1196:." Charter 77 defined itself as "a loose, informal, and open community of people" concerned with the protection of civil and human rights. It denied oppositional intent and based its defense of rights on legally binding international documents signed by the Czechoslovak government and on guarantees of civil rights contained in the Czechoslovak Constitution. The Charter 77 group declared its objectives to be the following: to draw attention to individual cases of human rights infringements; to suggest remedies; to make general proposals to strengthen rights and freedoms and the mechanisms designed to protect them; and to act as intermediary in situations of conflict. The Charter had over 800 signatures by the end of 1977, including workers and youth; by 1985 nearly 1,200 Czechoslovaks had signed the Charter. The Husák regime, which claimed that all rights derive from the state and that international covenants are subject to the internal jurisdiction of the state, responded with fury to the Charter. The text was never published in the official media. Signatories were arrested and interrogated; dismissal from employment often followed. The Czechoslovak press launched vicious attacks against the Charter. The public was mobilized to sign either individual condemnations or various forms of "anti-Charters."
1129:
position. Frequent contacts between the Soviet and
Czechoslovak communist parties and governments made certain that the Soviet position on any issue was both understood and followed. The Soviets continued to exert control over Czechoslovak internal affairs, including oversight over the police and security apparatus. Five Soviet ground divisions and two air divisions had become a permanent fixture, while the Czechoslovak military was further integrated into the Warsaw Pact. In the 1980s, approximately 50% of Czechoslovakia's foreign trade was with the Soviet Union, and almost 80% was with communist countries. There were constant exhortations about further cooperation and integration between the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia in industry, science, technology, consumer goods, and agriculture. Deriving its legitimacy from Moscow, the Husák regime remained a slavish imitator of political, cultural, and economic trends emanating from Moscow.
1055:(i.e., national parliaments). The Gustáv Husák regime amended the law in January 1971 so that, while federalism was retained in form, central authority was effectively restored. In the meantime, a Slovak parliament and government had been created, including all ministries except for defence and foreign affairs. Besides, a so-called no-majorisation principle requiring consensus between Czechia and Slovakia at the Federal Assembly in Prague was enacted. But due to the fact that neither governments nor parliaments made political decisions under the regime, it remained just a formality. Decisions were taken "by the politburo of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. There was one communist party and it was situated in Prague". Deciding about Slovak affairs in Slovakia was not allowed to happen.
687:(wealthy peasants). Collectivisation was near completion by 1960. 16% of all farmland (obtained from collaborators and kulaks) had been turned into state-run farms. Despite the elimination of poor land from cultivation and a tremendous increase in the use of fertilisers and tractors, agricultural production declined seriously. By 1959, pre-war production levels still had not been met. Major causes of the decline were the diversion of labour from agriculture to industry (in 1948 an estimated 2.2 million workers were employed in agriculture; by 1960, only 1.5 million); the suppression of the kulak, the most experienced and productive farmer; and the peasantry's opposition to collectivisation, which resulted in sabotage.
160:
706:, and the local governments were made responsible to the National Assembly. The National Assembly, however, continued its rubber-stamp approval of KSČ policies. All private enterprises using hired labour were abolished. Comprehensive economic planning was reaffirmed. The Bill of Rights emphasised economic and social rights, (e.g the right to work, leisure, health care, and education), with less emphasis on civil rights. The judiciary was combined with the prosecuting branch; all judges were committed to the protection of the socialist state and the education of citizens in loyalty to the cause of socialism.
1539:
late 1970s and early 1980s, assimilationist policies held clear sway. There were efforts to increase the participation of Roma children in preschool, kindergarten, secondary school, apprenticeship programs, and summer recreational and educational camps. There were also concerted government attempts to integrate Roma into the national labor force; in the early 1980s, some 90% of adult Roma males below retirement age were employed. In 1979 about 50% of working-age Roma women were employed; by 1981 this figure had risen to 74%.
921:
congress, convened secretly on 22 August, passed a resolution affirming its loyalty to Dubček's Action
Program and denouncing the Soviet aggression. President Svoboda repeatedly resisted Soviet pressure to form a new government under Indra. The Czechoslovak population was virtually unanimous in its repudiation of the Soviet action. In compliance with Svoboda's caution against acts that might provoke violence, they avoided mass demonstrations and strikes but observed a symbolic one-hour general work stoppage on 23 August.
787:
legislative responsibility. The Slovak executive (Board of
Commissioners) and legislature (Slovak National Council) were assured that they could assist the central government in program planning and assume responsibility for program implementation in Slovakia. The regional, district, and local national committees were to be permitted a degree of autonomy. The KSČ agreed to refrain from superseding the authority of economic and social organizations. Party control in cultural policy, however, was reaffirmed.
886:—supported Dubček. Conservatives—Vasil Biľak, Drahomír Kolder, and Oldřich Švestka—adopted an anti-reformist stance. Brezhnev decided on compromise. The KSČ delegates reaffirmed their loyalty to the Warsaw Pact and promised to curb "antisocialist" tendencies, prevent the revival of the Czechoslovak Social Democratic Party, and control the press more effectively. The Soviets agreed to withdraw their troops (stationed in Czechoslovakia since the June maneuvers) and permit the 9 September party congress.
656:. Production was concentrated in larger units; the more than 350,000 units of the pre-war period were reduced to about 1,700 units by 1958. Industrial output reportedly increased 233% between 1948–59 and employment in industry by 44%. The speed of industrialisation was particularly accelerated in Slovakia, where production increased 347% and employment by 70%. Although Czechoslovakia's industrial growth of 170% between 1948–57 was huge, it was far exceeded by that of Japan ( who increased by 300%) and
2443:
906:. These actions are thought to have precipitated the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia. As the KSČ Presidium convened on 20 August, the anti-reformists planned to make a bid for power, pointing to the imminent danger of counterrevolution. Kolder and Indra presented a resolution declaring a state of emergency and calling for "fraternal assistance." The resolution was never voted on, because the Warsaw Pact troops entered Czechoslovakia that same day (in the night of 20 August-21).
1416:
twenty-four print media producers. Six Slovak publishing institutions were also publishing
Hungarian literature. The Slovaks in Hungary, however, had no kindergartens, no schools, no theatres and one print media producer. One Hungarian publishing institution was also publishing Slovak literature. This is primarily because the Slovak population of Hungary is much more sparsely populated across northern and southern Hungary and are not concentrated in one compact region.
482:. This gave legal sanction to the KSČ coup, and marked the onset of undisguised Communist rule in Czechoslovakia. On 9 May, the National Assembly, purged of dissidents, passed a new constitution. It was not a completely Communist document; since a special committee prepared it in the 1945–48 period, it contained many liberal and democratic provisions. It reflected, however, the reality of Communist power through an addition that declared Czechoslovakia a
456:
783:. The program called for a second, intensive stage of economic development, emphasizing technological and managerial improvements. Central planning would be limited to overall production and investment indexes as well as price and wage guidelines. Management personnel would be involved in decision-making. Production would be market oriented and geared toward profitability. Prices would respond to supply and demand. Wage differentials would be introduced.
831:
unaffiliated political clubs were created. Party conservatives urged the implementation of repressive measures, but Dubček counselled moderation and reemphasized KSČ leadership. In May he announced that the
Fourteenth Party Congress would convene in an early session on 9 September. The congress would incorporate the Action Program into the party statutes, draft a federalization law, and elect a new (presumably more liberal) Central Committee.
890:
struggle against "bourgeois" ideology and all "antisocialist" forces. The Soviet Union expressed its intention to intervene in a Warsaw Pact country if a "bourgeois" system—a pluralist system of several political parties—was ever established. After the
Bratislava conference, Soviet troops left Czechoslovak territory but remained along Czechoslovak borders. Dubček did not attempt to mobilize the Czechoslovak army to resist an invasion.
715:
2387:
827:
were to be democratized, and
Czechoslovakia was to be federalized. Freedom of assembly and expression would be guaranteed in constitutional law. The New Economic Model was to be implemented. The Action Program also reaffirmed the Czechoslovak alliance with the Soviet Union and other socialist states. The reform movement, which rejected Stalinism as the road to communism, remained committed to communism as a goal.
932:. In Prague and other cities throughout the republic, Czechs and Slovaks greeted Warsaw Pact soldiers with arguments and reproaches. Every form of assistance, including the provision of food and water, was denied the invaders. Signs, placards, and graffiti drawn on walls and pavements denounced the invaders, the Soviet leaders, and suspected collaborators. Pictures of Dubček and Svoboda appeared everywhere.
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36:
768:
critical articles. Criticism of economic planning merged with more generalized protests against KSČ bureaucratic control and ideological conformity. The KSČ leadership responded. The purge trials of 1949–54 were reviewed, for example, and some of those purged were rehabilitated. Some hardliners were removed from top levels of government and replaced by younger, more liberal communists.
1024:
803:
to replace Novotný as first secretary of the KSČ. Novotný's fall from KSČ leadership precipitated initiatives to oust
Stalinists from all levels of government, from mass associations, e.g., the Revolutionary Trade Union Movement and the Czechoslovak Union Youth, and from local party organs. On 22 March 1968, Novotný resigned from the presidency and was succeeded by General
1330:("openness") in the discussion of economic, social, and, to some extent, political questions. Up to this time, the Husák regime had dutifully adopted the programs and slogans that had emanated from Moscow. But, for a government wholly dedicated to the preservation of the status quo, subjects such as "openness," economic "restructuring," and "reform" had been taboo.
842:". The manifesto expressed concern about conservative elements within the KSČ and "foreign" forces as well. (Warsaw Pact maneuvers were held in Czechoslovakia in late June.) It called on the "people" to take the initiative in implementing the reform program. Dubček, the party Presidium, the National Front, and the cabinet sharply denounced the manifesto.
898:
provided an extensive review of the general political situation in
Czechoslovakia as it might relate to the forthcoming party congress. It predicted that a stable Central Committee and a firm leadership could not necessarily be expected as the outcome of the congress. The party Presidium received the report on 12 August. Two Presidium members, Kolder and
850:
clubs, and the repression of "rightist" forces within the party. The Warsaw Pact nations declared the defence of
Czechoslovakia's socialist gains to be not only the task of Czechoslovakia but also the mutual task of all Warsaw Pact countries. The KSČ rejected the Warsaw Pact ultimatum, and Dubček requested bilateral talks with the Soviet Union.
1860:
597:. In Czechoslovakia, the Stalinists also accused their opponents of "conspiracy against the people's democratic order" and "high treason" in order to oust them from positions of power. Many Communists with an "international" background, i.e., those with a wartime connection with the West, veterans of the Spanish Civil War, Jews, and Slovak "
854:
leadership adopted a wait-and-see attitude. By midsummer, however, two camps had formed: advocates and opponents of military intervention. The pro-interventionist coalition viewed the situation in Czechoslovakia as "counterrevolutionary" and favoured the defeat of Dubček and his supporters. This coalition was headed by the
1526:
asserted that the crime rate among the Romani population was four times the national average. The author went on to call for "the incorporation of all Gypsy citizens of productive age to the working process" and to decry the number of Roma "who constantly refuse to work". A large number of Roma were
1402:
Although Hungarians were a distinct minority of the total population, they were highly visible in the border regions of Slovakia. There, Hungarians constituted nearly half the population of some districts. Furthermore, 20% lived in exclusively Hungarian settlements. Given Hungary's long domination of
1206:
On a larger scale, independent activity was expressed through underground writing and publishing. Because of the decentralized nature of underground writing, it is difficult to estimate its extent or impact. Hundreds of books, journals, essays, and short stories were published and distributed. In the
1137:
Through the 1970s and 1980s, the government's emphasis on obedience, conformity, and the preservation of the status quo was challenged by individuals and organized groups aspiring to independent thinking and activity. Although only a few such activities could be deemed political by Western standards,
935:
The generalized resistance caused the Soviet Union to abandon its original plan to oust Dubček. Dubček, who had been arrested on the night of 20 August, was taken to Moscow for negotiations. The outcome was the Brezhnev Doctrine of limited sovereignty, which provided for the strengthening of the KSČ,
821:
Dubček carried the reform movement a step further in the direction of liberalism. After Novotný's fall, censorship was lifted. The media—press, radio, and television—were mobilized for reformist propaganda purposes. The movement to democratize socialism in Czechoslovakia, formerly confined largely to
1515:
Eastern Slovakia had a sizable Roma minority. About 66% of the country's Roma lived in Slovakia in the 1980s, where they constituted about 4% of the population. Estimates of their exact numbers vary, but observers agree that their postwar birthrate has been phenomenal. In the early 1970s, there were
1415:
It is interesting to compare the situation of the 560,000 Hungarians in Czechoslovakia with that of 30,000 Slovaks in Hungary in the 1970s and 1980s. In 1988, the Hungarians in Czechoslovakia had 386 kindergartens, 131 basic schools, 96 secondary schools, two theatres, one publishing institution and
1381:
The events of the late 1960s brought calls for reform from ethnic minorities. The government's response was Constitutional Act No. 144 (October 1968), which defined the status of ethnic groups in Czechoslovakia and acknowledged the full political and cultural rights of legally recognized minorities.
1228:
had a membership of approximately 7,000 and received no official funds. It published music and promoted concerts and festivals. The government condemned the Jazz Section for spreading "unacceptable views" among the youth and moved against its leadership. In March 1985, the Jazz Section was dissolved
1223:
Independent activity also extended to music. The state was particularly concerned about the impact of Western popular music on Czechoslovak youth. The persecution of rock musicians and their fans led a number of musicians to sign Charter 77. In the forefront of the struggle for independent music was
1062:
in May 1971, party chief Husák announced the 1968 Fourteenth Party Congress had been abrogated, that "normalization" had been "completed" and that all the party needed to do was consolidate its gains. Husák's policy was to maintain a rigid status quo; for the next fifteen years, key personnel of the
893:
The KSČ party congress remained scheduled for 9 September. In the week following the Bratislava conference, it became an open secret in Prague that most of Dubček's opponents would be removed from the Central Committee. The Prague municipal party organization prepared and circulated a blacklist. The
802:
arrived in Prague but did not support Novotný, giving a speech to the inner circle of the Communist Party in which he stated: "I did not come to take part in the solution of your problems... ...you will surely manage to solve them on your own." On 5 January 1968, the Central Committee elected Dubček
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of all commercial and industrial enterprises having more than fifty employees. The non-agricultural private sector was nearly eliminated. Private ownership of land was limited to fifty hectares. The remnants of private enterprise and independent farming were permitted to carry on only as a temporary
1538:
and enforced isolation in carefully controlled settlements. The nomadic wandering integral to Roma culture has been illegal since 1958. Laws passed in 1965 and 1969 provided for "dispersion" of the Romani people, i.e., transferring them from areas where they were concentrated to other areas. In the
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further exacerbated the economic decline. Materialism, encouraged by a corrupt government, also produced cynicism, greed, nepotism, corruption, and a lack of work discipline. Whatever elements of a social contract the government tried to establish with Czechoslovak society crumbled with the decline
920:
KSČ conservatives had misinformed Moscow regarding the strength of the reform movement. The KSČ Presidium met during the night of 20–21 August; it rejected the option of armed resistance and condemned the invasion. Two-thirds of the KSČ Central Committee opposed the Soviet intervention. A KSČ party
830:
The Action Program stipulated that reform must proceed under KSČ direction. In subsequent months, however, popular pressure mounted to implement reforms forthwith. Radical elements found expression: anti-Soviet polemics appeared in the press; the Social Democrats began to form a separate party; new
790:
January 1967 was the date for full implementation of the reform program. Novotný and his supporters hesitated, introducing amendments to reinforce central control. Pressure from the reformists was stepped up. Slovaks pressed for federalization. Economists called for complete enterprise autonomy and
682:
were to be founded on a voluntary basis; formal title to land was left vested in the original owners. The imposition of high compulsory quotas, however, forced peasants to collectivise in order to increase efficiency and facilitate mechanisation. Discriminatory policies were employed to bring about
1606:
attitudes continued prominence. Official denunciations of dissidents having purportedly Jewish names added a distinctly anti-Semitic flavor. One Charter 77 signer was condemned as "an international adventurer" and another, more pointedly, as "a foreigner without fatherland who was never integrated
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was ceded to the Soviet Union after World War II. In 1983 the remaining 48,000 or so Ukrainians and Ruthenians were clustered in north eastern Slovakia. They remained overwhelmingly agricultural; often they were private farmers scattered on small, impoverished holdings in mountainous terrain. They
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that had been drafted by a coalition headed by Dubček and made up of reformers, moderates, centrists, and conservatives. The program proposed a "new model of socialism," profoundly "democratic" and "national," that is, adapted to Czechoslovak conditions. The National Front and the electoral system
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Soviet leader Brezhnev hesitated to intervene militarily in Czechoslovakia. Dubček's Action Program proposed a "new model of socialism"—"democratic" and "national." Significantly, however, Dubček did not challenge Czechoslovak commitment to the Warsaw Pact. In the early spring of 1968, the Soviet
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was held without Czechoslovak participation. The Warsaw Pact nations drafted a letter to the KSČ leadership referring to the manifesto as an "organizational and political platform of counterrevolution." Pact members demanded the reimposition of censorship, the banning of new political parties and
1128:
Another feature of Husák's rule was a continued dependence on the Soviet Union. As of the mid-1980s, Husák had not yet achieved a balance between what could be perceived as Czechoslovak national interest and Soviet dictate. In foreign policy, Czechoslovakia parroted every utterance of the Soviet
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with a heavy emphasis on central planning and continued to extend industrialization. For a while, the policy seemed successful because, despite the lack of investment in new technologies, there was an increase in industrial output. The government encouraged consumerism and materialism and took a
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and from the non-Russian national republics of the western part of the Soviet Union (the Baltic republics). The coalition members feared the awakening of nationalism within their respective republics and the influence of the Ukrainian minority in Czechoslovakia on Ukrainians in the Soviet Union.
1519:
Roma intelligentsia agitated unsuccessfully for inclusion of the Romani People in the 1968 Constitutional Act No. 144, and they remained the largest unrecognized minority in Czechoslovakia. Policy makers have found them a conundrum. The Roma population combines continued high rates of crime and
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KSČ anti-reformists, therefore, made efforts to convince the Soviets that the danger of political instability and "counterrevolution" did indeed exist. They used the Kaspar Report, prepared by the Central Committee's Information Department, headed by Jan Kašpar, to achieve this end. The report
538:
for KSČ programmes. In 1953, an inner cabinet of the National Assembly, the Presidium, was created. Composed of KSČ leaders, the Presidium served to convey party policies through government channels. Regional, district, and local committees were subordinated to the Ministry of Interior. Slovak
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to work or to take advantage of the relative abundance of Czechoslovak consumer goods. Official policies toward the Poles (resident or not) have attempted to limit their influence both in and out of the workplace. In 1969, for example, a Czech journal reported that a primarily Polish-speaking
889:
On 3 August, representatives from the Soviet Union, East Germany, Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Czechoslovakia met in Bratislava and signed the Bratislava Declaration. The declaration affirmed unshakable fidelity to Marxism-Leninism and proletarian internationalism and declared an implacable
767:
became severely stagnated. The industrial growth rate was the lowest in Eastern Europe. Food imports strained the balance of payments. Pressures both from Moscow and from within the party precipitated a reform movement. In 1963 reform-minded Communist intellectuals produced a proliferation of
786:
The KSČ "Theses" of December 1965 presented the party response to the call for political reform. Democratic centralism was redefined, placing a stronger emphasis on democracy. The leading role of the KSČ was reaffirmed but limited. In consequence, the National Assembly was promised increased
1511:
in Czechoslovakia were considered Czechoslovak citizens of Romani nationality. After the war, since they did not possess the properties of a nationality according to communist criteria, they were regarded by the communist government as merely a special ethnic group. Based on this, the state
1411:
and cultural differences. In 1968 some Hungarians in Slovakia called for reincorporation into Hungary. This was apparently a minority view; Hungarian Warsaw Pact troops entering Czechoslovakia in 1968 encountered as much hostility from Hungarians in Slovakia as they did from the rest of the
554:
Although Gottwald originally sought a more independent line, a quick meeting with Stalin in 1948 convinced him otherwise and so he sought to impose the Soviet model on the country as thoroughly as possible. By 1951, Gottwald's health deteriorated and he was suffering from heart disease and
533:
Although in theory Czechoslovakia remained a multi-party state, in reality the Communists had complete control of the country. Political participation became subject to KSČ approval. The KSČ also prescribed percentage representation for non-Marxist parties. The National Assembly, purged of
542:
After consolidating power, Klement Gottwald began a series of mass purges against both political opponents and fellow Communists, numbering in the tens of thousands. Children from blacklisted families were denied access to good jobs and higher education, there was widespread emigration to
863:
Bureaucrats responsible for political stability in Soviet cities and for the ideological supervision of the intellectual community also favoured a military solution. Within the Warsaw Pact, only the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) and Poland were strongly interventionist.
791:
economic responsiveness to the market mechanism. The Fourth Writers' Congress adopted a resolution calling for rehabilitation of the Czechoslovak literary tradition and the establishment of free contact with Western culture. The Novotný regime responded with repressive measures.
1299:, opposition to the government, and independent activity were limited in Czechoslovakia to a fairly small segment of the populace. Even the dissenters saw scant prospect for fundamental reforms. In this sense, the Husák regime was successful in preserving the status quo in "
671:– was drafted in massive numbers. Labour productivity, however, was not significantly increased; nor were production costs reduced. Czechoslovak products were characterised by poor quality. During the early years of Communist rule, many political prisoners were sentenced to
1215:(Padlock Editions), which had published more than 250 volumes. There were a number of clandestine religious publishing houses that published journals in photocopy or printed form. The production and distribution of underground literature was difficult. In most cases,
1639:
made up a large proportion of the town and region's population until the late 1980s/early 1990s. Although defined as "Greeks", the Greek Communist community of Krnov and the Jeseniky region actually consisted of an ethnically diverse population, including
1276:'s invitation and the pope's acceptance were widely circulated in samizdat. A petition requesting the government to permit the papal visit had 17,000 signatories. The Catholic Church did have a massive commemoration of the 1,100th anniversary in 1985. At
798:, a Slovak reformer who had studied in the Soviet Union, challenged Novotný and was accused of nationalism. As university students in Prague demonstrated in support of the liberals, Novotný appealed to Moscow for assistance. On 8 December, Soviet leader
1138:
the state viewed any independent action, no matter how innocuous, as a defiance of the party's control over all aspects of Czechoslovak life. The government's response to such activity was harassment, persecution, and, in some instances, imprisonment.
1219:
had to be typed and retyped without the aid of modern publishing equipment. Publication and distribution were also dangerous. Mere possession of samizdat materials could be the basis for harassment, loss of employment, and arrest and imprisonment.
1419:
The 1960 Constitution of Czechoslovakia which ensured protection for Hungarian, Ukrainian, and Polish minority groups in Czechoslovakia. This legislation was often criticized by Slovak extremists who were opposed to minority rights in Slovakia.
878:, Slovak-Soviet border. At the meeting, Dubček defended the program of the reformist wing of the KSČ while pledging commitment to the Warsaw Pact and Comecon. The KSČ leadership, however, was divided. Vigorous reformers—Josef Smrkovský,
505:
Within the next few years, bureaucratic centralism under the direction of KSČ leadership was introduced. So-called "dissident" elements were purged from all levels of society, including the Catholic Church. The ideological principles of
1382:
Minorities were granted the right, with state approval, to their own cultural organizations. The emphasis has been on cultural activities; minority organizations have had no right to represent their members in political affairs.
1203:) was formed in 1978 with the specific goal of documenting individual cases of government persecution and human rights violations. Between 1978 and 1984, VONS issued 409 communiques concerning individuals prosecuted or harassed.
1115:
By the mid-1970s, consumerism failed as a palliative for political oppression. The government could not sustain an indefinite expansion without coming to grips with limitations inherent in a command economy. The effects of the
1520:
illiteracy with a cultural system that places low value on regular employment. According to Czechoslovak Life, in 1986, "the customs and thinking of the Roma population are somewhat different." A 1979 article in Bratislava's
1444:. Through the mid-1970s, Germans represented a declining proportion of the population; younger Germans increasingly were assimilated into Czech society or emigrated to the West. Even those Germans who were not expelled after
902:, were instructed to evaluate the report for the 20 August meeting of the Presidium. Kolder and Indra viewed the Kašpar Report with alarm and, some observers think, communicated their conclusions to the Soviet ambassador,
436:
1088:. Soviet examples were held up for emulation. During the 1970s and 1980s, many of Czechoslovakia's most creative individuals were silenced, imprisoned, or sent into exile. Some found expression for their art through
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to his post as party chief. He and other party leaders faced the task of rebuilding general party membership after the purges of 1969–71. By 1983, membership had returned to 1.6 million, about the same as in 1960.
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in 1968. In 1975 these were ratified by the Federal Assembly, which, according to the Constitution of 1960, is the highest legislative organization. The Helsinki Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe's
1490:
Polish governments had concerned Czechoslovak communists since the 1950s, when Poles led the way in resisting increased work demands. The 1980–81 unrest in Poland exacerbated the situation. There were reports of
1112:
In the early 1970s, there was a steady increase in the standard of living; it seemed that the improved economy might mitigate political and cultural oppression and give the government a modicum of legitimacy.
1398:
in Slovakia, the postwar exchange of Slovaks in Hungary for Hungarians in Slovakia met with only limited success; the proportion of Hungarians in the population has changed little since 1930 (see History).
1071:
In preserving the status quo, the Husák regime required conformity and obedience in all aspects of life. Czech and Slovak culture suffered greatly from the limitations on independent thought, as did the
936:
strict party control of the media, and the suppression of the Czechoslovak Social Democratic Party. It was agreed that Dubček would remain in office and that a program of moderate reform would continue.
1145:
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in the 1980s have had an uneven history in the postwar era. The highly centralized rule of the KSČ undermined the political leverage that the First Republic's multiparty politics had permitted to
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instruction in areas having a substantial German minority. The 1968 Constitutional Act No. 144 recognized the Germans' legal status as an ethnic minority for the first time since World War II.
1707:
53:
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The Roma birthrate was reportedly two and one-half to three times the national average; in the mid-1980s, it was 2.6% per year as opposed to 0.7% per year for the population as a whole.
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were the largest enumerated minority ethnic group. In 1989 approximately 560,000 Hungarians (concentrated in southern Slovakia) made up 11% of Slovakia's population. Despite significant
678:
The Ninth-of-May Constitution declared the government's intention to collectivise agriculture. In February 1949, the National Assembly adopted the Unified Agricultural Cooperatives Act.
1602:
Some anti-Jewish sentiment still existed in the 1980s. The government's vehemently anti-Israeli stance, coupled with a persistent failure to distinguish between Israelis and Jews, gave
730:
585:
became particularly concerned about controlling and integrating the socialist bloc in the wake of Tito's challenge to his authority. Stalin's paranoia resulted in a campaign against "
1224:
the Jazz Section of the Union of Musicians. Initially organized to promote jazz, in the late 1970s it became a protector of various kinds of nonconformist music. The widely popular
460:
1956:
1595:
stated that there were some 5,000 practicing Jews remaining in Czechoslovakia, including about 1,200 in Prague, which once had a large, vibrant Jewish community dating back to the
1583:
community remained in the 1980s. Estimates of both the prewar and the postwar Jewish population are imprecise. Calculations based on either religious preference or the number of
502:, the former governing coalition which was now a broad patriotic organisation under Communist control. Beneš resigned on 2 June, and Gottwald became president twelve days later.
629:. The KSČ rank-and-file membership, approximately 2.5 million in March 1948, began to be subjected to careful scrutiny. By 1960, KSČ membership had been reduced to 1.4 million.
1149:
1103:
In addition to applying repression, Husák also tried to obtain acquiescence to his rule by providing an improved standard of living. He returned Czechoslovakia to an orthodox
371:
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and pervaded cultural and intellectual life. The entire education system was submitted to state control. With the elimination of private ownership of means of production, a
1003:"—the restoration of continuity with the prereform period—was initiated. Normalization entailed thoroughgoing political repression and the return to ideological conformity
2358:
1900:, 2 Bde. (Köln / Weimar / Wien: Böhlau 2008) (Veröffentlichungen des Ludwig-Boltzmann-Instituts für Kriegsfolgen-Forschung, Graz – Wien – Klagenfurt; Sonderband 9/1, 9/2).
1983:
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were required to be licensed. In attempting to manipulate the number and kind of clergy, the state even sponsored a pro-government organization of Catholic priests, the
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demonstrated on May Day of 1956, demanding freedom of speech and access to the Western press. The Novotný regime condemned these activities and introduced a policy of
1245:
644:
Following the Soviet example, Czechoslovakia began emphasising the rapid development of heavy industry. The industrial sector was reorganised with an emphasis on
984:
and one of the Slovak "bourgeois nationalists" imprisoned by the KSČ in the 1950s), was named first secretary (title changed to general secretary in 1971). Only
2351:
702:" – power emanating from the people but bound by the authority of higher organs – was made a formal part of constitutional law. The President, the Cabinet, the
1607:
into the Czech community"—notorious euphemisms long used in anti-Jewish rhetoric. Officials alleged that the signers were under orders from "anticommunist and
221:
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2026:
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2477:
2472:
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on 11 March 1985, presented the Husák regime with a new and unexpected challenge to the status quo. Soon after assuming office, Gorbachev began a policy of
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and attempted to gain control of the writers' congress. The writers' rebellion was suppressed, however, and the conservatives retained control. Students in
1754:
100:
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2033:
2019:
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320:
72:
2396:
663:
Industrial growth in Czechoslovakia required substantial additional labour. Czechoslovaks were subjected to long hours and long working weeks to meet
660:(almost 300 percent) and more than equalled by Austria and Greece. For the 1954–59 period, France and Italy equalled Czechoslovak industrial growth.
2601:
2546:
2431:
1371:
253:
181:
1733:
79:
1052:
703:
364:
2496:
2298:
915:
523:
385:
299:
159:
1976:
1740:
86:
478:
and appointed a Cabinet dominated by Communists. While it was nominally still a coalition, the "non-Communists" in the cabinet were mostly
2591:
2586:
2124:
1064:
330:
463:
was intended to prevent citizens of the Eastern Bloc from emigrating to the West. The sign is from the beginning of the 1980s and reads:
2596:
2501:
2321:
2157:
1722:
1315:
1233:
activities." The Jazz Section continued to operate, however, and in 1986 the government arrested the members of its steering committee.
691:
274:
232:
68:
2284:
1929:
1199:
Closely associated with Charter 77, the Committee for the Defense of the Unjustly Persecuted (Výbor na obranu nespravedlivě stíhaných—
1044:
357:
139:
2263:
1773:
440:
397:
119:
1039:
of the country. Although it was mostly a formality during the normalization period, Czechoslovakia had been federalized under the
2576:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2401:
2249:
1969:
965:
243:
2581:
2442:
2406:
2113:
1261:
695:
499:
491:
425:
284:
1100:—a poet identified with reformism and not favored by the Husák regime—was a bright spot in an otherwise bleak cultural scene.
1092:. Those artists, poets, and writers who were officially sanctioned were, for the most part, undistinguished. The award of the
2203:
1711:
1300:
1000:
969:
959:
779:
In 1965, the party approved the New Economic Model, which had been drafted under the direction of economist and theoretician
57:
2416:
2182:
1180:
reportedly was signed by 243 people; among them were artists, former public officials, and other prominent figures, such as
1344:
2426:
2054:
1944:
1673:
1240:
offered possibilities for thought and activities independent of the state, it too was severely restricted and controlled.
621:
and thirteen other prominent Communist personalities in November and December 1952. Slánský and ten other defendants were
494:, and also gave the Communist Party the leading role in the state. For these reasons, Beneš refused to sign the so-called
340:
1747:
822:
the party intelligentsia, acquired a new, popular dynamism in the spring of 1968. In April the KSČ Presidium adopted the
93:
2343:
2142:
2102:
1636:
750:
211:
2095:
2083:
1803:
1374:
had amounted to 3 million citizens, having had played a large role in the area for centuries, as well as the decrease
725:
De-Stalinization had a late start in Czechoslovakia. The KSČ leadership virtually ignored the Soviet law announced by
718:
657:
263:
191:
2421:
1047:(i.e., federal parliament), which replaced the National Assembly, was intended to work in close cooperation with the
428:, thousands of Czechoslovaks faced political persecution for various offences, such as trying to emigrate across the
1486:
Czechoslovak officialdom considered Polish influence in the workplace an insidious danger. The "seepage" from more
1404:
1093:
1700:
1253:
868:
571:
46:
2312:
2294:
2012:
1875:
871:—party leaders of East Germany and Poland, respectively—viewed liberalism as threatening to their own positions.
764:
495:
171:
148:
2308:
1471:
1395:
1568:
846:
838:, a lifelong communist and a candidate member of the Central Committee, published a manifesto entitled the "
823:
535:
1474:. In addition to a large community of resident Poles, a substantial number commuted across the border from
879:
2214:
1273:
1048:
839:
1869:
1591:
and Slovakia. Most estimates put the pre–World War II population in the neighborhood of 250,000. In 1975
1181:
2386:
1535:
1516:
approximately 200,000 to 300,000 Roma in the country. In 1980 estimates ranged from 250,000 to 400,000.
1193:
925:
699:
598:
586:
444:
1836:
610:
575:
498:. Nevertheless, elections were held on 30 May, and voters were presented with a single list from the
1934:
1230:
1189:
1176:
newspapers. The document was immediately translated and reprinted throughout the world. The original
883:
835:
734:
618:
483:
733:. In Czechoslovakia that April, at the Second Writers' Congress, several authors criticized acts of
2170:
1567:
and suffered in the 1950s and 1960s from the government's repression of that group in favor of the
1429:
1212:
795:
668:
17:
1225:
1185:
773:
614:
2280:
2229:
2220:
2176:
1957:
The CWIHP at the Wilson Center for Scholars Document Collection on Czechoslovakia in the Cold War
1619:
Following the expulsion of the ethnic German population from Czechoslovakia, parts of the former
903:
638:
622:
1627:
mountain region in northeastern Czechoslovakia, were settled in 1949 by Communist refugees from
977:
950:
as a protest against the end of the reforms of the Prague Spring following the Soviet invasion.
455:
1824:
1512:
approached the matter not as a question of nationality but as a social and political question.
1645:
1641:
1363:
1311:
1307:
1085:
804:
726:
626:
590:
389:
309:
756:
The 1958 KSČ Party Congress (XI. Congress, 18 June − 21 June) formalized the continuation of
1559:
1436:
in 1945, Czechoslovakia lost over one-fifth of its population. Some 165,000 Germans escaped
1408:
1158:
1097:
947:
929:
875:
664:
606:
594:
507:
475:
201:
551:, and the educational system was reformed to give opportunities to working-class students.
539:
autonomy was constrained; the KSS was reunited with the KSČ but retained its own identity.
530:
in 1955. The attainment of Soviet-style "socialism" became the government's avowed policy.
2275:
2242:
1996:
1835:
Copied from the US Library of Congress Country Studies, Dissent and Independent Activity,
1661:
1632:
1628:
1467:
1452:
1117:
1104:
1081:
1077:
943:
864:
799:
649:
633:
563:
515:
511:
479:
471:
1893:(Lanham, MD, Rowman & Littlefield, 2004) (The Harvard Cold War Studies Book Series).
1847:
714:
2134:
1993:
1917:
1592:
1480:
1142:
1108:
tolerant attitude toward a slack work ethic and a growing black market second economy:
1059:
1040:
401:
393:
2540:
2304:
1961:
1864:
1653:
1508:
1492:
1463:
1433:
1032:
874:
The Soviet Union agreed to bilateral talks with Czechoslovakia to be held in July at
816:
746:
582:
559:
in addition to alcoholism. He made few public appearances in his final year of life.
295:
2515:
2458:
2411:
2269:
2077:
1940:
1603:
1528:
1445:
1355:
1162:
769:
672:
544:
519:
429:
413:
894:
antireformist coalition could hope to stay in power only with Soviet assistance.
2520:
2089:
1907:(Yale-Hoover Series on Authoritarian Regimes). New Haven: Yale University Press.
1891:
The Struggle for the Soul of the Nation: Czech Culture and the Rise of Communism
1689:
1620:
1596:
1441:
1437:
1320:
1216:
1173:
1007:
consolidate the Husák leadership and remove reformers from leadership positions;
993:
899:
679:
653:
527:
417:
35:
1918:
Archiv ČT 24 – Archive of The Czech Television – TV News from the socialist era
1378:
populations of Czechoslovakia would have limited their influence in any event.
641:
and the peasantry. The Czechoslovak economy was determined by five-year plans.
581:
Czechoslovak interests were subordinated to the interests of the Soviet Union.
2293:ČSR; declared a "people's democracy" (without a formal name change) under the
1551:
1487:
1375:
1265:
1256:, the Czech primate, adopted a more independent stand. In 1984 he invited the
1169:
1073:
1036:
940:
780:
742:
645:
602:
1923:
1837:
Chapter Communist Czechoslovakia, in A Country Study: Czechoslovakia (Former)
1451:
In 1968–69, Germans demanded more German-language publications and mandatory
1063:
party and government remained the same. In 1975, Husák added the position of
2375:
1248:. Nevertheless, there was religious opposition, including a lively Catholic
1241:
1177:
1023:
985:
973:
757:
487:
776:
in September 1963. The KSČ organized committees to review economic policy.
753:
had been suppressed by Russian tanks and troops, many Czechs lost courage.
578:
as head of the KSČ. Novotný became President in 1957 when Zápotocký died.
2192:
1326:
1284:
attended a commemorative mass, and another 100,000 came to a ceremony at
1281:
1277:
1249:
1237:
1208:
1089:
989:
981:
556:
1825:
Group of Soviet Forces in Czechoslovakia - Central Group of Forces (CGF)
1440:
and remained scattered along the country's western border in the former
2525:
2327:
2071:
2067:
2063:
1951:
The history of the Committee for the Defence of the Unjustly Persecuted
1624:
1608:
1588:
1584:
1564:
1496:
1391:
1367:
1359:
1296:
1141:
In the context of international detente, Czechoslovakia had signed the
859:
855:
548:
437:
Act on Lawlessness of the Communist Regime and on Resistance Against It
421:
1260:
to come to Czechoslovakia for the 1,100th anniversary of the death of
2317:
1649:
1555:
1522:
1475:
1292:
1285:
1272:. The pope accepted, but the trip was blocked by the government. The
738:
567:
1031:
One of the few changes proposed by the Action Programme during the
858:
party leader Petro Shelest and included communist bureaucrats from
1657:
1269:
1022:
684:
454:
439:
determined that the communist government was illegal and that the
1863:
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
1161:), signed by Czechoslovakia in 1975, also included guarantees of
968:, following Czechoslovakia's victory over the Soviet team in the
924:
Popular opposition was expressed in numerous spontaneous acts of
1448:
were not permitted to hold Czechoslovak citizenship until 1953.
1407:
have not been easy; the two groups are separated by substantial
1257:
1200:
794:
At the 30–31 October 1967 meeting of the KSČ Central Committee,
2347:
1965:
1172:. On 6 January 1977, a manifesto called Charter 77 appeared in
1905:
Security Empire: The Secret Police in Communist Eastern Europe
1683:
1623:, especially around Krnov and the surrounding villages of the
1580:
29:
1168:
The first organized opposition emerged under the umbrella of
1124:
The 1980s were more or less a period of economic stagnation.
1579:
A very small fraction of Czechoslovakia's pre–World War II
1280:(allegedly the site of Methodius's tomb) more than 150,000
1587:
speakers ignored the large numbers of assimilated Jews in
1019:
expand Czechoslovakia's ties with other socialist nations.
1010:
revoke or modify the laws enacted by the reform movement;
1950:
1466:(approximately 71,000 in 1984) were concentrated in the
1211:
publishing houses were in operation. The best known was
1043:
Law of Federation of 27 October 1968. The newly created
731:
20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
1802:
Dominik Jůn interviewing Professor Jan Rychlík (2016).
694:
declared the victory of "socialism" and proclaimed the
2374:
Countries of Eastern and Central Europe during their
1937:(The Institute for the Study of Totalitarian Regimes)
1848:
https://english.radio.cz/story-greeks-czechia-8703203
1483:
to create two districts, each with a Czech majority.
910:
Warsaw Pact intervention and the end of Prague Spring
1898:
Prager Frühling. Das internationale Krisenjahr 1968
1714:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1324:("restructuring") the Soviet economy and advocated
474:gave in to the demands of Communist Prime Minister
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1366:. Beyond this, however, the sheer decrease in the
1354:The roughly 6% of the population who were neither
1184:, secretary of the KSČ Central Committee in 1968;
1133:Dissent and independent activity (1970s and 1980s)
972:in March, precipitated Soviet pressures for a KSČ
465:WARNING! Border Zone. Enter only on authorization.
1146:Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights
1013:reestablish centralized control over the economy;
964:Dubček remained in office only until April 1969.
845:The Soviet leadership was alarmed. In mid-July a
1804:"Czechs and Slovaks - more than just neighbours"
1631:who had left their homeland as a result of the
632:The Ninth-of-May Constitution provided for the
461:Czechoslovak border to West Germany and Austria
2262:ČSR; boundaries and government established by
1930:Post Bellum – Stories of the Twentieth Century
1534:Official policy has vacillated between forced
1246:Association of Catholic Clergy Pacem in Terris
1016:reinstate the power of police authorities; and
2359:
1977:
1797:
1795:
1793:
1791:
667:. Part-time, volunteer labour – students and
566:, a week after attending Stalin's funeral in
365:
8:
2366:
2352:
2344:
2225:1944 / 1946 – 1991
1984:
1970:
1962:
1723:"History of Czechoslovakia" 1948–1989
1188:, a Central Committee member in 1968; and
1084:. Art had to adhere to a rigid formula of
490:and, ultimately, communism – ruled by the
372:
358:
133:
69:"History of Czechoslovakia" 1948–1989
1774:Learn how and when to remove this message
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
2005:
713:
514:was introduced. Czechoslovakia became a
2278:of Slovakia and Subcarpathian Ruthenia.
1787:
562:Gottwald died on 14 March 1953 from an
147:
136:
1479:district in the Ostrava area had been
1150:Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
916:Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia
524:Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
1345:Slovaks in Czechoslovakia (1960-1990)
1121:in living standards of the mid-1970s.
7:
2125:Czech and Slovak Federative Republic
1935:Ústav pro studium totalitních režimů
1712:adding citations to reliable sources
751:Hungarian Revolution of October 1956
58:adding citations to reliable sources
2552:History of Czechoslovakia by period
2158:Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia
1316:Communist Party of the Soviet Union
1035:that was actually achieved was the
692:1960 Constitution of Czechoslovakia
18:History of Czechoslovakia (1948–89)
1470:on the northeastern border of the
522:; it was a founding member of the
406:Komunistická strana Československa
25:
601:", were arrested and executed in
441:Communist Party of Czechoslovakia
398:Communist Party of Czechoslovakia
2441:
2385:
1858:
1688:
1550:Czechoslovakia lost most of its
625:, while three were sentenced to
254:Czechoslovak government-in-exile
158:
34:
2602:Contemporary history by country
2547:Czechoslovak Socialist Republic
2114:Czechoslovak Socialist Republic
1699:needs additional citations for
696:Czechoslovak Socialist Republic
492:dictatorship of the proletariat
470:On 25 February 1948, President
412:). The country belonged to the
285:Czechoslovak Socialist Republic
45:needs additional citations for
1229:under a 1968 statute banning "
970:World Ice Hockey Championships
960:Normalization (Czechoslovakia)
27:Aspect of Czechoslovak history
1:
1945:Blinken Open Society Archives
1896:Stefan Karner et al. (eds.),
1674:Operation Neptune (Espionage)
526:(Comecon) in 1949 and of the
486:– a preliminary step towards
341:Dissolution of Czechoslovakia
1558:(Ruthenian) population when
996:continued in the Presidium.
939:On 19 January 1969, student
698:. The ambiguous precept of "
617:against KSČ first secretary
613:). Most spectacular was the
386:coup d'état in February 1948
212:Second Czechoslovak Republic
2592:Socialism in Czechoslovakia
2587:Communism in Czechoslovakia
2303:ČSSR; from 1969, after the
1058:At the official Fourteenth
426:era of Communist Party rule
264:Third Czechoslovak Republic
192:First Czechoslovak Republic
2618:
2597:Politics of Czechoslovakia
1405:Hungarian-Slovak relations
1342:
1301:normalized" Czechoslovakia
1094:Nobel Prize for Literature
966:Anti-Soviet demonstrations
957:
913:
814:
589:" which culminated in the
534:dissidents, became a mere
2511:
2492:
2450:
2439:
2392:
2383:
2313:Slovak Socialist Republic
2295:Ninth-of-May Constitution
2291:
2260:
2256:
2248:
2228:
2219:
2198:
2191:
2175:
2168:
2155:
2140:
2133:
2122:
2111:
2100:
2093:
2088:
2081:
2076:
2061:
2052:
2045:
2038:
2031:
2024:
2017:
2010:
2003:
1876:Federal Research Division
1495:among the workers in the
1252:. In the 1980s, Cardinal
765:Economy of Czechoslovakia
683:the ruin of recalcitrant
496:Ninth-of-May Constitution
172:Origins of Czechoslovakia
2309:Czech Socialist Republic
1472:Czech Socialist Republic
1396:anti-Hungarian sentiment
772:replaced Prime Minister
763:In the early 1960s, the
729:25 February 1956 at the
416:and was a member of the
2577:1980s in Czechoslovakia
2572:1970s in Czechoslovakia
2567:1960s in Czechoslovakia
2562:1950s in Czechoslovakia
2557:1940s in Czechoslovakia
1926:(in Czech Paměť národa)
1569:Eastern Orthodox Church
1288:(in eastern Slovakia).
1053:Slovak National Council
704:Slovak National Council
2582:1990 in Czechoslovakia
2215:Subcarpathian Ruthenia
2200:Southern Slovakia and
1080:, and ultimately even
1049:Czech National Council
1028:
1027:Czechoslovakia in 1969
847:Warsaw Pact conference
722:
599:bourgeois nationalists
587:rootless cosmopolitans
570:. He was succeeded by
467:
405:
182:Washington Declaration
2264:the 1920 constitution
1941:RFE Czechoslovak Unit
1656:and Turkish speaking
1546:Ukrainians and Rusyns
1507:Before World War II,
1026:
926:nonviolent resistance
717:
700:democratic centralism
458:
445:criminal organisation
1708:improve this article
1231:counterrevolutionary
946:on fire in Prague's
735:political repression
669:white-collar workers
574:as President and by
319:
294:
273:
242:
231:
54:improve this article
2307:, consisted of the
2252:government-in-exile
1889:Bradley F. Abrams,
1499:area in late 1980.
1370:, who before their
1207:mid-1980s, several
1157:(also known as the
384:From the Communist
331:Federative Republic
233:Bohemia and Moravia
2287:(1939–1945).
2276:autonomous regions
2274:ČSR; included the
2234:1991–present
2230:Zakarpattia Oblast
2221:Zakarpattia Oblast
2204:Carpathian Ukraine
2177:Kingdom of Hungary
1903:Pucci, M. (2020).
1194:Two Thousand Words
1029:
904:Stepan Chervonenko
840:Two Thousand Words
723:
639:petite bourgeoisie
637:concession to the
468:
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2533:
2341:
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2336:
2335:
2235:
2226:
2189:
2164:
2153:
2131:
2120:
2109:
1784:
1783:
1776:
1758:
1646:Slavo-Macedonians
1642:Greek Macedonians
1364:ethnic minorities
1312:general secretary
1308:Mikhail Gorbachev
1306:The selection of
1254:František Tomášek
1086:socialist realism
884:František Kriegel
869:Władysław Gomułka
727:Nikita Khrushchev
665:production quotas
627:life imprisonment
591:conspiracy theory
572:Antonín Zápotocký
484:people's republic
396:was ruled by the
390:Velvet Revolution
382:
381:
349:
348:
310:Velvet Revolution
222:German occupation
130:
129:
122:
104:
16:(Redirected from
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2345:
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2151:
2147:
2129:
2118:
2107:
2006:
1986:
1979:
1972:
1963:
1924:Memory of Nation
1879:
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1851:
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1822:
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1813:
1811:
1799:
1779:
1772:
1768:
1765:
1759:
1757:
1716:
1692:
1684:
1560:Carpatho-Ukraine
1527:involved in the
1159:Helsinki Accords
1098:Jaroslav Seifert
1082:natural sciences
1045:Federal Assembly
976:reorganization.
948:Wenceslas Square
930:civil resistance
876:Cierna nad Tisou
824:Action Programme
796:Alexander Dubček
710:De-Stalinization
508:Marxism-Leninism
480:fellow travelers
476:Klement Gottwald
374:
367:
360:
202:Munich Agreement
168:
167:
162:
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134:
125:
118:
114:
111:
105:
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62:
38:
30:
21:
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2390:
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2342:
2337:
2331:
2325:
2316:
2302:
2288:
2279:
2273:
2267:
2251:
2243:Austria-Hungary
2232:
2223:
2202:
2201:
2188:1939–1945
2186:
2183:Slovak Republic
2163:1939–1945
2161:
2152:1938–1939
2150:
2145:
2144:
2130:1990–1992
2128:
2119:1960–1990
2117:
2108:1948–1960
2106:
2103:Fourth Republic
2078:Austrian Empire
2070:
2066:
2048:1989–1992
2041:1948–1989
2034:1945–1948
2027:1938–1945
2020:1918–1938
1999:
1990:
1914:
1886:
1871:Country Studies
1868:
1859:
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1846:
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1801:
1800:
1789:
1780:
1769:
1763:
1760:
1717:
1715:
1705:
1693:
1682:
1670:
1662:Caucasus Greeks
1633:Greek Civil War
1629:Northern Greece
1617:
1577:
1563:were generally
1548:
1505:
1468:Cieszyn Silesia
1461:
1453:German language
1426:
1388:
1352:
1347:
1341:
1336:
1262:Saint Methodius
1135:
1118:1973 oil crisis
1105:command economy
1078:social sciences
962:
956:
918:
912:
865:Walter Ulbricht
819:
813:
800:Leonid Brezhnev
712:
650:heavy machinery
634:nationalisation
611:Milada Horáková
593:of the alleged
576:Antonín Novotný
564:aortic aneurysm
516:satellite state
512:planned economy
453:
378:
321:Post-revolution
244:Slovak Republic
150:
143:
126:
115:
109:
106:
63:
61:
51:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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43:This article
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2516:Eastern Bloc
2459:Soviet Union
2412:East Germany
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2270:Nazi Germany
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2018:
2011:
1994:Czechoslovak
1992:Timeline of
1953:VONS, Prague
1904:
1897:
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1884:Bibliography
1870:
1843:
1831:
1820:
1808:. Retrieved
1770:
1761:
1751:
1744:
1737:
1730:
1718:
1706:Please help
1701:verification
1698:
1618:
1604:anti-Semitic
1601:
1578:
1549:
1541:
1536:assimilation
1533:
1529:black market
1521:
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1514:
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1485:
1462:
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1446:World War II
1427:
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1412:population.
1401:
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1163:human rights
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978:Gustáv Husák
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834:On 27 June,
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770:Jozef Lenart
762:
755:
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680:Cooperatives
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658:West Germany
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545:West Germany
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536:rubber stamp
532:
520:Soviet Union
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472:Edvard Beneš
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430:Iron Curtain
414:Eastern Bloc
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52:Please help
47:verification
44:
2521:Warsaw Pact
2497:Byelorussia
2268:Annexed by
2090:Sudetenland
2055:1993–
1621:Sudetenland
1597:Middle Ages
1442:Sudetenland
1438:deportation
1321:perestroika
1217:manuscripts
1174:West German
1096:in 1984 to
994:Vasil Bilak
944:set himself
900:Alois Indra
654:coal mining
603:show trials
528:Warsaw Pact
418:Warsaw Pact
275:Coup d'état
149:History of
2541:Categories
2432:Yugoslavia
2326:Oblast of
2311:(ČSR) and
1947:, Budapest
1920:, in Czech
1810:28 October
1734:newspapers
1680:References
1611:centers".
1409:linguistic
1403:Slovakia,
1392:Hungarians
1386:Hungarians
1350:Minorities
1291:Unlike in
1266:missionary
1170:Charter 77
1074:humanities
990:hardliners
941:Jan Palach
743:Bratislava
719:Spartakiad
646:metallurgy
80:newspapers
2483:1982–1991
2478:1964–1982
2473:1953–1964
2468:1927–1953
2463:1917–1927
2376:Communist
2299:1948 coup
1997:statehood
1552:Ukrainian
1430:expulsion
1428:With the
1376:Ukrainian
1372:expulsion
1242:Clergymen
1178:manifesto
1155:Final Act
1065:president
986:centrists
974:Presidium
856:Ukrainian
758:Stalinism
488:socialism
435:The 1993
392:in 1989,
335:1990–1992
325:1989–1992
289:1948–1989
268:1945–1948
258:1939–1945
248:1939–1945
237:1939–1945
226:1938–1945
216:1938–1939
196:1918–1938
2402:Bulgaria
2193:Slovakia
2171:Slovakia
2013:Pre-1918
1764:May 2007
1668:See also
1635:. These
1327:glasnost
1282:pilgrims
1278:Velehrad
1274:cardinal
1250:samizdat
1238:religion
1236:Because
1209:samizdat
1148:and the
1090:samizdat
1051:and the
988:and the
982:centrist
623:executed
557:syphilis
300:Invasion
140:a series
138:Part of
2526:Comecon
2502:Ukraine
2427:Romania
2417:Hungary
2397:Albania
2328:Ukraine
2320:of the
2285:Hungary
2281:Annexed
2072:Silesia
2068:Moravia
2064:Bohemia
1748:scholar
1625:Jesenik
1609:Zionist
1589:Bohemia
1585:Yiddish
1565:Uniates
1497:Ostrava
1493:strikes
1488:liberal
1434:Germans
1432:of the
1424:Germans
1339:Slovaks
1314:of the
1297:dissent
1268:to the
992:led by
860:Belarus
781:Ota Šik
721:in 1960
605:(e.g.,
549:Austria
518:of the
422:Comecon
420:and of
388:to the
94:scholar
2422:Poland
2378:period
2318:Oblast
2315:(SSR).
2143:Second
1867:.
1750:
1743:
1736:
1729:
1721:
1650:Vlachs
1637:Greeks
1615:Greeks
1581:Jewish
1523:Pravda
1476:Poland
1368:German
1360:Slovak
1293:Poland
1286:Levoca
1264:, the
882:, and
739:Prague
685:kulaks
652:, and
568:Moscow
443:was a
142:on the
96:
89:
82:
75:
67:
1755:JSTOR
1741:books
1658:Urums
1556:Rusyn
1464:Poles
1459:Poles
1356:Czech
1270:Slavs
980:, (a
402:Czech
101:JSTOR
87:books
1812:2016
1727:news
1575:Jews
1554:and
1503:Roma
1358:nor
1258:Pope
1201:VONS
867:and
741:and
690:The
547:and
459:The
345:1992
314:1989
304:1968
279:1948
206:1938
186:1918
176:1918
73:news
2283:by
1710:by
1660:or
1310:as
410:KSČ
56:by
2543::
2461::
2457:/
1943:,
1874:.
1850:.
1790:^
1664:.
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1648:,
1644:,
1599:.
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1303:.
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1165:.
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807:.
760:.
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2330:.
2324:.
2301:.
2272:.
2266:.
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1978:t
1971:v
1878:.
1814:.
1777:)
1771:(
1766:)
1762:(
1752:·
1745:·
1738:·
1731:·
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400:(
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117:(
112:)
108:(
98:·
91:·
84:·
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20:)
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