1745:
1811:(hemoglobin rather than myoglobin being the cause of the kidney damage). In 1944 Bywaters demonstrated experimentally that the kidney failure was mainly caused by myoglobin. Already during the war, teams of doctors traveled to bombed areas to provide medical support, chiefly with intravenous fluids, as dialysis was not yet available. The prognosis of acute kidney failure improved markedly when dialysis was added to supportive treatment, which first happened during the 1950–1953
34:
1298:/l are not unusual. CK concentrations rise steadily for 12 hours after the original muscle injury, remain elevated for 1–3 days and then fall gradually. Initial and peak CK levels have a linear relationship with the risk of acute kidney failure: the higher the CK, the more likely it is that kidney damage will occur. There is no specific concentration of CK above which kidney impairment definitely occurs; concentrations below
1060:
1218:(solid aggregates) that obstruct the normal flow of fluid; the condition is worsened further by high levels of uric acid and acidification of the filtrate, which increase cast formation. Iron released from the heme generates reactive oxygen species, damaging the kidney cells. In addition to the myoglobinuria, two other mechanisms contribute to kidney impairment: low blood pressure leads to
1243:
1607:
1709:
rhabdomyolysis, 10–50% develop acute kidney injury. The risk is higher in people with a history of illicit drug use, alcohol misuse or trauma when compared to muscle diseases, and it is particularly high if multiple contributing factors occur together. Rhabdomyolysis accounts for 7–10% of all cases of acute kidney injury in the U.S.
1530:
prevent the deposition of myoglobin in the kidneys. Amounts of 6 to 12 liters over 24 hours are recommended. The rate of fluid administration may be altered to achieve a high urine output (200–300 mL/h in adults), unless there are other reasons why this might lead to complications, such as a history of
1338:, enzymes abundant in both liver and muscle tissue, are also usually increased; this can lead to the condition being confused with acute liver injury, at least in the early stages. The incidence of actual acute liver injury is 25% in people with non-traumatic rhabdomyolysis; the mechanism for this is uncertain.
1760:, the Pentateuch says that the Jews demanded meat while traveling in the desert; God sent quail in response to the complaints, and people ate large quantities of quail meat. A plague then broke out, killing numerous people. Rhabdomyolysis after consuming quail was described in more recent times and called
1529:
solution). In victims of crush syndrome, it is recommended to administer intravenous fluids even before they are extracted from collapsed structures. This will ensure sufficient circulating volume to deal with the muscle cell swelling (which typically commences when blood supply is restored), and to
1418:
conclusively proves its presence or absence, but direct measurement of the pressure in a fascial compartment, and the difference between this pressure and the blood pressure, may be used to assess its severity. High pressures in the compartment and a small difference between compartment pressure and
1708:
The exact number of cases of rhabdomyolysis is difficult to establish because different definitions have been used. In 1995, hospitals in the U.S. reported 26,000 cases of rhabdomyolysis. Up to 85% of people with major traumatic injuries will experience some degree of rhabdomyolysis. Of those with
1944:
Rhabdomyolysis affecting horses may also occur in outbreaks; these have been reported in many
European countries, and later in Canada, Australia, and the United States. It has been referred to as "atypical myopathy" or "myoglobinuria of unknown etiology". No single cause has yet been found, but
1649:
drugs is not necessary. Hemofiltration is more effective at removing large molecules from the bloodstream, such as myoglobin, but this does not seem to confer any particular benefit. Peritoneal dialysis may be difficult to administer in someone with severe abdominal injury, and it may be less
1558:
to prevent cast formation in the kidneys; evidence suggesting that bicarbonate has benefits above saline alone is limited, and it can worsen hypocalcemia by enhancing calcium and phosphate deposition in the tissues. If urine alkalinization is used, the pH of the urine is kept at 6.5 or above.
1306:
are unlikely to be associated with a risk of kidney impairment, unless there are other contributing risk factors. Mild rises without kidney impairment are referred to as "hyperCKemia". Myoglobin has a short half-life, and is therefore less useful as a diagnostic test in the later stages. Its
1699:
of 20%. Admission to the intensive care unit is associated with a mortality of 22% in the absence of acute kidney injury, and 59% if kidney impairment occurs. Most people who have sustained kidney impairment due to rhabdomyolysis fully recover their kidney function.
558:
Any form of muscle damage of sufficient severity can cause rhabdomyolysis. Multiple causes can be present simultaneously in one person. Some have an underlying muscle condition, usually hereditary in nature, that makes them more prone to rhabdomyolysis.
1450:
in the blood and high levels of acylcarnitine in blood and urine may indicate a lipid metabolism defect, but these abnormalities revert to normal during convalescence. Other tests may be used at that stage to demonstrate these disorders. Disorders of
542:—leading to the loss of blood supply and damage or loss of function in the part(s) of the body supplied by these structures. Symptoms of this complication include pain or reduced sensation in the affected limb. A second recognized complication is
1258:
A diagnosis of rhabdomyolysis may be suspected in anyone who has sustained trauma, crush injury or prolonged immobilization, but it may also be identified at a later stage due to deteriorating kidney function (abnormally raised or increasing
3949:
3926:
3907:
943:
Recurrent rhabdomyolysis may result from intrinsic muscle enzyme deficiencies, which are usually inherited and often appear during childhood. Many structural muscle diseases feature episodes of rhabdomyolysis that are triggered by exercise,
1735:
Acute exertional rhabdomyolysis happens in 2% to 40% of people going through basic training for the United States military. In 2012, the United States military reported 402 cases. Another group at increased risk is firefighters.
1095:, the main carrier of energy in the cell. ATP depletion can itself lead to uncontrolled calcium influx. The persistent contraction of the muscle cell leads to breakdown of intracellular proteins and disintegration of the cell.
437:
times a year in the United States. While the condition has been commented on throughout history, the first modern description was following an earthquake in 1908. Important discoveries as to its mechanism were made during
1912:
Rhabdomyolysis is recognized in horses. Horses can develop a number of muscle disorders, many of which may progress to rhabdomyolysis. Of these, some cause isolated attacks of rhabdomyolysis (e.g., dietary deficiency in
1445:
If an underlying muscle disease is suspected, for instance, if there is no obvious explanation or there have been multiple episodes, it may be necessary to perform further investigations. During an attack, low levels of
1083:. The swelling itself may lead to destruction of muscle cells, but those cells that survive are subject to various disruptions that lead to rise in intracellular calcium ions; the accumulation of calcium outside the
1485:
can be useful if an episode of rhabdomyolysis is thought to be the result of an underlying muscle disorder. A biopsy sample taken during an episode is often uninformative, as it will show only evidence of
490:
and result either from the consequences of muscle tissue breakdown or from the condition that originally led to the muscle breakdown. Release of the components of muscle tissue into the bloodstream causes
1545:
to enhance urine production and is thought to prevent myoglobin deposition in the kidney, but its efficacy has not been shown in studies and there is a risk of worsening kidney function. The addition of
1537:
While many sources recommend additional intravenous agents to reduce damage to the kidney, most of the evidence supporting this practice comes from animal studies, and is inconsistent and conflicting.
1202:, the concentration in the urine becomes sufficient for it to be visibly discolored and corresponds with the destruction of about 200 grams of muscle. As the kidneys reabsorb more water from the
756:
increase the risk of myopathy due to statins. It is also more common in the elderly, those who are severely disabled, and when statins are used in combination with particular other medicines, such as
996:
1645:, is often required on a daily basis in rhabdomyolysis. Its advantage over continuous hemofiltration is that one machine can be used multiple times a day, and that continuous administration of
1425:, another complication of rhabdomyolysis and other forms of critical illness, may be suspected on the basis of unexpected bleeding or abnormalities in hematological tests, such as a decreasing
3786:
1230:
falls and the kidney is unable to perform its normal excretory functions. This causes disruption of electrolyte regulation, leading to a further rise in potassium levels, and interferes with
1622:(RRT) may be required. RRT removes excess potassium, acid and phosphate that accumulate when the kidneys are unable to function normally and is required until kidney function is regained.
1222:
and therefore a relative lack of blood flow to the kidney, and finally uric acid may form crystals in the tubules of the kidneys, causing obstruction. Together, these processes lead to
1008:
1728:, where 17,480 people died, 5392 were hospitalized and 477 received dialysis, with positive results. Treatment units are generally established outside the immediate disaster area, as
1665:
is the incision of the affected compartment. Often, multiple incisions are made and left open until the swelling has reduced. At that point, the incisions are closed, often requiring
1594:
Calcium levels initially tend to be low, but as the situation improves calcium is released from where it has precipitated with phosphate, and vitamin D production resumes, leading to
1695:
The prognosis depends on the underlying cause and whether any complications occur. Rhabdomyolysis complicated by acute kidney impairment in patients with traumatic injury may have a
1575:
In the initial stages, electrolyte levels are often abnormal and require correction. High potassium levels can be life-threatening, and respond to increased urine production and
1004:
458:
The symptoms of rhabdomyolysis depend on its severity and whether kidney failure develops. Milder forms may not cause any muscle symptoms, and the diagnosis is based on abnormal
1000:
1307:
detection in blood or urine is associated with a higher risk of kidney impairment. Despite this, use of urine myoglobin measurement is not supported by evidence as it lacks
1945:
various mechanisms have been proposed, and a seasonal pattern has been observed. Very high creatine kinase levels are detected, and mortality from this condition is 89%.
1012:
1641:) and peritoneal dialysis is achieved by instilling fluid into the abdominal cavity and later draining it. Hemodialysis, which is normally done several times a week in
4408:
4582:
948:
or any of the other causes of rhabdomyolysis listed above. Inherited muscle disorders and infections together cause the majority of rhabdomyolysis in children.
1186:
binds circulating myoglobin and other heme-containing substances, but in rhabdomyolysis the quantity of myoglobin exceeds the binding capacity of haptoglobin.
1040:
988:
1661:
is treated with surgery to relieve the pressure inside the muscle compartment and reduce the risk of compression on blood vessels and nerves in that area.
984:
3778:
1514:
The main goal of treatment is to treat shock and preserve kidney function. Initially this is done through the administration of generous amounts of
1796:
1327:
1391:
of the urine; this occurs because the reagent on the test strip reacts with myoglobin. The same phenomenon may happen in conditions that lead to
4999:
1926:
1676:
1422:
1160:
795:
543:
420:
182:
4396:
2987:
1331:
1459:
after exercise; a failure of the lactate to rise may be indicative of a disorder in glycolysis, while an exaggerated response is typical of
1618:
Kidney dysfunction typically develops 1–2 days after the initial muscle damage. If supportive treatment is inadequate to manage this,
411:
are commonly used but they are poorly supported by the evidence. Outcomes are generally good if treated early. Complications may include
4912:
1717:
1067:, a heme-containing protein that participates in oxygen storage in normal muscle but is responsible for kidney damage in rhabdomyolysis
1348:(ECG) may show whether the elevated potassium levels are affecting the conduction system of the heart, as suggested by the presence of
4052:
1479:. There are genetic tests available for many of the hereditary muscle conditions that predispose to myoglobinuria and rhabdomyolysis.
1399:
is also visibly discolored, while in rhabdomyolysis it is normal. If kidney damage has occurred, microscopy of the urine also reveals
478:
after someone is released from under heavy collapsed debris, the movement of fluid from the bloodstream into damaged muscle may cause
3055:"Utility of urine myoglobin for the prediction of acute renal failure in patients with suspected rhabdomyolysis: a systematic review"
1792:
1494:
appearance on the biopsy indicates the nature of the underlying disorder. For instance, mitochondrial diseases are characterized by
1044:
5004:
4917:
4473:
1938:
980:
975:
971:
2343:"Exertional rhabdomyolysis: an analysis of 321 hospitalised US military service members and its relationship with heat illness"
1468:
1128:. The swelling may also further compromise blood supply into the area. Finally, destroyed muscle cells release potassium ions,
963:
4968:
1472:
967:
767:
4206:
Exaggerated cardiorespiratory response to exercise (tachycardia with tachypnea and/or hyperpnea (exercise hyperventilation))
3143:
Shadgan B, Menon M, O'Brien PJ, Reid WD (September 2008). "Diagnostic techniques in acute compartment syndrome of the leg".
1254:. In skeletal muscle, creatine kinase exists predominantly in dimers containing two M-subunits, also referred to as "CK-MM".
741:(Baycol) was withdrawn in 2001 after numerous reports of rhabdomyolysis. Other statins have a small risk of 0.44 cases per
4097:
2932:
Guis S, Mattei JP, Cozzone PJ, Bendahan D (October 2005). "Pathophysiology and clinical presentations of rhabdomyolysis".
1673:
in the process. The need for fasciotomy may be decreased if mannitol is used, as it can relieve muscle swelling directly.
1419:
blood pressure indicate that the blood supply is likely to be insufficient, and that surgical intervention may be needed.
1178:
Rhabdomyolysis may cause kidney failure by several mechanisms. The most important is the accumulation of myoglobin in the
951:
The following hereditary disorders of the muscle energy supply may cause recurrent and usually exertional rhabdomyolysis:
776:
4609:
4577:
661:
2294:"Rhabdomyolysis: an American Association for the Surgery of Trauma Critical Care Committee Clinical Consensus Document"
1598:(abnormally high calcium levels). This "overshoot" occurs in 20–30% of those people who have developed kidney failure.
2975:
1308:
1503:
1227:
1567:, is often used to ensure sufficient urine production, but evidence that this prevents kidney failure is lacking.
4932:
4650:
4427:
4261:
1619:
1576:
576:
313:
4546:
4538:
3964:
2342:
1721:
4361:
2746:
Elsayed EF, Reilly RF (January 2010). "Rhabdomyolysis: a review, with emphasis on the pediatric population".
4777:
4772:
4190:
1941:; no specific cause has been identified, but an underlying muscle calcium regulation disorder is suspected.
1780:
1110:
1026:
808:
273:
breaks down rapidly, often due to high intensity exercise over a short period of time. Symptoms may include
165:
4973:
4782:
4619:
4614:
4205:
4045:
1720:(a worldwide body of kidney experts). Its volunteer doctors and nurses assisted for the first time in the
1713:
1642:
1223:
1098:
1092:
1084:
1022:
992:
910:
784:
749:
321:
204:
130:
2292:
Kodadek L, Carmichael Ii SP, Seshadri A, Pathak A, Hoth J, Appelbaum R, Michetti CP, Gonzalez RP (2022).
1757:
4961:
4747:
4707:
4551:
4521:
4415:
4092:
1460:
1315:
1207:
896:
689:
3280:
Sever MS, Vanholder R, Lameire N (March 2006). "Management of crush-related injuries after disasters".
4922:
4561:
4466:
4403:
4185:
1716:
prompted the establishment, in 1995, of the Renal
Disaster Relief Task Force, a working group of the
1680:
1658:
1411:
1376:
1125:
1030:
825:
734:
628:
531:
424:
186:
1071:
Damage to skeletal muscle may take various forms. Crush and other physical injuries cause damage to
5009:
4757:
4727:
4391:
4327:
3953:
1788:
1634:
1360:
levels may be present in the initial stage due to binding of free calcium to damaged muscle cells.
1345:
1264:
1168:
1121:
945:
891:
831:
539:
487:
483:
317:
302:
200:
170:
3508:"Transcriptional profiling of lung cell populations in idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension"
4892:
4871:
4830:
4697:
4435:
4366:
4317:
4241:
4221:
3840:
3488:
3439:
3255:
3168:
3122:
3035:
2860:
2817:
2771:
2693:
2529:
2421:
2366:
1884:
1357:
1287:
indicates severe disease but depending on the extent of the rhabdomyolysis, concentrations up to
1114:
1088:
1048:
887:
791:
598:
512:
404:
377:
141:
3459:"Exertional rhabdomyolysis: identification and evaluation of the athlete at risk for recurrence"
4742:
4737:
4692:
4439:
4251:
4200:
4038:
4004:
3975:
3920:
3875:
3832:
3760:
3711:
3657:
3623:
3574:
3539:
3480:
3431:
3396:
3347:
3326:"Consensus statement on the early management of crush injury and prevention of crush syndrome"
3297:
3247:
3212:
3160:
3114:
3076:
3027:
2983:
2949:
2909:
2852:
2809:
2763:
2685:
2615:
2521:
2413:
2358:
2323:
2248:
2184:
2058:
1752:
led to numerous discoveries in the mechanisms underlying kidney impairment in rhabdomyolysis.
1712:
Crush injuries are common in major disasters, especially in earthquakes. The aftermath of the
1638:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1490:
or may appear normal. Taking the sample is therefore delayed for several weeks or months. The
1075:
directly or interfere with blood supply, while non-physical causes interfere with muscle cell
883:
879:
875:
582:
329:
212:
125:
4030:
3916:
1783:
and World War I on kidney failure after injury were followed by studies by London physicians
4887:
4851:
4210:
3867:
3824:
3750:
3742:
3701:
3693:
3647:
3613:
3605:
3566:
3529:
3519:
3470:
3423:
3386:
3378:
3337:
3289:
3239:
3202:
3152:
3106:
3066:
3019:
2941:
2899:
2891:
2844:
2801:
2755:
2677:
2605:
2513:
2405:
2350:
2313:
2305:
2238:
2228:
2174:
2164:
1962:
1830:
1684:
1464:
1430:
1380:
1219:
1102:
839:
is rhabdomyolysis after consuming fish; a toxic cause is suspected but has not been proven.
681:
586:
504:
353:
352:
muscle conditions that increase the risk of rhabdomyolysis. The diagnosis is supported by a
282:
222:
154:
64:
4459:
4420:
4236:
4150:
1967:
1922:
1526:
1499:
1415:
1276:
1251:
1144:
930:
467:
396:
369:
357:
270:
236:
218:
3230:
Favaloro EJ (June 2010). "Laboratory testing in disseminated intravascular coagulation".
3010:
Brancaccio P, Lippi G, Maffulli N (June 2010). "Biochemical markers of muscular damage".
2217:"Beyond muscle destruction: a systematic review of rhabdomyolysis for clinical practice"
1925:), while others predispose to exertional rhabdomyolysis (e.g., the hereditary condition
348:(prescription drugs to lower cholesterol) are considered a small risk. Some people have
4939:
4762:
4629:
4350:
4312:
4231:
4180:
4160:
4133:
3958:
3706:
3681:
3618:
3593:
3534:
3507:
3506:
Saygin D, Tabib T, Bittar HE, Valenzi E, Sembrat J, Chan SY, et al. (1 May 2018).
3427:
3391:
3366:
3207:
3190:
3189:
Shadgan B, Menon M, Sanders D, Berry G, Martin C, Duffy P, et al. (October 2010).
2904:
2879:
2318:
2293:
2243:
2216:
2179:
2152:
1987:
1808:
1696:
1630:
1611:
1491:
1384:
1079:. When damaged, muscle tissue rapidly fills with fluid from the bloodstream, including
959:
753:
693:
620:
608:
400:
309:
240:
196:
3755:
3730:
3053:
Rodríguez-Capote K, Balion CM, Hill SA, Cleve R, Yang L, El Sharif A (December 2009).
2805:
4993:
4978:
4861:
4825:
4820:
4682:
4624:
4516:
4339:
4256:
3570:
3259:
2848:
2821:
2775:
2370:
1784:
1670:
1646:
1595:
1564:
1531:
1482:
1368:
1364:
1187:
905:
763:
665:
337:
49:
4015:
3844:
3492:
3172:
3039:
2864:
2266:
4956:
4856:
4815:
4805:
4800:
4722:
4506:
4501:
4297:
4109:
4087:
3443:
3126:
2697:
2533:
2425:
1982:
1934:
1930:
1807:, and it was noted that the kidneys of victims resembled those of patients who had
1804:
1626:
1580:
1400:
1341:
1335:
1215:
1191:
1172:
1164:
1106:
1034:
926:
836:
771:
738:
723:
Many medications increase the risk of rhabdomyolysis. The most important ones are:
708:
704:
685:
677:
669:
612:
535:
475:
416:
412:
178:
174:
3457:
Szczepanik ME, Heled Y, Capacchione J, Campbell W, Deuster P, O'Connor FG (2014).
2976:"Electrophysiologic and laboratory aids in the diagnosis of neuromuscular disease"
515:. The urine may be dark, often described as "tea-colored", due to the presence of
3969:
3475:
3458:
3156:
3110:
3071:
3054:
2945:
2354:
1888:
462:
in the context of other problems. More severe rhabdomyolysis is characterized by
4927:
4866:
4712:
4634:
4431:
4246:
4215:
4122:
3999:
3382:
2504:
Bosch X, Poch E, Grau JM (July 2009). "Rhabdomyolysis and acute kidney injury".
1666:
1583:
include the administration of calcium to protect against cardiac complications,
1547:
1456:
1396:
1353:
1295:
1183:
847:
757:
712:
673:
547:
492:
479:
392:
333:
286:
232:
45:
4018:
3980:
3871:
2668:
Warren JD, Blumbergs PC, Thompson PD (March 2002). "Rhabdomyolysis: a review".
1900:
1279:(CK) in the blood. This enzyme is released by damaged muscle, and levels above
4835:
4717:
4556:
4496:
4375:
4356:
4280:
4275:
4164:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3828:
3697:
2759:
2309:
2233:
1812:
1729:
1687:
significantly and there is resultant bleeding, platelets may be administered.
1662:
1588:
1560:
1467:(EMG) may show particular patterns in specific muscle diseases; for instance,
1452:
1388:
1372:
1260:
1247:
1076:
955:
915:
780:
642:
459:
443:
365:
341:
134:
16:
Human disease (condition) in which damaged skeletal muscle breaks down rapidly
3524:
1591:
to redistribute potassium into cells, and infusions of bicarbonate solution.
1283:(5 times the upper limit of normal (ULN)) indicate rhabdomyolysis. More than
474:
of the affected muscles. If the swelling is very rapid, as may happen with a
450:
often include medical teams equipped to treat survivors with rhabdomyolysis.
4687:
4371:
4010:
3858:
Votion DM, Serteyn D (November 2008). "Equine atypical myopathy: a review".
3342:
3325:
1914:
1800:
1762:
1749:
1744:
1447:
1433:. The diagnosis can be confirmed with standard blood tests for DIC, such as
1392:
1231:
1203:
1148:
1137:
1129:
1064:
820:
516:
439:
361:
325:
294:
290:
158:
3879:
3836:
3764:
3627:
3609:
3543:
3484:
3435:
3400:
3351:
3301:
3251:
3243:
3216:
3164:
3118:
3080:
3031:
2953:
2913:
2895:
2856:
2813:
2767:
2689:
2619:
2525:
2417:
2362:
2327:
2252:
2188:
2062:
1894:
1267:
levels, falling urine output) or reddish-brown discoloration of the urine.
3715:
3661:
3578:
3191:"Current thinking about acute compartment syndrome of the lower extremity"
3023:
2792:
Armitage J (November 2007). "The safety of statins in clinical practice".
2517:
1275:
The most reliable test in the diagnosis of rhabdomyolysis is the level of
1120:
The swollen, inflamed muscle may directly compress structures in the same
344:
as well as intense or prolonged exercise, particularly in hot conditions.
4951:
4346:
4334:
4322:
4302:
4226:
4195:
4117:
4062:
3293:
2610:
2593:
1918:
1768:
1555:
1551:
1538:
1487:
1426:
1323:
1319:
1016:
859:
801:
650:
646:
520:
500:
447:
408:
349:
278:
150:
3731:"Acute renal failure: definitions, diagnosis, pathogenesis, and therapy"
2982:(8th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Professional. pp. 1092–1109.
1606:
33:
4271:
4082:
3652:
3635:
2878:
Buchholz U, Mouzin E, Dickey R, Moolenaar R, Sass N, Mascola L (2000).
2153:"Bench-to-bedside review: Rhabdomyolysis -- an overview for clinicians"
1584:
1542:
1434:
1211:
1179:
1159:) into the blood. Activation of the coagulation system may precipitate
1072:
901:
851:
843:
730:
632:
616:
594:
590:
463:
274:
146:
3899:
2681:
2409:
1059:
4671:
4511:
4482:
4266:
4066:
3930:
3911:
3746:
1773:
1725:
1349:
1152:
1141:
1080:
855:
816:
726:
624:
524:
496:
345:
298:
3367:"Meta-analysis of frusemide to prevent or treat acute renal failure"
1921:, poisoning associated with pasture or agricultural poisons such as
1732:
could potentially injure or kill staff and make equipment unusable.
3414:
Levi M (September 2007). "Disseminated intravascular coagulation".
2169:
1190:, the presence of myoglobin in the urine, occurs when the level in
4307:
4129:
3097:
Weisberg LS (December 2008). "Management of severe hyperkalemia".
2396:
Sathasivam S, Lecky B (November 2008). "Statin induced myopathy".
1772:, the main quail genus). Migrating quail consume large amounts of
1743:
1605:
1242:
1241:
1058:
812:
471:
41:
4201:
Inappropriate rapid heart rate response to exercise (tachycardia)
2835:
Saviuc P, Danel V (2006). "New syndromes in mushroom poisoning".
1113:, particularly after crush injury. Crush syndrome may also cause
770:, which can cause severe muscle rigidity with rhabdomyolysis and
4810:
4074:
3557:
Ouzounellis T (February 1970). "Some notes on quail poisoning".
2049:
Sauret JM, Marinides G, Wang GK (March 2002). "Rhabdomyolysis".
1133:
863:
508:
4455:
4034:
1803:
in 1941. Myoglobin was demonstrated in the urine of victims by
1748:
Investigations of people injured in collapsed buildings during
1679:
generally resolves when the underlying causes are treated, but
1455:
can be detected by various means, including the measurement of
1318:(LDH) may be detected. Other markers of muscle damage, such as
527:, usually 12 to 24 hours after the initial muscle damage.
3815:
Aleman M (April 2008). "A review of equine muscle disorders".
1171:. Phosphate binds to calcium from the circulation, leading to
1156:
1756:
The Bible may contain an early account of rhabdomyolysis. In
1117:
when blood flow to decompressed muscle is suddenly restored.
293:. Some of the muscle breakdown products, such as the protein
44:
from a person with rhabdomyolysis showing the characteristic
1854:
1848:
88:
82:
3195:
Canadian
Journal of Surgery. Journal Canadien de Chirurgie
1860:
1311:
and the research studying its utility is of poor quality.
800:
Medications that interfere with potassium levels, such as
442:
in 1941. It is a significant problem for those injured in
94:
4451:
1872:
1866:
1839:
1383:
may reveal a positive result for "blood", even though no
106:
100:
73:
3636:"Crush injuries with impairment of renal function. 1941"
2592:
Vanholder R, Sever MS, Erek E, Lameire N (August 2000).
1334:(FABP), are mainly used in chronic muscle diseases. The
534:—compression of surrounding tissues, such as nerves and
403:
in more severe cases. Once urine output is established,
356:
which is positive for "blood" but the urine contains no
1554:(high acid level of the blood) and make the urine more
1395:, the destruction of red blood cells; in hemolysis the
3783:
Merck
Veterinary Manual, 10th edition (online version)
1637:. The former two require access to the bloodstream (a
1379:
may show elevated levels of myoglobin. For example, a
1234:
processing, further worsening the low calcium levels.
2880:"Haff disease: from the Baltic Sea to the U.S. shore"
1875:
1869:
1833:
623:, or confinement in a fixed position such as after a
109:
103:
67:
3889:
1863:
1845:
1842:
1836:
649:(clots or other debris from elsewhere in the body),
97:
79:
76:
70:
4905:
4880:
4844:
4793:
4670:
4663:
4643:
4602:
4595:
4570:
4537:
4530:
4489:
4384:
4290:
4173:
4143:
4108:
4073:
3990:
3893:
2151:Huerta-Alardín AL, Varon J, Marik PE (April 2005).
1857:
1851:
246:
228:
211:
192:
164:
140:
124:
91:
85:
55:
26:
3729:Schrier RW, Wang W, Poole B, Mitra A (July 2004).
3594:"Crush Injuries with Impairment of Renal Function"
3005:
3003:
3001:
2999:
2587:
2585:
2583:
2581:
2579:
2577:
2575:
2573:
2571:
2569:
2567:
2565:
2563:
2215:Chavez LO, Leon M, Einav S, Varon J (June 2016).
1013:3-hydroxyacyl-coenzyme A dehydrogenase deficiency
530:Swelling of damaged muscle occasionally leads to
391:The mainstay of treatment is large quantities of
2561:
2559:
2557:
2555:
2553:
2551:
2549:
2547:
2545:
2543:
1506:, as the muscles may not be uniformly affected.
3675:
3673:
3671:
3324:Greaves I, Porter K, Smith JE (December 2003).
1344:tend to be a feature of severe rhabdomyolysis.
3319:
3317:
3315:
3313:
3311:
3184:
3182:
3138:
3136:
308:The muscle damage is most usually caused by a
4583:Focused assessment with sonography for trauma
4467:
4046:
3640:Journal of the American Society of Nephrology
2598:Journal of the American Society of Nephrology
2499:
2497:
2495:
2493:
2491:
2489:
2487:
2485:
2483:
2481:
2479:
2477:
2475:
2473:
2471:
2469:
2467:
2465:
2463:
2461:
2459:
2457:
2455:
819:may cause rhabdomyolysis, either directly or
8:
2453:
2451:
2449:
2447:
2445:
2443:
2441:
2439:
2437:
2435:
2391:
2389:
2387:
2341:Oh RC, Bury DC, McClure CJ (November 2022).
1625:Three main modalities of RRT are available:
1041:glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency
3092:
3090:
2927:
2925:
2923:
2787:
2785:
2741:
2739:
2737:
2735:
2733:
2731:
2729:
2727:
2146:
2144:
2142:
2140:
2138:
2136:
2134:
2132:
2130:
2128:
2126:
2124:
2122:
2120:
2118:
2116:
2114:
2112:
2110:
2108:
2106:
2104:
2102:
2100:
2098:
2096:
2094:
2092:
1226:, the destruction of the cells of tubules.
672:(elevated or reduced blood sodium levels),
4667:
4599:
4534:
4474:
4460:
4452:
4053:
4039:
4031:
3890:
3012:Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine
2980:Adams and Victor's Principles of Neurology
2725:
2723:
2721:
2719:
2717:
2715:
2713:
2711:
2709:
2707:
2663:
2661:
2659:
2657:
2655:
2653:
2651:
2649:
2090:
2088:
2086:
2084:
2082:
2080:
2078:
2076:
2074:
2072:
2044:
2042:
2040:
2038:
2036:
2034:
2032:
2030:
2028:
2026:
2024:
2022:
2020:
2018:
550:that may lead to uncontrollable bleeding.
32:
23:
3810:
3808:
3806:
3804:
3754:
3705:
3651:
3617:
3533:
3523:
3474:
3390:
3341:
3206:
3070:
2969:
2967:
2965:
2963:
2903:
2647:
2645:
2643:
2641:
2639:
2637:
2635:
2633:
2631:
2629:
2609:
2317:
2242:
2232:
2178:
2168:
2016:
2014:
2012:
2010:
2008:
2006:
2004:
2002:
2000:
1998:
1683:are often required. For instance, if the
519:. Damage to the kidneys may give rise to
3275:
3273:
3271:
3269:
2210:
2208:
2206:
2204:
2202:
2200:
2198:
1904:, yielding "striated muscle breakdown".
1779:In modern times, early reports from the
1550:to the intravenous fluids may alleviate
561:
3330:Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps
1954:
1797:National Institute for Medical Research
1105:—enter the muscle tissue, producing an
3634:Bywaters EG, Beall D (February 1998).
1927:equine polysaccharide storage myopathy
1677:Disseminated intravascular coagulation
1423:Disseminated intravascular coagulation
1314:Elevated concentrations of the enzyme
1161:disseminated intravascular coagulation
842:Drugs of recreational use, including:
544:disseminated intravascular coagulation
421:disseminated intravascular coagulation
183:disseminated intravascular coagulation
4397:Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva
3789:from the original on 26 December 2013
3735:The Journal of Clinical Investigation
3232:Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis
1650:effective than the other modalities.
972:glycogen storage diseases VIII, IX, X
807:Poisons linked to rhabdomyolysis are
787:, also associated with rhabdomyolysis
585:(particularly when poorly hydrated),
395:fluids. Other treatments may include
7:
1498:. Biopsy sites may be identified by
1403:that appear pigmented and granular.
4913:Acute respiratory distress syndrome
4196:Dynamic symptoms (exercise-induced)
3592:Bywaters EG, Beall D (March 1941).
3282:The New England Journal of Medicine
2506:The New England Journal of Medicine
1776:, a known cause of rhabdomyolysis.
1718:International Society of Nephrology
1669:(removal of non-viable tissue) and
835:are known to cause rhabdomyolysis.
823:that have fed on it. Fungi such as
3779:"Overview of Myopathies in Horses"
3428:10.1097/01.CCM.0000281468.94108.4B
3365:Ho KM, Sheridan DJ (August 2006).
1414:is a clinical diagnosis, i.e., no
696:(abnormally low thyroid function)
380:, with severe disease being above
269:) is a condition in which damaged
14:
3682:"50 years on: the crush syndrome"
2978:. In Ropper AH, Brown RH (eds.).
1793:Royal Postgraduate Medical School
1220:constriction of the blood vessels
1045:myoadenylate deaminase deficiency
645:(blood clots forming locally) or
430:Rhabdomyolysis is reported about
4918:Chronic traumatic encephalopathy
3571:10.1001/jama.1970.03170070056017
2849:10.2165/00139709-200625030-00004
1939:equine exertional rhabdomyolysis
1829:
985:carnitine palmitoyltransferase I
662:Hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state
495:disturbances, which can lead to
63:
3463:Current Sports Medicine Reports
2267:"What is Rhabdo? | NIOSH | CDC"
1173:low calcium levels in the blood
4969:Post-traumatic stress disorder
1968:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary
1473:phosphofructokinase deficiency
1182:. Normally, the blood protein
1167:may lead to potentially fatal
968:phosphofructokinase deficiency
768:neuroleptic malignant syndrome
546:(DIC), a severe disruption in
513:abnormal heart rate and rhythm
446:, and relief efforts for such
256:reported cases per year (U.S.)
1:
5000:Early complications of trauma
3145:Journal of Orthopaedic Trauma
2806:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60716-8
1429:count or prolongation of the
1352:changes or broadening of the
777:Neuromuscular blocking agents
737:, especially in combination;
4610:Advanced trauma life support
4578:Diagnostic peritoneal lavage
3476:10.1249/jsr.0000000000000040
3157:10.1097/BOT.0b013e318183136d
3111:10.1097/CCM.0b013e31818f222b
3072:10.1373/clinchem.2009.128546
2974:Ropper AH, Brown RH (2005).
2946:10.1016/j.jbspin.2004.04.010
2884:Emerging Infectious Diseases
2355:10.1136/military-2021-002028
991:, deficiency of subtypes of
715:(very low body temperature)
707:(high body temperature) and
563:Common and important causes
338:lack of blood flow to a limb
336:, prolonged immobilization,
3383:10.1136/bmj.38902.605347.7C
2298:Trauma Surg Acute Care Open
1819:Etymology and pronunciation
1206:, myoglobin interacts with
1198:; once plasma levels reach
1169:disruptions in heart rhythm
1101:—the most abundant type of
5026:
3872:10.1016/j.tvjl.2008.02.004
1937:horses have the condition
1504:magnetic resonance imaging
1332:fatty acid-binding protein
1228:Glomerular filtration rate
925:Autoimmune muscle damage:
362:examined with a microscope
4651:Resuscitative thoracotomy
4539:Clinical prediction rules
4428:Pseudoathletic appearance
4262:Intermittent claudication
3829:10.1016/j.nmd.2008.01.001
3698:10.1136/bmj.301.6766.1412
2760:10.1007/s00467-009-1223-9
2310:10.1136/tsaco-2021-000836
2234:10.1186/s13054-016-1314-5
2051:American Family Physician
1988:Dictionary.com Unabridged
1631:continuous hemofiltration
1620:renal replacement therapy
1577:renal replacement therapy
1475:show a phenomenon called
1328:carbonic anhydrase type 3
921:
871:
719:
700:
657:
638:
604:
575:
570:
567:
40:
31:
4547:Abbreviated Injury Scale
3525:10.26616/nioshpub2018134
1363:As detectable levels of
1151:(a breakdown product of
1023:Mitochondrial myopathies
981:Lipid metabolism defects
815:from insects or snakes.
684:(low phosphate levels),
676:(low potassium levels),
5005:Intensive care medicine
4778:Penetrating head injury
4773:Intracranial hemorrhage
4362:Rippling muscle disease
3817:Neuromuscular Disorders
3598:British Medical Journal
3343:10.1136/jramc-149-04-02
1781:1908 Messina earthquake
1602:Acute kidney impairment
1111:reactive oxygen species
1109:reaction and releasing
1099:Neutrophil granulocytes
1027:succinate dehydrogenase
790:Medications that cause
748:person-years. Previous
525:absent urine production
324:. Other causes include
4974:Subcutaneous emphysema
4933:Volkmann's contracture
4783:Traumatic brain injury
4620:Early appropriate care
4615:Damage control surgery
4340:Muscle channelopathies
4191:Myogenic hyperuricemia
3610:10.1136/bmj.1.4185.427
3416:Critical Care Medicine
3244:10.1055/s-0030-1254055
3099:Critical Care Medicine
2896:10.3201/eid0602.000215
1753:
1714:1988 Spitak earthquake
1643:chronic kidney disease
1615:
1477:cramp-like contracture
1461:mitochondrial diseases
1271:General investigations
1255:
1224:acute tubular necrosis
1085:sarcoplasmic reticulum
1068:
993:acyl CoA dehydrogenase
939:Genetic predisposition
911:Legionella pneumophila
785:malignant hyperthermia
766:medications may cause
750:chronic kidney disease
680:(low calcium levels),
589:(alcohol withdrawal),
372:activity greater than
322:substance use disorder
199:, strenuous exercise,
131:Critical care medicine
4748:Thoracic aorta injury
4708:Diaphragmatic rupture
4552:Injury Severity Score
4522:Trauma triad of death
4237:Hyperthyroid myopathy
3512:Pulmonary Circulation
3024:10.1515/CCLM.2010.179
2837:Toxicological Reviews
2518:10.1056/NEJMra0801327
1799:, on four victims of
1747:
1722:1999 İzmit earthquake
1609:
1387:can be identified on
1342:High potassium levels
1316:lactate dehydrogenase
1245:
1208:Tamm–Horsfall protein
1165:High potassium levels
1063:Schematic diagram of
1062:
897:Plasmodium falciparum
892:primary HIV infection
690:diabetic ketoacidosis
651:clamping of an artery
486:. Other symptoms are
297:, are harmful to the
157:, tea-colored urine,
4923:Compartment syndrome
4562:Revised Trauma Score
4404:Compartment syndrome
4232:Hypothyroid myopathy
4222:Metabolic myopathies
4186:Exercise intolerance
4134:Hypothyroid myopathy
3680:Bywaters EG (1990).
3294:10.1056/NEJMra054329
2748:Pediatric Nephrology
2611:10.1681/ASN.V1181553
1758:Numbers 11:4–6,31–33
1685:platelet count drops
1659:Compartment syndrome
1441:Underlying disorders
1412:Compartment syndrome
1136:-containing protein
1126:compartment syndrome
1087:leads to continuous
1049:muscular dystrophies
1031:cytochrome c oxidase
826:Russula subnigricans
735:elevated cholesterol
629:alcohol intoxication
532:compartment syndrome
425:compartment syndrome
413:high blood potassium
207:, certain infections
187:compartment syndrome
175:high blood potassium
4758:Blunt kidney trauma
4728:Pulmonary contusion
4416:Diastasis of muscle
4392:Myositis ossificans
3692:(6766): 1412–1415.
2800:(9601): 1781–1790.
2347:BMJ Military Health
1750:the Blitz of London
1681:supportive measures
1654:Other complications
1635:peritoneal dialysis
1346:Electrocardiography
1122:fascial compartment
832:Tricholoma equestre
643:Arterial thrombosis
564:
540:fascial compartment
440:the Blitz of London
303:acute kidney injury
291:irregular heartbeat
159:irregular heartbeat
46:brown discoloration
4872:Spinal cord injury
4831:Penetrating trauma
4698:Soft tissue injury
4436:Muscle hypertrophy
4432:Muscle hyperplasia
4367:Periodic paralysis
4318:Muscle contracture
4242:Hypoparathyroidism
3991:External resources
3860:Veterinary Journal
3653:10.1681/ASN.V92322
3059:Clinical Chemistry
2670:Muscle & Nerve
1971:. Merriam-Webster.
1754:
1616:
1581:Temporary measures
1516:intravenous fluids
1256:
1196:0.5–1.5 mg/dL
1115:reperfusion injury
1089:muscle contraction
1069:
946:general anesthesia
888:Epstein-Barr virus
821:after eating quail
792:serotonin syndrome
599:status epilepticus
562:
480:low blood pressure
454:Signs and symptoms
405:sodium bicarbonate
314:strenuous exercise
4987:
4986:
4901:
4900:
4743:Internal bleeding
4738:Cardiac tamponade
4693:Joint dislocation
4659:
4658:
4591:
4590:
4449:
4448:
4440:Pseudohypertrophy
4291:Abnormal movement
4174:Low ATP reservoir
4028:
4027:
3604:(4185): 427–432.
3288:(10): 1052–1063.
3105:(12): 3246–3251.
3065:(12): 2190–2197.
2989:978-0-07-141620-7
2682:10.1002/mus.10053
2410:10.1136/bmj.a2286
2273:. 3 December 2021
1791:, working at the
1639:dialysis catheter
1524:weight per volume
1496:ragged red fibers
1492:histopathological
1469:McArdle's disease
1091:and depletion of
964:McArdle's disease
936:
935:
884:influenza B virus
880:influenza A virus
720:Drugs and toxins
701:Body temperature
583:physical exercise
417:low blood calcium
330:electrical injury
287:tea-colored urine
260:
259:
213:Diagnostic method
179:low blood calcium
21:Medical condition
5017:
4893:Pediatric trauma
4888:Geriatric trauma
4852:Abdominal trauma
4668:
4600:
4535:
4476:
4469:
4462:
4453:
4211:Hitting the wall
4055:
4048:
4041:
4032:
3891:
3884:
3883:
3855:
3849:
3848:
3812:
3799:
3798:
3796:
3794:
3775:
3769:
3768:
3758:
3747:10.1172/JCI22353
3726:
3720:
3719:
3709:
3677:
3666:
3665:
3655:
3631:
3621:
3589:
3583:
3582:
3565:(7): 1186–1187.
3554:
3548:
3547:
3537:
3527:
3503:
3497:
3496:
3478:
3454:
3448:
3447:
3422:(9): 2191–2195.
3411:
3405:
3404:
3394:
3362:
3356:
3355:
3345:
3321:
3306:
3305:
3277:
3264:
3263:
3227:
3221:
3220:
3210:
3186:
3177:
3176:
3140:
3131:
3130:
3094:
3085:
3084:
3074:
3050:
3044:
3043:
3007:
2994:
2993:
2971:
2958:
2957:
2934:Joint Bone Spine
2929:
2918:
2917:
2907:
2875:
2869:
2868:
2832:
2826:
2825:
2789:
2780:
2779:
2743:
2702:
2701:
2665:
2624:
2623:
2613:
2604:(8): 1553–1561.
2594:"Rhabdomyolysis"
2589:
2538:
2537:
2501:
2430:
2429:
2393:
2382:
2381:
2379:
2377:
2338:
2332:
2331:
2321:
2289:
2283:
2282:
2280:
2278:
2263:
2257:
2256:
2246:
2236:
2212:
2193:
2192:
2182:
2172:
2148:
2067:
2066:
2046:
1993:
1992:
1983:"Rhabdomyolysis"
1979:
1973:
1972:
1963:"Rhabdomyolysis"
1959:
1933:horses and some
1923:organophosphates
1882:
1881:
1878:
1877:
1874:
1871:
1868:
1865:
1862:
1859:
1856:
1853:
1850:
1847:
1844:
1841:
1838:
1835:
1465:Electromyography
1431:prothrombin time
1381:urine test strip
1305:
1303:
1293:
1292:
1286:
1282:
1201:
1197:
1103:white blood cell
1025:: deficiency of
747:
746:
733:, both used for
682:hypophosphatemia
631:or in prolonged
617:physical torture
615:, car accident,
587:delirium tremens
577:Exercise-related
565:
436:
435:
387:
385:
375:
354:urine test strip
255:
254:
223:urine test strip
116:
115:
112:
111:
108:
105:
102:
99:
96:
93:
90:
87:
84:
81:
78:
75:
72:
69:
36:
24:
5025:
5024:
5020:
5019:
5018:
5016:
5015:
5014:
4990:
4989:
4988:
4983:
4897:
4876:
4840:
4789:
4664:Pathophysiology
4655:
4639:
4587:
4566:
4526:
4485:
4480:
4450:
4445:
4421:Diastasis recti
4380:
4347:Pseudo-myotonia
4286:
4169:
4151:Muscle weakness
4139:
4104:
4069:
4059:
4029:
4024:
4023:
3986:
3985:
3902:
3888:
3887:
3857:
3856:
3852:
3814:
3813:
3802:
3792:
3790:
3777:
3776:
3772:
3728:
3727:
3723:
3679:
3678:
3669:
3633:
3591:
3590:
3586:
3556:
3555:
3551:
3505:
3504:
3500:
3456:
3455:
3451:
3413:
3412:
3408:
3377:(7565): 420–0.
3364:
3363:
3359:
3323:
3322:
3309:
3279:
3278:
3267:
3229:
3228:
3224:
3188:
3187:
3180:
3142:
3141:
3134:
3096:
3095:
3088:
3052:
3051:
3047:
3009:
3008:
2997:
2990:
2973:
2972:
2961:
2931:
2930:
2921:
2877:
2876:
2872:
2834:
2833:
2829:
2791:
2790:
2783:
2745:
2744:
2705:
2667:
2666:
2627:
2591:
2590:
2541:
2503:
2502:
2433:
2395:
2394:
2385:
2375:
2373:
2340:
2339:
2335:
2291:
2290:
2286:
2276:
2274:
2265:
2264:
2260:
2214:
2213:
2196:
2150:
2149:
2070:
2048:
2047:
1996:
1981:
1980:
1976:
1961:
1960:
1956:
1951:
1910:
1885:combining forms
1832:
1828:
1821:
1742:
1706:
1693:
1656:
1604:
1573:
1527:sodium chloride
1520:isotonic saline
1512:
1500:medical imaging
1443:
1416:diagnostic test
1409:
1385:red blood cells
1301:
1299:
1290:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1277:creatine kinase
1273:
1252:creatine kinase
1240:
1199:
1195:
1145:creatine kinase
1057:
941:
931:dermatomyositis
876:Coxsackie virus
744:
742:
653:during surgery
556:
456:
433:
431:
383:
381:
373:
370:creatine kinase
358:red blood cells
285:. There may be
271:skeletal muscle
252:
250:
219:creatine kinase
120:
66:
62:
48:as a result of
22:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5023:
5021:
5013:
5012:
5007:
5002:
4992:
4991:
4985:
4984:
4982:
4981:
4976:
4971:
4966:
4965:
4964:
4959:
4949:
4948:
4947:
4945:Rhabdomyolysis
4940:Crush syndrome
4937:
4936:
4935:
4925:
4920:
4915:
4909:
4907:
4903:
4902:
4899:
4898:
4896:
4895:
4890:
4884:
4882:
4878:
4877:
4875:
4874:
4869:
4864:
4859:
4854:
4848:
4846:
4842:
4841:
4839:
4838:
4833:
4828:
4823:
4818:
4813:
4808:
4803:
4797:
4795:
4791:
4790:
4788:
4787:
4786:
4785:
4780:
4775:
4767:
4766:
4765:
4763:Splenic injury
4760:
4752:
4751:
4750:
4745:
4740:
4732:
4731:
4730:
4725:
4720:
4715:
4710:
4702:
4701:
4700:
4695:
4690:
4685:
4676:
4674:
4665:
4661:
4660:
4657:
4656:
4654:
4653:
4647:
4645:
4641:
4640:
4638:
4637:
4632:
4630:Trauma surgery
4627:
4622:
4617:
4612:
4606:
4604:
4597:
4593:
4592:
4589:
4588:
4586:
4585:
4580:
4574:
4572:
4571:Investigations
4568:
4567:
4565:
4564:
4559:
4554:
4549:
4543:
4541:
4532:
4528:
4527:
4525:
4524:
4519:
4514:
4509:
4504:
4499:
4493:
4491:
4487:
4486:
4481:
4479:
4478:
4471:
4464:
4456:
4447:
4446:
4444:
4443:
4425:
4424:
4423:
4413:
4412:
4411:
4401:
4400:
4399:
4388:
4386:
4382:
4381:
4379:
4378:
4369:
4364:
4359:
4354:
4351:Brody myopathy
4344:
4343:
4342:
4332:
4331:
4330:
4325:
4315:
4313:Fasciculations
4310:
4305:
4300:
4294:
4292:
4288:
4287:
4285:
4284:
4278:
4269:
4264:
4259:
4254:
4252:Hypoxic muscle
4249:
4244:
4239:
4234:
4229:
4224:
4218:
4213:
4208:
4203:
4198:
4193:
4188:
4183:
4181:Muscle fatigue
4177:
4175:
4171:
4170:
4168:
4167:
4161:Muscle atrophy
4158:
4156:Rhabdomyolysis
4153:
4147:
4145:
4141:
4140:
4138:
4137:
4127:
4126:
4125:
4114:
4112:
4106:
4105:
4103:
4102:
4101:
4100:
4095:
4090:
4079:
4077:
4071:
4070:
4060:
4058:
4057:
4050:
4043:
4035:
4026:
4025:
4022:
4021:
4007:
3995:
3994:
3992:
3988:
3987:
3984:
3983:
3972:
3961:
3946:
3923:
3903:
3898:
3897:
3895:
3894:Classification
3886:
3885:
3866:(2): 185–190.
3850:
3823:(4): 277–287.
3800:
3770:
3721:
3667:
3646:(2): 322–332.
3584:
3549:
3498:
3469:(2): 113–119.
3449:
3406:
3357:
3336:(4): 255–259.
3307:
3265:
3238:(4): 458–467.
3222:
3201:(5): 329–334.
3178:
3151:(8): 581–587.
3132:
3086:
3045:
3018:(6): 757–767.
2995:
2988:
2959:
2940:(5): 382–391.
2919:
2890:(2): 192–195.
2870:
2843:(3): 199–209.
2827:
2781:
2703:
2676:(3): 332–347.
2625:
2539:
2431:
2383:
2333:
2304:(1): e000836.
2284:
2258:
2194:
2170:10.1186/cc2978
2163:(2): 158–169.
2068:
2057:(5): 907–912.
1994:
1991:(Online). n.d.
1974:
1953:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1909:
1906:
1825:rhabdomyolysis
1820:
1817:
1809:hemoglobinuria
1741:
1738:
1705:
1702:
1697:mortality rate
1692:
1689:
1655:
1652:
1612:hemofiltration
1603:
1600:
1572:
1569:
1511:
1508:
1442:
1439:
1408:
1405:
1272:
1269:
1239:
1236:
1200:100 mg/dL
1180:kidney tubules
1056:
1053:
1052:
1051:
1037:
1020:
978:
960:glycogenolysis
940:
937:
934:
933:
923:
919:
918:
906:herpes viruses
873:
869:
868:
805:
804:
798:
788:
783:may result in
774:
761:
754:hypothyroidism
721:
717:
716:
702:
698:
697:
694:hypothyroidism
659:
655:
654:
640:
636:
635:
609:Crush syndrome
606:
602:
601:
579:
573:
572:
569:
555:
552:
548:blood clotting
538:, in the same
466:, tenderness,
455:
452:
401:hemofiltration
301:and can cause
265:(shortened as
263:Rhabdomyolysis
258:
257:
248:
244:
243:
241:hemofiltration
230:
226:
225:
215:
209:
208:
194:
190:
189:
171:Kidney failure
168:
162:
161:
144:
138:
137:
128:
122:
121:
119:
118:
59:
57:
53:
52:
38:
37:
29:
28:
27:Rhabdomyolysis
20:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5022:
5011:
5008:
5006:
5003:
5001:
4998:
4997:
4995:
4980:
4979:Wound healing
4977:
4975:
4972:
4970:
4967:
4963:
4960:
4958:
4955:
4954:
4953:
4950:
4946:
4943:
4942:
4941:
4938:
4934:
4931:
4930:
4929:
4926:
4924:
4921:
4919:
4916:
4914:
4911:
4910:
4908:
4906:Complications
4904:
4894:
4891:
4889:
4886:
4885:
4883:
4879:
4873:
4870:
4868:
4865:
4863:
4862:Facial trauma
4860:
4858:
4855:
4853:
4850:
4849:
4847:
4843:
4837:
4834:
4832:
4829:
4827:
4826:Gunshot wound
4824:
4822:
4821:Electrocution
4819:
4817:
4814:
4812:
4809:
4807:
4804:
4802:
4799:
4798:
4796:
4792:
4784:
4781:
4779:
4776:
4774:
4771:
4770:
4768:
4764:
4761:
4759:
4756:
4755:
4753:
4749:
4746:
4744:
4741:
4739:
4736:
4735:
4733:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4721:
4719:
4716:
4714:
4711:
4709:
4706:
4705:
4703:
4699:
4696:
4694:
4691:
4689:
4686:
4684:
4683:Bone fracture
4681:
4680:
4678:
4677:
4675:
4673:
4669:
4666:
4662:
4652:
4649:
4648:
4646:
4642:
4636:
4633:
4631:
4628:
4626:
4625:Trauma center
4623:
4621:
4618:
4616:
4613:
4611:
4608:
4607:
4605:
4601:
4598:
4594:
4584:
4581:
4579:
4576:
4575:
4573:
4569:
4563:
4560:
4558:
4555:
4553:
4550:
4548:
4545:
4544:
4542:
4540:
4536:
4533:
4529:
4523:
4520:
4518:
4517:Resuscitation
4515:
4513:
4510:
4508:
4505:
4503:
4500:
4498:
4495:
4494:
4492:
4488:
4484:
4477:
4472:
4470:
4465:
4463:
4458:
4457:
4454:
4441:
4437:
4433:
4429:
4426:
4422:
4419:
4418:
4417:
4414:
4410:
4407:
4406:
4405:
4402:
4398:
4395:
4394:
4393:
4390:
4389:
4387:
4383:
4377:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4352:
4348:
4345:
4341:
4338:
4337:
4336:
4333:
4329:
4326:
4324:
4321:
4320:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4304:
4301:
4299:
4296:
4295:
4293:
4289:
4282:
4279:
4277:
4273:
4270:
4268:
4265:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4257:Pseudohypoxia
4255:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4243:
4240:
4238:
4235:
4233:
4230:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4219:
4217:
4214:
4212:
4209:
4207:
4204:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4184:
4182:
4179:
4178:
4176:
4172:
4166:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4148:
4146:
4142:
4135:
4131:
4128:
4124:
4121:
4120:
4119:
4116:
4115:
4113:
4111:
4107:
4099:
4098:Delayed onset
4096:
4094:
4091:
4089:
4086:
4085:
4084:
4081:
4080:
4078:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4064:
4061:Symptoms and
4056:
4051:
4049:
4044:
4042:
4037:
4036:
4033:
4020:
4017:
4013:
4012:
4008:
4006:
4002:
4001:
3997:
3996:
3993:
3989:
3982:
3978:
3977:
3973:
3971:
3967:
3966:
3962:
3960:
3956:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3945:
3941:
3937:
3933:
3932:
3928:
3924:
3922:
3918:
3914:
3913:
3909:
3905:
3904:
3901:
3896:
3892:
3881:
3877:
3873:
3869:
3865:
3861:
3854:
3851:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3834:
3830:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3811:
3809:
3807:
3805:
3801:
3788:
3784:
3780:
3774:
3771:
3766:
3762:
3757:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3725:
3722:
3717:
3713:
3708:
3703:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3683:
3676:
3674:
3672:
3668:
3663:
3659:
3654:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3637:
3632:Reprinted in
3629:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3611:
3607:
3603:
3599:
3595:
3588:
3585:
3580:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3553:
3550:
3545:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3502:
3499:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3453:
3450:
3445:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3410:
3407:
3402:
3398:
3393:
3388:
3384:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3361:
3358:
3353:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3320:
3318:
3316:
3314:
3312:
3308:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3276:
3274:
3272:
3270:
3266:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3237:
3233:
3226:
3223:
3218:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3185:
3183:
3179:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3139:
3137:
3133:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3093:
3091:
3087:
3082:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3049:
3046:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3006:
3004:
3002:
3000:
2996:
2991:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2970:
2968:
2966:
2964:
2960:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2928:
2926:
2924:
2920:
2915:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2874:
2871:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2831:
2828:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2788:
2786:
2782:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2742:
2740:
2738:
2736:
2734:
2732:
2730:
2728:
2726:
2724:
2722:
2720:
2718:
2716:
2714:
2712:
2710:
2708:
2704:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2664:
2662:
2660:
2658:
2656:
2654:
2652:
2650:
2648:
2646:
2644:
2642:
2640:
2638:
2636:
2634:
2632:
2630:
2626:
2621:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2588:
2586:
2584:
2582:
2580:
2578:
2576:
2574:
2572:
2570:
2568:
2566:
2564:
2562:
2560:
2558:
2556:
2554:
2552:
2550:
2548:
2546:
2544:
2540:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2500:
2498:
2496:
2494:
2492:
2490:
2488:
2486:
2484:
2482:
2480:
2478:
2476:
2474:
2472:
2470:
2468:
2466:
2464:
2462:
2460:
2458:
2456:
2454:
2452:
2450:
2448:
2446:
2444:
2442:
2440:
2438:
2436:
2432:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2392:
2390:
2388:
2384:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2337:
2334:
2329:
2325:
2320:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2288:
2285:
2272:
2268:
2262:
2259:
2254:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2221:Critical Care
2218:
2211:
2209:
2207:
2205:
2203:
2201:
2199:
2195:
2190:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2157:Critical Care
2154:
2147:
2145:
2143:
2141:
2139:
2137:
2135:
2133:
2131:
2129:
2127:
2125:
2123:
2121:
2119:
2117:
2115:
2113:
2111:
2109:
2107:
2105:
2103:
2101:
2099:
2097:
2095:
2093:
2091:
2089:
2087:
2085:
2083:
2081:
2079:
2077:
2075:
2073:
2069:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2045:
2043:
2041:
2039:
2037:
2035:
2033:
2031:
2029:
2027:
2025:
2023:
2021:
2019:
2017:
2015:
2013:
2011:
2009:
2007:
2005:
2003:
2001:
1999:
1995:
1990:
1989:
1984:
1978:
1975:
1970:
1969:
1964:
1958:
1955:
1948:
1946:
1942:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1908:Other animals
1907:
1905:
1903:
1902:
1897:
1896:
1891:
1890:
1886:
1880:
1826:
1818:
1816:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1789:Desmond Beall
1786:
1785:Eric Bywaters
1782:
1777:
1775:
1771:
1770:
1765:
1764:
1759:
1751:
1746:
1739:
1737:
1733:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1710:
1703:
1701:
1698:
1690:
1688:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1672:
1671:skin grafting
1668:
1664:
1660:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1647:anticoagulant
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1623:
1621:
1613:
1608:
1601:
1599:
1597:
1596:hypercalcemia
1592:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1579:(see below).
1578:
1570:
1568:
1566:
1565:loop diuretic
1562:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1544:
1540:
1535:
1533:
1532:heart failure
1528:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1509:
1507:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1484:
1483:Muscle biopsy
1480:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1449:
1440:
1438:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1417:
1413:
1407:Complications
1406:
1404:
1402:
1401:urinary casts
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1369:myoglobinuria
1366:
1365:myoglobinemia
1361:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1337:
1336:transaminases
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1312:
1310:
1297:
1285:5000 U/L
1281:1000 U/L
1278:
1270:
1268:
1266:
1262:
1253:
1249:
1244:
1237:
1235:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
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1193:
1189:
1188:Myoglobinuria
1185:
1181:
1176:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1143:
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1104:
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1036:
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1024:
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1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
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990:
989:II deficiency
986:
982:
979:
977:
973:
969:
965:
961:
957:
954:
953:
952:
949:
947:
938:
932:
928:
924:
922:Inflammation
920:
917:
913:
912:
907:
903:
899:
898:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
874:
870:
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865:
861:
857:
853:
849:
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840:
838:
834:
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818:
814:
810:
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797:
793:
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786:
782:
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775:
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769:
765:
764:Antipsychotic
762:
759:
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751:
740:
736:
732:
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724:
722:
718:
714:
710:
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679:
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671:
667:
663:
660:
656:
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641:
639:Blood supply
637:
634:
630:
626:
622:
618:
614:
610:
607:
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600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
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574:
566:
560:
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551:
549:
545:
541:
537:
536:blood vessels
533:
528:
526:
522:
518:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
489:
485:
481:
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469:
465:
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453:
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449:
445:
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426:
422:
418:
414:
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242:
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231:
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224:
220:
216:
214:
210:
206:
205:substance use
202:
198:
195:
191:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
169:
167:
166:Complications
163:
160:
156:
152:
148:
145:
143:
139:
136:
132:
129:
127:
123:
114:
61:
60:
58:
56:Pronunciation
54:
51:
50:myoglobinuria
47:
43:
39:
35:
30:
25:
19:
4944:
4857:Chest injury
4816:Crush injury
4806:Blunt trauma
4801:Blast injury
4723:Pneumothorax
4507:Traumatology
4502:Major trauma
4308:Muscle spasm
4298:Muscle cramp
4155:
4110:Inflammation
4088:Fibromyalgia
4065:relating to
4009:
3998:
3974:
3963:
3948:
3925:
3906:
3863:
3859:
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3820:
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3791:. Retrieved
3782:
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2512:(1): 62–72.
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2346:
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2275:. Retrieved
2270:
2261:
2224:
2220:
2160:
2156:
2054:
2050:
1986:
1977:
1966:
1957:
1943:
1935:standardbred
1931:thoroughbred
1929:). 5–10% of
1911:
1899:
1893:
1887:
1824:
1822:
1805:spectroscopy
1778:
1767:
1761:
1755:
1734:
1711:
1707:
1704:Epidemiology
1694:
1675:
1657:
1627:hemodialysis
1624:
1617:
1593:
1574:
1571:Electrolytes
1536:
1513:
1495:
1481:
1476:
1444:
1421:
1410:
1362:
1340:
1313:
1274:
1257:
1177:
1119:
1107:inflammatory
1097:
1073:muscle cells
1070:
1035:coenzyme Q10
950:
942:
927:polymyositis
909:
895:
841:
837:Haff disease
830:
824:
809:heavy metals
806:
772:hyperpyrexia
739:cerivastatin
709:heat illness
705:Hyperthermia
686:ketoacidosis
678:hypocalcemia
670:hyponatremia
613:blast injury
593:, prolonged
557:
529:
476:crush injury
457:
429:
390:
310:crush injury
307:
277:, weakness,
275:muscle pains
266:
262:
261:
217:Blood test (
197:Crush injury
149:, weakness,
147:Muscle pains
18:
4928:Contracture
4881:Demographic
4867:Head injury
4713:Flail chest
4635:Trauma team
4247:Hypokalemia
4216:Second wind
4144:Destruction
4123:Pyomyositis
4000:MedlinePlus
3793:25 December
3741:(1): 5–14.
2754:(1): 7–18.
2349:: e002028.
2277:15 December
2271:www.cdc.gov
1883:) uses the
1730:aftershocks
1667:debridement
1548:bicarbonate
1397:blood serum
1377:urine tests
1373:blood tests
1354:QRS complex
1309:specificity
1184:haptoglobin
1081:sodium ions
848:amphetamine
758:ciclosporin
713:hypothermia
674:hypokalemia
658:Metabolism
493:electrolyte
488:nonspecific
464:muscle pain
460:blood tests
444:earthquakes
393:intravenous
366:Blood tests
342:snake bites
334:heat stroke
318:medications
233:Intravenous
201:medications
5010:Nephrology
4994:Categories
4836:Stab wound
4718:Hemothorax
4644:Procedures
4603:Principles
4596:Management
4557:NACA score
4531:Assessment
4497:Polytrauma
4490:Principles
4376:Hypertonia
4357:Spasticity
4281:Alcoholism
4276:Starvation
4165:Amyotrophy
4063:conditions
3976:DiseasesDB
2227:(1): 135.
1949:References
1813:Korean War
1663:Fasciotomy
1589:salbutamol
1561:Furosemide
1518:, usually
1502:, such as
1488:cell death
1453:glycolysis
1389:microscopy
1261:creatinine
1132:ions, the
1124:, causing
1077:metabolism
1019:deficiency
956:Glycolysis
916:salmonella
872:Infection
866:(ecstasy)
794:, such as
781:anesthesia
688:(e.g., in
326:infections
135:nephrology
4794:Mechanism
4688:Degloving
4372:Hypotonia
4016:emerg/508
4011:eMedicine
3260:260317250
2822:205948651
2776:206999992
2404:: a2286.
2371:254067955
1915:vitamin E
1823:The word
1801:The Blitz
1763:coturnism
1691:Prognosis
1510:Treatment
1448:carnitine
1393:hemolysis
1304: U/L
1248:M-subunit
1238:Diagnosis
1232:vitamin D
1149:uric acid
1138:myoglobin
1130:phosphate
1065:myoglobin
1055:Mechanism
962:defects:
802:diuretics
627:, due to
521:decreased
517:myoglobin
505:confusion
448:disasters
386: U/L
350:inherited
295:myoglobin
283:confusion
247:Frequency
229:Treatment
155:confusion
126:Specialty
4952:Embolism
4409:Anterior
4335:Myotonia
4328:Adhesion
4323:Fibrosis
4303:Myokymia
4227:Diabetes
4130:Myoedema
4118:Myositis
4019:ped/2003
3880:18375157
3845:14452155
3837:18395447
3787:Archived
3785:. 2012.
3765:15232604
3628:20783577
3544:32166015
3493:11263725
3485:24614425
3436:17855836
3401:16861256
3352:15015795
3302:16525142
3252:20614398
3217:20858378
3173:10658749
3165:18758292
3119:18936701
3081:19797717
3040:25592319
3032:20518645
2954:16214072
2914:10756156
2865:24320633
2857:17192123
2814:17559928
2768:19529963
2690:11870710
2620:10906171
2526:19571284
2418:18988647
2363:36442890
2328:35136842
2253:27301374
2189:15774072
2063:11898964
1919:selenium
1795:and the
1769:Coturnix
1614:machine
1556:alkaline
1552:acidosis
1541:acts by
1539:Mannitol
1427:platelet
1324:troponin
1320:aldolase
1214:to form
1204:filtrate
1194:exceeds
1039:Others:
1017:thiolase
860:ketamine
779:used in
731:fibrates
647:embolism
595:seizures
581:Extreme
501:vomiting
472:swelling
468:weakness
409:mannitol
397:dialysis
279:vomiting
237:dialysis
235:fluids,
151:vomiting
142:Symptoms
4734:Cardio
4272:Fasting
4083:Myalgia
3970:D012206
3921:FB32.20
3716:2279155
3707:1679829
3662:9527411
3619:2161734
3579:4904256
3535:7052475
3444:7158989
3392:1553510
3208:2947124
3127:7382802
2905:2640861
2698:8731940
2534:4652812
2426:3239804
2319:8804685
2244:4908773
2180:1175909
1889:rhabdo-
1774:hemlock
1766:(after
1740:History
1585:insulin
1543:osmosis
1457:lactate
1435:D-dimer
1371:occur,
1358:calcium
1212:nephron
1210:in the
1153:purines
902:malaria
852:cocaine
844:alcohol
817:Hemlock
727:Statins
633:surgery
591:tetanus
571:Causes
382:5000–15
368:show a
346:Statins
320:, or a
299:kidneys
4845:Region
4769:Neuro
4672:Injury
4512:Triage
4483:Trauma
4267:Scurvy
4067:muscle
4005:000473
3959:728.88
3878:
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2376:6 July
2369:
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2177:
2061:
1901:-lysis
1726:Turkey
1522:(0.9%
1356:. Low
1350:T wave
1294:
1192:plasma
1142:enzyme
1140:, the
856:heroin
666:hyper-
625:stroke
605:Crush
554:Causes
497:nausea
423:, and
376:
289:or an
281:, and
267:rhabdo
193:Causes
117:
4704:Resp
4385:Other
4093:Acute
3981:11472
3944:T79.6
3940:T79.5
3936:M62.8
3841:S2CID
3518:(1).
3489:S2CID
3440:S2CID
3256:S2CID
3169:S2CID
3123:S2CID
3036:S2CID
2861:S2CID
2818:S2CID
2772:S2CID
2694:S2CID
2530:S2CID
2422:S2CID
2367:S2CID
1216:casts
1155:from
1009:VLCAD
813:venom
796:SSRIs
692:) or
621:abuse
568:Type
484:shock
360:when
340:, or
42:Urine
4811:Burn
4679:MSK
4075:Pain
3965:MeSH
3954:9-CM
3917:8C84
3876:PMID
3833:PMID
3795:2013
3761:PMID
3712:PMID
3658:PMID
3624:PMID
3575:PMID
3559:JAMA
3540:PMID
3481:PMID
3432:PMID
3397:PMID
3348:PMID
3298:PMID
3248:PMID
3213:PMID
3161:PMID
3115:PMID
3077:PMID
3028:PMID
2984:ISBN
2950:PMID
2910:PMID
2853:PMID
2810:PMID
2764:PMID
2686:PMID
2616:PMID
2522:PMID
2414:PMID
2378:2023
2359:PMID
2324:PMID
2279:2022
2249:PMID
2185:PMID
2059:PMID
1917:and
1895:myo-
1787:and
1633:and
1563:, a
1471:and
1375:and
1367:and
1330:and
1265:urea
1263:and
1246:The
1147:and
1134:heme
1047:and
1033:and
1005:MCAD
1001:SCAD
997:LCAD
987:and
974:and
958:and
914:and
882:and
864:MDMA
862:and
829:and
811:and
752:and
729:and
668:and
509:coma
482:and
470:and
407:and
374:1000
4962:fat
4957:air
4754:GI
3950:ICD
3927:ICD
3908:ICD
3868:doi
3864:178
3825:doi
3751:PMC
3743:doi
3739:114
3702:PMC
3694:doi
3690:301
3686:BMJ
3648:doi
3614:PMC
3606:doi
3567:doi
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3471:doi
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1291:000
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1093:ATP
1015:),
904:),
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