:
579:
578:prostaglandin
575:
571:
567:
563:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
530:beta blockers
527:
523:
519:
514:
512:
508:
504:
500:
493:
488:
486:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
456:
454:
452:
450:
445:
441:
437:
433:
427:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
384:
382:
378:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
337:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
307:
300:
293:
289:
285:
276:
272:
269:
265:
261:
257:
253:
250:
248:
244:
241:
237:
233:
230:
227:
225:
221:
218:
210:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
189:
185:
182:
179:
177:
176:Complications
173:
170:
166:
162:
158:
155:
153:
149:
146:
142:
139:
137:
133:
124:
77:
76:
74:
72:Pronunciation
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
49:
46:Hyperkalaemia
45:
41:
36:
30:
19:
3758:
3512:Hyperkalemia
3505:
3494:
3483:
3459:
3448:
3433:
3418:
3383:. Retrieved
3379:
3355:. Retrieved
3351:the original
3343:
3334:
3309:
3305:
3299:
3275:(5): 733–5.
3272:
3268:
3258:
3231:
3227:
3217:
3190:
3186:
3176:
3159:
3155:
3145:
3108:
3104:
3094:
3067:
3063:
3053:
3026:
3022:
2968:
2964:
2954:
2942:. Retrieved
2928:
2919:5 May 2011,
2905:
2870:
2866:
2856:
2839:10072/392924
2822:(1): 42–61.
2819:
2815:
2804:
2780:(1): 40–47.
2777:
2773:
2763:
2751:. Retrieved
2737:
2710:
2706:
2696:
2663:
2659:
2653:
2623:(1): 46–51.
2620:
2616:
2610:
2591:
2557:
2553:
2547:
2536:, retrieved
2524:
2514:
2479:
2475:
2442:
2435:
2422:
2418:
2406:. Retrieved
2393:
2368:
2364:
2358:
2350:
2343:. Retrieved
2339:
2327:
2315:. Retrieved
2302:
2275:
2271:
2261:
2226:
2222:
2212:
2203:
2173:
2169:
2159:
2149:28 September
2147:. Retrieved
2083:
2079:
2020:. Retrieved
2012:
2003:
1991:. Retrieved
1977:
1965:. Retrieved
1960:
1922:
1915:
1891:
1884:
1849:
1845:
1835:
1803:(1): 41–47.
1800:
1796:
1746:
1742:
1702:
1668:
1664:
1601:
1597:
1543:
1539:
1468:
1453:
1444:
1429:Please help
1417:
1394:
1391:Epidemiology
1375:
1364:ions in the
1356:
1334:
1300:
1296:hemodialysis
1293:
1243:
1234:
1214:) increases
1205:
1193:
1161:
1138:
1126:
1122:electrolytes
1118:
1090:
1087:ECG findings
1066:
1038:
999:
947:
943:
934:
906:sweat glands
895:
857:
829:
807:
782:cyclosporine
758:
736:
724:
701:
695:, including
662:
648:
593:
582:trimethoprim
515:
497:
463:palpitations
460:
448:
443:
439:
436:hyperkalemia
435:
428:
424:hemodialysis
385:
338:
314:palpitations
301:(3.5 and 5.0
284:Hyperkalemia
283:
282:
240:hemodialysis
157:Palpitations
38:Hyperkalemia
29:
3485:MedlinePlus
3023:Circulation
2944:21 December
2707:Circulation
2560:(5): 3–10.
2205:aldosterone
1993:28 February
1967:23 February
1290:Elimination
1129:Sensitivity
1097:QRS complex
1081:hypokalemia
1063:Definitions
930:aldosterone
891:nerve cells
883:homeostasis
875:Na+/K+ pump
811:aldosterone
712:propranolol
589:pentamidine
554:triamterene
538:ciclosporin
471:blood tests
438:comes from
434:. The word
336:and death.
318:muscle pain
290:(K) in the
161:muscle pain
43:Other names
3868:Nephrology
3852:Categories
3644:Calcinosis
3507:Patient UK
3461:DiseasesDB
3385:11 October
3357:1 November
2525:StatPearls
2404:. UpToDate
2345:12 October
2313:. UpToDate
1486:References
1345:associated
1314:torasemide
1310:bumetanide
1306:furosemide
1264:Salbutamol
1186:and nuts.
1164:vegetables
1151:). Sodium
1145:furosemide
1135:Prevention
1105:sinusoidal
1099:, and the
1055:use (e.g.
1053:medication
1014:creatinine
966:refractory
854:Physiology
833:haemolysis
786:tacrolimus
778:refractory
728:adrenaline
720:metoprolol
681:octreotide
548:, such as
542:tacrolimus
412:furosemide
404:salbutamol
264:salbutamol
247:Medication
145:nephrology
3873:Potassium
3825:Hypotonic
3751:Potassium
3728:Phosphate
3705:Magnesium
3501:emerg/261
3496:eMedicine
3380:Drugs.com
2429:eMedicine
2408:3 October
2317:6 October
1626:206907572
1604:: h4762.
1447:July 2019
1418:does not
1381:potassium
1362:potassium
1358:Patiromer
1206:Calcium (
1190:Treatment
1143:(such as
1002:hemolysis
988:Diagnosis
910:glomeruli
849:Mechanism
794:minoxidil
790:diazoxide
716:labetalol
574:celecoxib
566:ibuprofen
550:amiloride
546:diuretics
442:'high' +
288:potassium
274:Frequency
235:Treatment
136:Specialty
3830:Isotonic
3682:Chloride
3546:Archived
3529:Archived
3326:23321430
3291:20167700
3250:20798253
3209:22989741
3168:16445274
3137:10819381
3086:22489323
3045:20956228
2995:20855477
2938:Archived
2913:Archived
2897:23638933
2848:31706619
2796:16572868
2753:25 March
2747:Archived
2729:18852376
2688:42985122
2680:16145218
2637:15772943
2538:27 April
2533:29261936
2506:17395950
2340:UpToDate
2294:19193780
2253:24459510
2200:24459511
2144:UpToDate
2100:26093176
1987:Archived
1938:Archived
1907:Archived
1876:19546417
1827:27600582
1773:15846652
1685:20956045
1618:26487322
1570:21181208
1352:necrosis
1341:sorbitol
1318:thiazide
1176:potatoes
1172:tomatoes
1168:avocados
1166:such as
1157:sorbitol
1141:diuretic
1030:cortisol
924:and the
774:Arginine
693:necrosis
625:Type IV
584:and the
576:inhibit
570:naproxen
564:such as
400:dextrose
326:numbness
256:dextrose
215:mmol/L,
169:numbness
152:Symptoms
63:showing
3594:Calcium
3455:D006947
3128:1725366
2986:2952010
2888:3664913
2787:1413606
2645:9679428
2574:6388326
2497:1839224
2385:7563098
2244:3894511
2191:3894512
2022:25 June
1867:3544306
1818:5339065
1764:6457842
1561:3061004
1477:cases.
1439:removed
1424:sources
1383:in the
1370:calcium
1349:colonic
1250:Insulin
1184:oranges
1180:bananas
1093:T waves
1022:glucose
980:and/or
970:cardiac
761:digoxin
668:insulin
665:hormone
396:insulin
260:insulin
3800:Sodium
3769:equine
3490:001179
3324:
3289:
3248:
3207:
3166:
3135:
3125:
3084:
3043:
2993:
2983:
2895:
2885:
2846:
2794:
2784:
2727:
2686:
2678:
2643:
2635:
2598:
2572:
2531:
2504:
2494:
2450:
2383:
2292:
2251:
2241:
2198:
2188:
2098:
1930:
1899:
1874:
1864:
1825:
1815:
1771:
1761:
1717:
1683:
1624:
1616:
1568:
1558:
1316:) and
1272:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1196:
1077:
1073:
1069:mmol/L
1039:Also,
1006:
972:, and
902:kidney
863:cation
792:, and
740:is an
562:NSAIDs
532:, and
489:Causes
483:
444:kalium
440:hyper-
422:, and
406:, and
373:
369:
365:
359:, and
357:NSAIDs
347:, and
310:
303:
299:mmol/L
296:
213:
187:Causes
127:
3444:276.7
3429:E87.5
3347:(FDA)
2684:S2CID
2641:S2CID
2016:(NKF)
1622:S2CID
1347:with
1339:with
1328:, or
1109:above
838:serum
746:SCN4A
689:burns
617:, or
572:, or
449:-emia
398:with
381:cells
324:, or
306:mEq/L
292:blood
258:with
3808:High
3759:High
3736:High
3713:High
3690:High
3602:High
3466:6242
3450:MeSH
3439:9-CM
3387:2019
3359:2015
3322:PMID
3287:PMID
3246:PMID
3205:PMID
3164:PMID
3133:PMID
3082:PMID
3041:PMID
2991:PMID
2965:CMAJ
2946:2015
2923:.com
2893:PMID
2844:PMID
2792:PMID
2755:2016
2725:PMID
2676:PMID
2633:PMID
2596:ISBN
2570:PMID
2540:2024
2529:PMID
2502:PMID
2448:ISBN
2410:2017
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