Mahdist State - Knowledge (XXG)

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oppressive government. In Darfur, rebellions against Abdallahi ibn Muhammad's rule broke out because he was ordering Darfurians to migrate north to better defend the Mahdist State, while favoring the Baggara over other Darfurian ethnicities in regards to government positions. The main resistance was led by religious leader Abu Jimeiza of the Tama tribe in western Darfur. The opposition to the Mahdist government was also fuelled by many Mahdists behaving arrogantly and abusive towards the locals. Several states bordering the Mahdist State to the west began to provide the Darfurian rebels with troops and other support. Faced with a growing number of rebels, the Mahdist rule in Darfur gradually collapsed. The Mahdist era became known as the

90: 76: 910: 1605:, or commander, of the Egyptian army and started preparations for the reconquest of Sudan. The British thought they needed to occupy Sudan in part because of international developments. By the early 1890s, British, French, and Belgian claims had converged at the Nile headwaters. Britain feared that the other colonial powers would take advantage of Sudan's instability to acquire territory previously annexed to Egypt. Apart from these political considerations, Britain wanted to establish control over the Nile to safeguard a planned irrigation dam at Aswan. 1941: 748: 990: 2228:, p. 17: "The Mahdist administration centred around the person of the Khalifa Abdullah, both as the ultimate authority as well as the prime mover of the administrative system and initiator of policy. It has been noted that the Khalifa used to consult with his closest aides (such as his brother Ya'qub, and son 'Uthman Shaykh al-Din), and occasionally call for a meeting of the 'State Council'—apparently an advisory council—to which the Mahdi's surviving companions were invited." 454: 925: 707: 429: 1154: 1877:

steamers that acted as the state's navy. In general, the Mahdist armies were highly motivated by their belief system. Exploiting this, the Mahdist commanders used their riflemen to screen charges by their melee infantry and cavalry. Such attacks often proved effective, but also led to extremely high losses when employed "unimaginatively". The Europeans generally called the Mahdist soldiers "dervishes".

1121: 468: 978:, or public treasury, began to disburse funds to the poor, becoming a social services organization. Those women captured in the siege who had surviving male relatives or husbands were released to the same, but the many captives without a male guardian addled the Mahdist ideal of female seclusion. The Mahdi prescribed that they should be "married", and himself took three wives. 1702:

warfare. Before the revolt, roughly 8 million people lived in Sudan; an Egyptian census afterwards recorded barely 2.5 million. Moreover, none of the country's traditional institutions or loyalties remained intact. Tribes had been divided in their attitudes toward Mahdism, religious brotherhoods had been weakened, and orthodox religious leaders had vanished.

1897:. After the Mahdi's death, the command of the "Black Flag" was passed to Abdallahi ibn Muhammad's brother Yaqub and became the state's main army, based at the capital Omdurman. As the Mahdist State expanded, provincial commanders raised new armies with separate standards which were modelled on the main armies. The most elite forces within the Mahdist armies were the 1889:("flags") in accordance to their standards. The "Black Flag" was mostly recruited from western Sudanese, mainly Baggara, and commanded by Abdallahi ibn Muhammad. The "Red Flag" was led by Muhammad al-Sharif and mostly consisted of riverine recruits from the north. The "Green Flag" under Ali Hilu included troops drawn from the southern tribes living between the 1762:(almsgiving) became the tax paid to the state, a significant portion of which was allocated towards sustaining the extravagant lifestyles of the movement's leaders. The Mahdi outlawed foreign innovations, including Western medicine, and expulsed all doctors. His government reluctantly incorporated foreign military technology, and initially staffed itself with 1854: 3451: 2101:. The most senior military leadership preferred the most simple designs, however, to indicate their piety. The Khalifa wore plain white. Some Mahdist troops possessed mail armour, helmets, and quilted coats, although these were more often used in parades than in combat. One unit within the Mahdist armies, the 646:. The name was something of a misnomer: the Egyptians recruited local Sudanese for initially low-level, and then later quite high-level official posts. Egyptian control integrated Sudan into global commercial networks, but Egypt's trans-Mediterranean links proved a doubled-edged sword. In 1869, the 2117:

The Mahdist State and its armies had no uniform flags, but still used certain designs repeatedly. Most flags carried four lines of Arabic texts which signified allegiance to God, Muhammad, and the Mahdi. The flags were usually white with colored borders, and the text displayed in varying colors. Most

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On 2 September 1898, the Khalifa committed his 52,000-man army to a frontal assault against the Anglo-Egyptian force, which was massed on the plain outside Omdurman. The outcome was never in doubt, largely because of superior British firepower. During the five-hour battle, about 11,000 Mahdists died,

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flood to recede before attacking the poorly defended river approach to Khartoum in boats, slaughtering the garrison, killing Gordon, and delivering his head to the Mahdi's tent. Kassala and Sennar fell soon after, and by the end of 1885, the Ansar had begun to move into the southern region. In all of

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in November 1899. Although the Khalifa had retained considerable support until his death, many areas welcomed the downfall of his regime. Sudan's economy had been all but destroyed during his reign and the population had declined by approximately one-half because of famine, disease, persecution, and

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and in the south. To avoid being drawn into a costly military intervention, the British government ordered an Egyptian withdrawal from Sudan. Gordon, who had received a reappointment as governor general, arranged to supervise the evacuation of Egyptian troops and officials and all foreigners from

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In 1895, the British government authorized Kitchener to launch a campaign to reconquer Sudan. Britain provided men and materiel while Egypt financed the expedition. The Anglo-Egyptian Nile Expeditionary Force included 25,800 men, 8,600 of whom were British. The remainder were troops belonging to

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The Mahdists destroyed Ottoman Khartoum, building a new capital across the river at Omdurman. All buildings were demolished and ransacked; when the British rebuilt the town 15 years later, no Ottoman-style architecture remained. The newly-captured wealth may have wrought a change in Mahdist

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as the foundational sources of Islam, creating a just society. Specifically relating to Sudan, he claimed its poverty was a virtue and denounced worldly wealth and luxury. For Muhammad Ahmad, Egypt was an example of wealth leading to impious behavior. Muhammad Ahmad's calls for an uprising found

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and some tribal units lived in military barracks, while the rest were more akin to militia. The Mahdist armies also possessed limited artillery, including mountain guns and even machine guns. However, these were few in numbers, and thus only used as defenses for important towns and to the river

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destroyed. The state's administration was first properly organized under Khalifa Abdallahi ibn Muhammad who attempted to use the Islamic law to unify the different peoples of Sudan. However, Khalifa Abdallahi maintained several commonalities with the (disorganized) regime of his predecessor.

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As the Mahdist government became more stable and well-organized, it began to implement taxes and implement its policies throughout its territories. This negatively impacted its popularity in much of Sudan, as many locals had joined the Mahdists to gain autonomy while removing a centralist and

549:, which was dominated by Egyptians and Turks. The Khartoum government initially dismissed the Mahdi's revolution; he defeated two expeditions sent to capture him in the course of a year. The Mahdi's power increased, and his call spread throughout Sudan, with his movement becoming known as the 1750:

The Mahdiyah (Mahdist regime) has become known as the first genuine Sudanese nationalist government. However, the Mahdi maintained that his movement was not a religious order that could be accepted or rejected at will, but that it was a universal regime, which challenged man to join or to be

1714:, continued to resist the Anglo-Egyptian forces until captured in January 1900. However, the most long-lasting Mahdist holdouts survived in Darfur, despite the fact that Mahdist rule had already been collapsing there before the Anglo-Egyptian reconquest. The holdouts were concentrated at 941:

After reaching Khartoum in February 1884, Gordon soon decided he could not extricate the garrisons, and called for reinforcements. The British government repeatedly refused to provide them, but Gordon disobeyed orders, preparing for a siege, and eventually British popular support forced

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amongst his men, and his chief lieutenant had married a close relation to the Mahdi. Slatin was captured in 1883, and more Darfuri tribes consequently joined the revolutionaries. Mahdist forces soon took control of most of Darfur. At first, the regime change was very popular in Darfur.

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to present himself as another prophet; and the elites in other tribes owed him no personal loyalty. Quickly, he purged the Mahdiyah of the Mahdi's family and many of his early religious disciples. But he remained wary, and even the slightest hint of disloyalty in a tribe could spark

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In 1873, the British government therefore supported a programme whereby an Anglo-French debt commission assumed responsibility for managing Egypt's fiscal affairs. To appease the commission, the Egyptians allowed Christian missionaries to proselytize throughout the Sudan. Meanwhile,

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Abdallahi's new rule demanded a legitimating principle. Some of the Mahdiya's new conquests still hoped for a return of Turkish rule; others were rapidly alienated by increasing autocracy; and yet others claimed themselves new divinely-inspired prophets. Abdallahi—now called the

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standards of behavior: according to his enemies, "publicly continued to urge moderation on his followers, but in private he indulged in Turkish sensualities." His companions may have behaved similarly. Certainly, the Mahdist administration responded to its new finances. The

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Regional relations remained tense throughout much of the Mahdiyah period, largely because of the Khalifa's commitment to using jihad to extend his version of Islam throughout the world. For example, the Khalifa rejected an offer of an alliance against the Europeans by

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The Mahdi modified Islam's five pillars to support the dogma that loyalty to him was essential to true belief. The Mahdi also added the declaration "and Muhammad Ahmad is the Mahdi of God and the representative of His Prophet" to the recitation of the creed, the

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revived, although not enough to satisfy the merchants whom Gordon had bankrupted. The Sudanese army suffered from a lack of resources, and unemployed soldiers from disbanded units troubled garrison towns. Tax collectors arbitrarily increased taxation.

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Egyptian units that included six battalions recruited in southern Sudan. An armed river flotilla escorted the force, which also had artillery support. In preparation for the attack, the British established an army headquarters at the former rail head

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and seized their rifles, field guns and ammunition. The Mahdi followed up this victory by laying siege to Al Ubayyid and starving it into submission after four months. The Ansar, 30,000 men strong, then defeated an 8,000-man Egyptian relief force at

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over members of his own clan. Nevertheless, the three caliphs, each supported by people of his native region, continued to jockey until 1891, when Abdallahi achieved unchallenged supremacy, with the help primarily of the Baqqara Arabs.

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As time went on and the Mahdist State became better organized under Khalifa Abdallahi ibn Muhammad's leadership, its armies became more and more professional. By the 1890s factories in Omdurman and provincial centers were mass-producing

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Muhammad Ahmad's early insurgent force which was mostly recruited among the poor Arab communities living at the Nile. The later armies of the Mahdiyah were recruited among various groups, including mostly autonomous groups such as the

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The Mahdist State had a large military which became increasingly professional as time went on. From an early point, the Mahdist armies recruited defectors from the Egyptian Army and organized professional soldiers in the form of the

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consequently had to crush the Mahdist loyalists in a series of lengthy wars. The Kabkabiya holdout under Sanin Husain persisted until 1909, when it was destroyed by the Sultanate of Darfur after a siege of 17 or 18 months.

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to Wadi Halfa. The Sudanese system retains the incompatible gauge to this day.) Anglo-Egyptian units fought a sharp action at Abu Hamad, but there was little other significant resistance until Kitchener reached

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subsequently retreated to Omdurman, but encountered a large Anglo-Egyptian fleet on the way and surrendered. The Mahdist navy fought its last battle on 11 or 15 September 1898, when the Anglo-Egyptian gunboat

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To the west, the Mahdist uprising was able to count on existing resistance movements. The Turkish rule of Darfur had been resented by locals, and several rebels had already begun revolts. Baggara rebels under

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dismissed him as a religious fanatic. The Egyptian government paid more attention when his religious zeal turned to denunciation of tax collectors. To avoid arrest, the Mahdi and a party of his followers, the

2057:. As a result, the core army of the Mahdi and Abdallahi ibn Muhammad had a relatively regulated appearance from an early point. In contrast, other armies of supporters and allies initially did not adopt the 981:

The Mahdi also struggled to delegate responsibilities. Justice was slow, as court decisions required his personal approval; and he continued to command his officers in the field even as he fell ill.

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of lists of pedigrees and books of law and theology because of their association with the old order and because he believed that the former accentuated tribalism at the expense of religious unity.

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In 1881, Muhammad Ahmad proclaimed himself the Mahdi ("expected one"). Some of his most dedicated followers regarded him as directly inspired by Allah. He wanted Muslims to reclaim the

1987:, were salvaged by the Mahdists. The captured steamboats were armed with light artillery pieces, and crewed by Egyptians as well as Sudanese. The Mahdist navy also used supply ships. 4027: 3108:, "Mahdi Revolt" entry. "The Khalifah forbade the traditional Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca and now insisted that pilgrimage to the Mahdi's tomb in Omdurman was the new sacred duty." 592:

and famine, war and disease reduced the population by more than half. Muhammad Ahmad al-Mahdi declared all people who did not accept him as the awaited Mahdi to be infidels (

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still varied in their style, with certain tribes and armies favoring certain patterns and colors, the Mahdist forces became increasingly professional in appearance. The

792:. From a refuge in the area, he wrote appeals to the sheikhs of the religious orders and won active support or assurances of neutrality from all except the pro-Egyptian 2608: 1979:. In addition, several armed steamboats which had been supposed to aid Charles Gordon's besieged force were wrecked and abandoned in 1885. At least two of these, the 1062:, and captured prisoners and booty. The Khalifa then refused to conclude peace with Ethiopia. In March 1889, an Ethiopian force, commanded by the emperor, marched on 1003:(22 June 1885). The task of establishing and maintaining a government fell to his deputies—three caliphs chosen by the Mahdi in emulation of the Islamic prophet 2259:

Estimates cite that the population of Sudan fell from seven million before the Mahdist revolt to between two and three million after the end of the Mahdist era.

1805:. Although he failed to restore this region's commercial wellbeing, the Khalifa organized workshops to manufacture ammunition and to maintain river steamboats. 892:

The advance of the Ansar and the Hadendowa rising in the east imperiled communications with Egypt and threatened to cut off garrisons at Khartoum, Kassala,

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The Mahdist navy emerged during the early rebellion, as the insurgents took control of boats operating on the Nile. In May 1884, the Mahdists captured the

562: 1584: 3009:, Ch. 6. "Having revised his aversion to infidel technology, the Mahdi issued the six thousand Remingtons to Khalifa Abdullahi and his Baggara." 768:

great appeal among the poorest communities along the Nile, as it combined a nationalist, anti-Egyptian agenda with fundamentalist religious certainty.

4017: 1901:, Abdallahi ibn Muhammad's bodyguards. Commanded by Uthman Shaykh al-Din, these were based at the capital and 10,000 strong, most armed with rifles. 1520: 534:. Thus, from 1885 the Mahdist government maintained sovereignty and control over the Sudanese territories until its existence was terminated by the 1786:(the latter forbidden in Islam) were all part of contemporary Sudanese culture; the Mahdist regime acted to strictly prohibit them. The Ottoman 3672:"'Transborder' Exchanges of People, Things and Representations: Revisiting the Conflict between Mahdist Sudan and Christian Ethiopia, 1885–1889" 4012: 717: 103: 1427: 3497: 3418: 3397: 3376: 3334: 3315: 2528: 2291: 2252: 2145: 1598: 1026:(successor)—could not unite his followers against foreigners, as the foreignors had already been defeated and expulsed. The Khalifa was too 1735: 943: 2309: 1710:

Even though the Mahdist State factually ceased to exist after Umm Diwaykarat, some Mahdist holdouts continued to persist. One officer,

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The Mahdi's direct family did not participate in the Mahdist resistance, and instead regained substantial power during the remaining

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on the Nile near Omdurman to block the advance of Anglo-British gunboats. One mine accidentally exploded, destroying the ship. The

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The Mahdiya's consistent military success also helped consolidate Ahmad's power. Following the battle at Sheikan, he ordered all

1257: 1115: 600: 2316: 1885:. The early forces of the Mahdi were termed the "ansar", and divided into three units led by a Khalifa. These units were termed 909: 3744: 2673:, "Mahdi Revolt" entry. "Khartoum was left in ruins, overgrown with weeds, littered with bones, and looted of anything useful" 1417: 1389: 1384: 1351: 75: 3997: 3564: 1577: 1174: 2876: 2580: 1560: 1343: 844:

Early in 1882, the Ansar, armed with spears and swords, overwhelmed a British-led 7,000-man Egyptian force not far from

1422: 814:, run like a military camp. The Mahdiyah equalized its male citizenry in totalitarian asceticism, mandating communal 82:

One of the flags of the Mahdi movement; most Mahdist flags varied in color but were similar to this one in their style.

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courts enforced Islamic law and the Mahdi's precepts, which had the force of law. A contemporary scout on behalf of

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Abū-Salīm, Muḥammad Ibrāhīm; Vikør, Knut S. (1991). "The Man who Believed in the Mahdi".

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Mopping-up operations required several years, but organized resistance ended when the Khalifa, who had escaped to

4032: 3467: 1570: 1490: 1366: 1133: 1830:, or prayerbook. After the Mahdi's death, the Khalifa attempted to argue that a visit to his tomb replaced the 3992: 3987: 3639:"Confronting a Christian Neighbor: Sudanese Representations of Ethiopia in the early Mahdist Period, 1885–1889" 2337:, "Mahdi Revolt" entry. "Most history books skip the next fifteen years because the British weren't involved" 2138: 1940: 1698: 1656: 1622: 1310: 744:

of the order, Muhammad Ahmad spent several years in seclusion and gained a reputation as a mystic and teacher.

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The debt commission eventually forced the Khedive to abdicate in 1877 for his more politically acceptable son,

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and extended and reinforced the perimeter defenses around Sawakin. In March 1896, the campaign started as the

747: 1071: 4002: 1666: 1640: 1055: 946: 710: 3866: 2176:, but Angus Konstam argued that there is no evidence that either vessel was salvaged, with remnants of the 2051:

At the start of his insurgency, the Mahdi encouraged his followers to wear similar clothing in form of the

1074:, the Khalifa's best general, invaded Egypt in 1889, but British-led Egyptian troops defeated the Ansar at 3816: 1008: 993: 950: 866: 752: 720:, who combined personal charisma with a religious and political mission, emerged, determined to expel the 578: 570: 213: 953:. The force arrived too late: the first troops on steamboat reached Khartoum on 28 January 1885, to find 733: 569:, and Gordon was killed in his palace. The Mahdi did not live long after this victory, and his successor 530:-Egyptian administration and established their own "Islamic and national" government with its capital in 2710: 2602: 1990:

In October 1898, parts of the Mahdist navy were sent up the White Nile to assist the expedition against

1722:), Dar Taaisha (led by Arabi Dafalla), and Dar Masalit (led by Sultan Abuker Ismail). The reestablished 1495: 914: 663: 654:

in India and the Far East. To defend this waterway, Britain sought a greater role in Egyptian affairs.

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and subjugated it as a source of human and material resources. This period became locally known as the

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Mahdist Sudan's approximate territory in 1894 (light green) and approximate maximum limits (dark green).

2010:, towing barges with 2,000 to 3,000 soldiers, were sent up the Blue Nile against French forces holding 1872:, mostly Black Sudanese. These were supported by tribal spearmen and swordsmen as well as cavalry. The 573:

consolidated the new state, with administrative and judiciary systems based on their interpretation of

565:. Months after his arrival in Khartoum and after several battles with the Mahdi rebels, Mahdist forces 1793:

The Khalifa instituted appointed Ansar (usually Baqqara) as amirs over each of the several provinces.

989: 4007: 3841: 3821: 3776: 1525: 1462: 1287: 1267: 1223: 1007:. Rivalry among the three had begun even before the Mahdi's death, when he had unequivocally favored 667: 604: 554: 535: 447: 434: 385: 1153: 3806: 2579:

Google's in-text search cannot find the quote in either source, although this may be due to failed

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chief Madibo (Madibbu 'Ali) pledged themselves to the Mahdi and besieged Darfur's Governor-General

796:. Merchants and Arab tribes that had depended on the slave trade responded as well, along with the 461: 235: 3557:

The Mahdist State in the Sudan, 1881–1898 : a study of its origins, development and overthrow

3658: 2312:, World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Sudan : Copts, 2008, available at: 1802: 1715: 1683: 1614: 1500: 1070:, the Ethiopians withdrew. Overall, the war with Ethiopia mostly wasted the Mahdists' resources. 1067: 850: 833: 671: 643: 519: 132: 737: 3671: 3638: 2705:

to substantiate these claims. Ohrwalder's book is not the eyewitness account it claims to be;

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and defeated the Ansar. After this engagement, Kitchener's soldiers marched and sailed toward

1618: 1530: 1457: 954: 924: 566: 367: 261: 152: 2985: 2275: 2242: 1840:. The Mahdi justified these as responses to instructions conveyed to him by God in visions. 1036: 853:. In these actions, the Ansar overcame an earlier aversion to the use of European weaponry ( 3961: 3926: 3896: 3811: 3650: 2981: 2283: 2127: 2062: 1945: 1675: 1535: 1247: 1193: 1142: 694: 659: 581:, who composed a substantial portion of the country's population, were forced to convert to 375: 2280:

The Public Treasury of the Muslims: Monthly Budgets of the Mahdist State in the Sudan, 1897

1801:, while internal provinces funded military expenditures. The Khalifa also ruled over rich 3966: 3921: 3916: 2880: 2320: 1779: 1485: 1235: 1169: 1075: 936: 929: 639: 126: 47: 2863:, Vol. 1, p. 99. Harrison & Sons (London), 1905. Accessed 13 Feb 2014. 2859: 1665:) gauge, hastily adopted to make use of available rolling stock, meant supplies from the 3620:

The Formation of the Sudanese Mahdist State: Ceremony and Symbols of Authority 1882–1898

1078:. The failure of the Egyptian invasion ended the myth of the Ansars' invincibility. The 706: 17: 3946: 3931: 3911: 3891: 3886: 3846: 3429: 1783: 1602: 1550: 1540: 1515: 1510: 862: 721: 651: 527: 381: 371: 358: 183: 3576:"Sufi in War: Persian influence on African weaponry in the 19th century Mahdist Sudan" 557:

broke out in Egypt, with the British occupying the country in 1882. Britain appointed

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also indicated a fighter's rank within the Mahdist armies. Lower-ranking commanders (

1739: 1731: 1211: 1164: 1058:(1871–1889). In 1887, a 60,000-man Ansar army invaded Ethiopia, penetrated as far as 918: 781: 670:

squarely opposed the traditional Sudanese economy, which was coming to center on the

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as governor-general of the Sudan. Gordon's (and the general British) commitment to

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The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan: A Compendium Prepared by Officers of the Sudan Government

2714: 1809: 1738:, the most recent fair and free elections as of 2024, mainly on the support of the 1719: 1120: 686: 682: 354: 297: 3060:

claims (without citation) that the Mahdist regime outlawed all Western technology.

2805:, "Mahdi Revolt" entry. "Abdullahi brought the whole of Sudan under his control" 2180:

still visible in 1909, reportedly where it had sunk under Anglo-Egyptian service.

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and maintained their traditional appearances. Riverine forces recruited from the

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but in practice as a colony. However, remnants of the Mahdist State held out in

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only for lack of any other literate officials. Later, it severely persecuted

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whereas Anglo-Egyptian losses amounted to 48 dead and fewer than 400 wounded.

1644: 1631:) gauge railway south along the east bank of the Nile, Kitchener captured the 1610: 1027: 967: 886: 845: 818:; and firmly excluded women from all public space. The Mahdi dissolved all 793: 647: 510:, was a state based on a religious and political movement launched in 1881 by 3715: 3702: 3591: 2873: 2105:, adopted a full uniform, as all their members wore identical white-red-blue 2018:

broke down and was exposed to heavy fire before being towed to safety by the

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Mohammed Ahmed al-Mahdi enlisted the people of Sudan in what he declared a

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since 1821. After four years of struggle, the Mahdist rebels overthrew the

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units were further split into "standards" of 100 led by officers known as

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was eventually captured when Omdurman fell to the Anglo-Egyptian forces.

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Inside Insurgency: Violence, Civilians, and Revolutionary Group Behavior

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under his control to disband, lest they divide the Ansar ideologically.

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described the land as "a burning country, dying and reeking of death".

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Six months after the capture of Khartoum, the Mahdi died, probably of

3936: 3906: 3856: 3771: 2697:, Ch. 9. "The Mahdi's emirs took the best gardens in Khartoum" 1763: 1755: 1059: 1044: 1023: 1013: 1000: 897: 893: 878: 874: 829: 764: 741: 608: 574: 194: 3729: 3575: 2364: 2362: 2014:

on 25 August 1898. There, the two ships attacked the fort, but the

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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the

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Darfur's Sorrow: The Forgotten History of a Humanitarian Disaster

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According to Roger Branfill-Cook, the Mahdists also salvaged the

3786: 1832: 958: 820: 685:(reigned 1877–1892). In 1879, Egypt fell into the chaos of the 3733: 1916:, one sword- and spear-wielding infantry, and one cavalry. The 3601:

Holy City on the Nile: Omdurman During the Mahdiyya, 1885–1898

854: 2457:(Fifth ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. p. 114. 596:), ordered their killing and took their women and property. 3574:

Pradines, Stephane; Khorasani, Manouchehr Moshtagh (2018).

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on the northern frontier remained in Anglo-Egyptian hands.

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The Mahdist Wars Source Book: Vol. 2: Comprising Materials

1908:("quarters") consisting of 800 to 1200 fighters. In turn, 1826:, and also required twice-daily recitation of the Mahdi's 650:

opened and quickly became a key economic lifeline for the

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Abu Shouk, Ahmad Ibrahim; Bjørkelo, Anders, eds. (1996).

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was badly damaged before being boarded and captured. The

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gives the quote with less context, but mistakenly cites

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near Reng. The two ships fought a short battle, and the

1086:, and in 1893, the Italians repulsed an Ansar attack at 630:

From the early 19th century, Egypt had begun to conquer

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Lobban, Richard A. Jr.; Dalton, Christopher H. (2014),

3350:(2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3147: 3145: 3143: 3118: 3116: 3114: 2492: 2490: 2488: 2486: 2484: 2482: 2480: 2478: 2476: 2474: 2424: 2422: 2420: 2418: 1912:

were split into four sections, one administrative, one

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by September. The next year, the British constructed a

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boatbuilder, Muhammad Ahmad had become the disciple of

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reprisals. Abdallahi's massacre of the grain-farming

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tribe strained Sudan's food supply, and then an 1888

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to mobilize a relief force under the command of Lord

803:, who were rallied to the Mahdi by an Ansar captain, 3482:

Sidahmed, Abdel Salam; Sidahmed, Alsir (2005).

2986:"The geopolitical underpinnings of Sudan's collapse" 2817: 2815: 2349: 2347: 55: 3509:

Atrocitology: Humanity's 100 Deadliest Achievements

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Darfur's Political Economy: A quest for development

3013:. For a long quote exhibiting this mentality, see 482: 394: 347: 333: 323: 312: 294: 281: 271: 258: 245: 231: 223: 207: 193: 177: 163: 151: 141: 119: 109: 99: 34: 3431:The Mahdi of Sudan and the Death of General Gordon 3428: 2314:http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/49749ca6c.html 2085:to provide the troops with clothing. Although the 1094:) and forced the Ansar to withdraw from Ethiopia. 3547:Holt, P. M. "The Mahdia in the Sudan, 1881–1898" 3460:Thomas Ofcansky. "Sudan: The Mahdiyah, 1884–98". 2701:However, Green relies uncritically on Ohrwalder, 3081: 2774: 2397: 2368: 2225: 3511:. Canongate Books (published 1 November 2011). 2118:military units had their own individual flags. 957:two days earlier. The Ansar had waited for the 2789:, Ch. 9. "Then he turned on his allies" 2453:Cleveland, William L.; Bunton, Martin (2013). 1066:; however, after Yohannes fell in the ensuing 4028:States and territories disestablished in 1899 3745: 3683:. The (Virtual) Armchair General Publishing. 3389:Queen Victoria's Enemies (2): Northern Africa 3176: 2282:. The Ottoman Empire and its heritage, v. 5. 1998:was sunk on 17 August 1898 as it was placing 1578: 1102:in Darfur—the "period of chaos and anarchy". 873:in the khedive's service, at Dara. Slatin's 603:in 1898, ruling it after that in theory as a 545:against the administration that was based in 8: 3643:International Journal of Middle East Studies 3327:River Gunboats: An Illustrated Encyclopaedia 2941: 2607:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2236: 2234: 751:A 20 qurush coin minted during the reign of 693:, and Sudanese discontent grew rapidly. The 39: 3392:(3rd ed.). Oxford: Osprey Publishing. 2305: 2303: 1047:, even as it continued wars of conquest. 4023:States and territories established in 1885 3752: 3738: 3730: 2330: 2328: 2269: 2267: 1585: 1571: 1127: 1082:prevented the Mahdi's men from conquering 88: 31: 2247:. New York University Press. p. 37. 1617:. Despite taking the time to reconstruct 588:Sudan's economy was destroyed during the 2703:Ten Years' Captivity in the Mahdi's Camp 2523:. New York, NY: Free Press. Ch. 5. 1669:required transshipment via steamer from 1112:Mahdist War § Return of the British 966:, reinforced by Indian army troops, and 3263: 3251: 3236: 3224: 3212: 3200: 3188: 2897:(second ed.). Granada. p. 9. 2567:. New York: MacMillan. pp. 161–171 2193: 2157: 1754:The Mahdist regime imposed traditional 1471: 1448: 1300: 1183: 1160: 1141: 1130: 311: 3287: 3275: 3151: 3134: 3122: 3093: 3069: 3053: 3026: 3014: 2968: 2893:T. B. Harbottle, George Bruce (1979). 2762: 2738: 2726: 2706: 2682: 2658: 2634: 2600: 2556: 2506: 2440: 2428: 2409: 2385: 2353: 2213: 1904:The "flags" were further divided into 775:, or holy war, against the Egyptians, 718:Muhammad Ahmad ibn as Sayyid Abd Allah 3105: 3057: 3041: 3006: 2802: 2786: 2750: 2694: 2670: 2622: 2584: 2334: 2146:Millennarianism in colonial societies 1820:. The government enforced mandatory 1736:1986 Sudanese parliamentary elections 728:to its original purity. The son of a 332: 322: 318: 293: 280: 270: 257: 244: 240: 206: 202: 192: 176: 172: 162: 7: 3649:(2). Cambridge University: 247–267. 3580:Journal of Asian and African Studies 2953: 1043:broke it entirely. Sudan fell into 2929: 2917: 2883:". 2008. Accessed 13 Feb 2014. 2845: 2833: 2821: 2709:, p. xxiii notes that British 2646: 2455:A history of the modern Middle East 2310:Minority Rights Group International 2097:) wore more colorful and elaborate 2073:). The Beja also did not adopt the 810:Ahmad's new polity functioned as a 40: 2613:wherein it does not appear either. 1106:Anglo-Egyptian reconquest of Sudan 771:Even after the Mahdi proclaimed a 25: 3329:. Barnsley: Seaforth Publishing. 2996:from the original on 16 May 2024. 2895:Harbottle's Dictionary of Battles 1734:. A descendant of his would win 638:, i.e. the "Turkish" rule by the 4018:1899 disestablishments in Africa 3679:Wilson, Patrick R., ed. (2015). 3449: 2577:. London: Macmillan. p. 89. 2069:mostly wore simple white robes ( 1643:directly across the desert from 1152: 1116:Anglo-Egyptian invasion of Sudan 678:sources were being exhausted. 466: 452: 427: 74: 2574:Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan 1203: 3427:Nicoll, Fergus (19 May 2005). 2543:"The Mahdi inducted recruits" 1808:Abdallahi also authorized the 1601:(later Lord Kitchener) became 553:. During the same period, the 1: 4013:1885 establishments in Africa 3410:Libya: History and Revolution 3371:. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. 3368:Nile River Gunboats 1882–1918 3325:Branfill-Cook, Roger (2018). 1651:, which they captured in the 1199: 716:In this troubled atmosphere, 3603:. Markus Wiener Publishers. 3536:, iUniverse, 30 April 2004, 3488:. Contemporary Middle East. 3310:. New York City: Routledge. 3082:Sidahmed & Sidahmed 2005 2872:Sudan Railway Corporation. " 2775:Sidahmed & Sidahmed 2005 2571:Wingate, F. R. (1891). 2398:Sidahmed & Sidahmed 2005 2369:Sidahmed & Sidahmed 2005 2226:Sidahmed & Sidahmed 2005 1944:The Mahdist State fielded a 1857:A Mahdist soldier wearing a 928:The defeat of the Dervishes 826:literal meaning of the Quran 3304:Ali, Hamid Eltgani (2015). 1778:. Ottoman vices, including 877:religion already depressed 512:Muhammad Ahmad bin Abdullah 56: 4054: 3670:Seri-Hersch, Iris (2019). 3637:Seri-Hersch, Iris (2009). 3599:Kramer, Robert S. (2010). 3551:(Mar 1958) 8#3 pp 187–195. 1109: 934: 623: 3767: 3655:10.1017/S0020743809090655 3468:Federal Research Division 3435:. The History Press Ltd. 3344:Daly, Martin W. (2010) . 2521:Three Empires on the Nile 2241:Metelits, Claire (2009). 1682:, where the Khalifa made 1262:c. 9th cent. – 19th cent. 1248:Christian Nubian Kingdoms 563:General-Governor of Sudan 406: 343: 319: 308: 241: 219: 203: 189: 173: 87: 71: 66: 2992:. §The rise of the RSF. 2942:Lobban & Dalton 2014 2139:In Desert and Wilderness 1658:3 ft 6 in 1624:3 ft 6 in 740:Sufi order. Later, as a 285:Battle of Umm Diwaykarat 273:• Sudan Convention 27:1885–1899 Sudanese state 18:History of Mahdist Sudan 3507:White, Matthew (2011). 3365:Konstam, Angus (2016). 3179:, Sudan, Mahdist State. 2519:Green, Dominic (2007). 2319:17 October 2012 at the 2286:. pp. xvii–xviii. 1655:on 7 August 1897. (The 1072:Abd ar Rahman an Nujumi 1056:Yohannes IV of Ethiopia 784:, made a long march to 711:Muhammad Ahmad al-Mahdi 3534:Short History of Sudan 2276:"A note on currencies" 1957: 1864: 1790:was also forbidden. 1697:, died in fighting at 1252:6th cent. – 15th cent. 1125: 1009:Abdallahi ibn Muhammad 996: 994:Abdallahi ibn Muhammad 985:Abdallahi ibn Muhammad 951:Garnet Joseph Wolseley 932: 921: 867:Rudolf Carl von Slatin 756: 753:Abdallahi ibn Muhammad 713: 605:condominium with Egypt 571:Abdallahi ibn Muhammad 214:Abdallahi ibn Muhammad 3998:19th century in Sudan 3716:15.64833°N 32.48417°E 3532:Fadlalla, Mohamed H. 3386:Knight, Ian (2005) . 3056:, pp. 267–268. 2874:Historical Background 2857:Gleichen, Edward ed. 2711:military intelligence 2559:, p. 79, citing 1948:, including captured 1943: 1856: 1797:provinces were under 1218: – 16th cent. BC 1124:Charging Mahdist army 1123: 992: 927: 912: 750: 709: 664:Charles George Gordon 662:appointed the Briton 120:Common languages 3618:Searcy, Kim (2011). 3555:Holt, P. M. (1970). 2879:10 July 2013 at the 2741:, pp. 269, 271. 2561:Bermann, R. (1932). 1956:(pictured in 1900). 1774:in Sudan, including 1288:Anglo-Egyptian Sudan 1268:Turco-Egyptian Sudan 1242: – 4th cent. AD 1230: – 9th cent. BC 1224:New Kingdom of Egypt 905:Conquest of Khartoum 448:Anglo-Egyptian Sudan 435:Turco-Egyptian Sudan 386:Maria Theresa thaler 335:• Post-Mahdist 57:Al-Dawla al-Mahdiyah 3712: / 3203:, pp. 8–9, 15. 3044:, pp. 138–139. 3029:, pp. 156–157. 3017:, pp. 222–224. 2661:, pp. 154–155. 2637:, pp. 188–193. 1724:Sultanate of Darfur 1706:Holdouts and legacy 1653:Battle of Abu Hamed 1344:Democratic Republic 955:the town had fallen 824:, insisting on the 734:Muhammad ash Sharif 695:illegal slave trade 462:Sultanate of Darfur 368:De facto currencies 339:2,000,000–3,000,000 325:• Pre-Mahdist 236:Scramble for Africa 4038:Former theocracies 3877:Mahdiyya caliphate 3721:15.64833; 32.48417 3227:, pp. 12, 15. 3177:Branfill-Cook 2018 2564:The Mahdi of Allah 1971:, followed by the 1958: 1865: 1732:British occupation 1615:Dongola Expedition 1126: 1068:Battle of Gallabat 997: 933: 922: 834:Muhammad as-Sanusi 757: 736:, the head of the 714: 644:Khedivate of Egypt 522:, which had ruled 520:Khedivate of Egypt 133:languages of Sudan 104:Unrecognized state 3975: 3974: 3761:Sahelian kingdoms 3499:978-0-415-27417-3 3420:978-1-4408-2885-0 3399:978-0-85045-937-1 3378:978-1-4728-1476-0 3336:978-1-84832-380-3 3317:978-1-85743-711-9 3278:, pp. 34–35. 3215:, pp. 14–15. 3137:, pp. 36–37. 2982:Yglesias, Matthew 2920:, pp. 46–47. 2836:, pp. 45–46. 2717:much of the work. 2649:, pp. 44–45. 2530:978-0-7432-9895-7 2443:, pp. 73–75. 2412:, pp. 23–24. 2400:, pp. 12–15. 2388:, pp. 18–20. 2371:, pp. 9, 11. 2293:978-90-04-10358-0 2254:978-0-8147-9578-1 1599:Herbert Kitchener 1595: 1594: 1444: 1443: 1405:Republic of Sudan 1377:Republic of Sudan 1321:Republic of Sudan 1296: 1295: 917:at Khartoum", by 840:Advancing attacks 601:reconquered Sudan 579:Coptic Christians 567:captured Khartoum 555:'Urabi revolution 508:Sudanese Mahdiyya 496: 495: 478: 477: 474: 473: 440: 439: 209:• 1885–1899 179:• 1881–1885 16:(Redirected from 4045: 4033:Former countries 3754: 3747: 3740: 3731: 3727: 3726: 3724: 3723: 3722: 3717: 3713: 3710: 3709: 3708: 3705: 3694: 3675: 3666: 3633: 3614: 3595: 3570: 3522: 3503: 3478: 3476: 3474: 3453: 3452: 3446: 3434: 3423: 3403: 3382: 3361: 3340: 3321: 3291: 3285: 3279: 3273: 3267: 3261: 3255: 3249: 3240: 3234: 3228: 3222: 3216: 3210: 3204: 3198: 3192: 3186: 3180: 3174: 3155: 3149: 3138: 3132: 3126: 3120: 3109: 3103: 3097: 3091: 3085: 3079: 3073: 3067: 3061: 3051: 3045: 3039: 3030: 3024: 3018: 3004: 2998: 2997: 2978: 2972: 2966: 2957: 2951: 2945: 2939: 2933: 2927: 2921: 2915: 2909: 2908: 2890: 2884: 2870: 2864: 2855: 2849: 2843: 2837: 2831: 2825: 2819: 2810: 2800: 2794: 2784: 2778: 2772: 2766: 2760: 2754: 2748: 2742: 2736: 2730: 2724: 2718: 2692: 2686: 2680: 2674: 2668: 2662: 2656: 2650: 2644: 2638: 2632: 2626: 2620: 2614: 2612: 2606: 2598: 2578: 2568: 2554: 2548: 2542: 2516: 2510: 2504: 2469: 2468: 2450: 2444: 2438: 2432: 2426: 2413: 2407: 2401: 2395: 2389: 2383: 2372: 2366: 2357: 2351: 2342: 2332: 2323: 2307: 2298: 2297: 2271: 2262: 2261: 2238: 2229: 2223: 2217: 2211: 2181: 2162: 2128:History of Sudan 2031:encountered the 1946:brown-water navy 1667:Egyptian network 1664: 1659: 1630: 1625: 1587: 1580: 1573: 1440: 1367:Second Civil War 1307: 1306: 1216:c. 25th cent. BC 1205: 1201: 1190: 1189: 1156: 1146: 1128: 538:forces in 1898. 514:(later Muhammad 502:, also known as 470: 469: 456: 455: 444: 443: 431: 430: 424: 423: 408: 407: 290:24 November 1899 262:Fall of Khartoum 92: 78: 61: 60: 59: 51: 43: 42: 32: 21: 4053: 4052: 4048: 4047: 4046: 4044: 4043: 4042: 3993:1890s in Africa 3988:1880s in Africa 3978: 3977: 3976: 3971: 3763: 3758: 3720: 3718: 3714: 3711: 3706: 3703: 3701: 3699: 3698: 3691: 3678: 3669: 3636: 3630: 3617: 3611: 3598: 3573: 3567: 3554: 3529: 3527:Further reading 3519: 3506: 3500: 3481: 3472: 3470: 3463:Country Studies 3459: 3450: 3443: 3426: 3421: 3406: 3400: 3385: 3379: 3364: 3358: 3343: 3337: 3324: 3318: 3303: 3300: 3295: 3294: 3286: 3282: 3274: 3270: 3262: 3258: 3250: 3243: 3235: 3231: 3223: 3219: 3211: 3207: 3199: 3195: 3191:, pp. 8–9. 3187: 3183: 3175: 3158: 3150: 3141: 3133: 3129: 3121: 3112: 3104: 3100: 3092: 3088: 3080: 3076: 3068: 3064: 3052: 3048: 3040: 3033: 3025: 3021: 3005: 3001: 2984:(15 May 2024). 2980: 2979: 2975: 2967: 2960: 2952: 2948: 2940: 2936: 2928: 2924: 2916: 2912: 2905: 2892: 2891: 2887: 2881:Wayback Machine 2871: 2867: 2856: 2852: 2844: 2840: 2832: 2828: 2820: 2813: 2801: 2797: 2785: 2781: 2773: 2769: 2761: 2757: 2749: 2745: 2737: 2733: 2725: 2721: 2693: 2689: 2681: 2677: 2669: 2665: 2657: 2653: 2645: 2641: 2633: 2629: 2621: 2617: 2599: 2588: 2570: 2560: 2555: 2551: 2531: 2518: 2517: 2513: 2505: 2472: 2465: 2452: 2451: 2447: 2439: 2435: 2427: 2416: 2408: 2404: 2396: 2392: 2384: 2375: 2367: 2360: 2352: 2345: 2333: 2326: 2321:Wayback Machine 2308: 2301: 2294: 2273: 2272: 2265: 2255: 2240: 2239: 2232: 2224: 2220: 2212: 2195: 2190: 2185: 2184: 2168:(also known as 2163: 2159: 2154: 2124: 2115: 2049: 1994:'s forces. The 1938: 1851: 1846: 1748: 1708: 1662: 1657: 1628: 1623: 1591: 1555: 1467: 1438: 1434: 1413:2019 Revolution 1396: 1358: 1335: 1329:1964 Revolution 1311:First Civil War 1241: 1236:Kingdom of Kush 1229: 1217: 1179: 1144: 1137: 1118: 1108: 987: 939: 937:Nile Expedition 907: 842: 704: 628: 622: 617: 489: 467: 453: 428: 390: 364: 336: 326: 301: 296:• Fall of 287: 277:18 January 1899 274: 267:26 January 1885 264: 251: 210: 180: 137: 127:Sudanese Arabic 95: 83: 80: 79: 62: 54: 53: 52: 45: 37: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4051: 4049: 4041: 4040: 4035: 4030: 4025: 4020: 4015: 4010: 4005: 4003:Islamic states 4000: 3995: 3990: 3980: 3979: 3973: 3972: 3970: 3969: 3964: 3959: 3954: 3949: 3944: 3939: 3934: 3929: 3924: 3919: 3914: 3909: 3904: 3899: 3894: 3892:Mossi kingdoms 3889: 3884: 3879: 3874: 3869: 3864: 3859: 3854: 3849: 3847:Hausa kingdoms 3844: 3839: 3834: 3829: 3824: 3819: 3814: 3809: 3804: 3799: 3794: 3789: 3784: 3779: 3774: 3768: 3765: 3764: 3759: 3757: 3756: 3749: 3742: 3734: 3696: 3695: 3690:978-0692524732 3689: 3676: 3667: 3634: 3628: 3615: 3610:978-1558765160 3609: 3596: 3586:(5): 254–270. 3571: 3565: 3552: 3545: 3528: 3525: 3524: 3523: 3518:978-0857861221 3517: 3504: 3498: 3479: 3447: 3442:978-0750932998 3441: 3424: 3419: 3404: 3398: 3383: 3377: 3362: 3357:978-0521131872 3356: 3341: 3335: 3322: 3316: 3299: 3296: 3293: 3292: 3280: 3268: 3256: 3241: 3229: 3217: 3205: 3193: 3181: 3156: 3139: 3127: 3110: 3098: 3096:, p. 268. 3086: 3074: 3072:, p. 101. 3062: 3046: 3031: 3019: 2999: 2973: 2971:, p. xxv. 2958: 2946: 2934: 2922: 2910: 2903: 2885: 2865: 2850: 2838: 2826: 2811: 2795: 2779: 2767: 2765:, p. 269. 2755: 2743: 2731: 2729:, p. 263. 2719: 2687: 2685:, p. 277. 2675: 2663: 2651: 2639: 2627: 2615: 2591:Sudanic Africa 2549: 2529: 2511: 2470: 2463: 2445: 2433: 2414: 2402: 2390: 2373: 2358: 2343: 2324: 2299: 2292: 2263: 2253: 2230: 2218: 2192: 2191: 2189: 2186: 2183: 2182: 2156: 2155: 2153: 2150: 2149: 2148: 2143: 2135: 2130: 2123: 2120: 2114: 2111: 2048: 2045: 1937: 1934: 1850: 1847: 1845: 1842: 1836:pilgrimage to 1747: 1744: 1740:(modern) Ansar 1707: 1704: 1699:Umm Diwaykarat 1684:his last stand 1633:former capital 1619:Ishma'il Pasha 1593: 1592: 1590: 1589: 1582: 1575: 1567: 1564: 1563: 1557: 1556: 1554: 1553: 1548: 1543: 1538: 1533: 1528: 1523: 1518: 1513: 1508: 1503: 1498: 1493: 1488: 1483: 1477: 1474: 1473: 1469: 1468: 1466: 1465: 1460: 1454: 1451: 1450: 1446: 1445: 1442: 1441: 1435: 1433: 1432: 1431: 1430: 1425: 1420: 1415: 1407: 1401: 1400: 1397: 1395: 1394: 1393: 1392: 1387: 1379: 1373: 1372: 1369: 1363: 1362: 1359: 1357: 1356: 1355: 1354: 1346: 1340: 1339: 1336: 1334: 1333: 1332: 1331: 1323: 1317: 1316: 1313: 1303: 1302: 1298: 1297: 1294: 1293: 1290: 1284: 1283: 1280: 1274: 1273: 1270: 1264: 1263: 1260: 1254: 1253: 1250: 1244: 1243: 1238: 1232: 1231: 1226: 1220: 1219: 1214: 1208: 1207: 1196: 1186: 1185: 1181: 1180: 1178: 1177: 1172: 1167: 1161: 1158: 1157: 1149: 1148: 1139: 1138: 1131: 1107: 1104: 986: 983: 944:Prime Minister 915:General Gordon 906: 903: 841: 838: 703: 702:Muhammad Ahmad 700: 660:Khedive Ismail 652:British Empire 624:Main article: 621: 618: 616: 613: 559:Charles Gordon 536:Anglo-Egyptian 518:) against the 494: 493: 484: 480: 479: 476: 475: 472: 471: 464: 458: 457: 450: 441: 438: 437: 432: 420: 419: 414: 404: 403: 398: 392: 391: 389: 388: 382:Spanish dollar 365: 351: 349: 345: 344: 341: 340: 337: 334: 331: 330: 327: 324: 321: 320: 317: 316: 310: 309: 306: 305: 302: 295: 292: 291: 288: 282: 279: 278: 275: 272: 269: 268: 265: 259: 256: 255: 252: 249:Mahdist revolt 246: 243: 242: 239: 238: 233: 232:Historical era 229: 228: 225: 221: 220: 217: 216: 211: 208: 205: 204: 201: 200: 197: 191: 190: 187: 186: 184:Muhammad Ahmad 181: 178: 175: 174: 171: 170: 167: 161: 160: 155: 149: 148: 143: 139: 138: 136: 135: 129: 123: 121: 117: 116: 111: 107: 106: 101: 97: 96: 93: 85: 84: 81: 73: 72: 69: 68: 64: 63: 41:الدولة المهدية 38: 35: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4050: 4039: 4036: 4034: 4031: 4029: 4026: 4024: 4021: 4019: 4016: 4014: 4011: 4009: 4006: 4004: 4001: 3999: 3996: 3994: 3991: 3989: 3986: 3985: 3983: 3968: 3965: 3963: 3960: 3958: 3955: 3953: 3950: 3948: 3945: 3943: 3940: 3938: 3935: 3933: 3930: 3928: 3925: 3923: 3920: 3918: 3915: 3913: 3910: 3908: 3905: 3903: 3900: 3898: 3895: 3893: 3890: 3888: 3885: 3883: 3880: 3878: 3875: 3873: 3870: 3868: 3865: 3863: 3860: 3858: 3855: 3853: 3850: 3848: 3845: 3843: 3840: 3838: 3835: 3833: 3830: 3828: 3825: 3823: 3820: 3818: 3815: 3813: 3810: 3808: 3805: 3803: 3800: 3798: 3795: 3793: 3790: 3788: 3785: 3783: 3780: 3778: 3775: 3773: 3770: 3769: 3766: 3762: 3755: 3750: 3748: 3743: 3741: 3736: 3735: 3732: 3728: 3725: 3692: 3686: 3682: 3677: 3673: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3635: 3631: 3629:9789004191075 3625: 3621: 3616: 3612: 3606: 3602: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3572: 3568: 3562: 3559:. Clarendon. 3558: 3553: 3550: 3549:History Today 3546: 3543: 3542:0-595-31425-2 3539: 3535: 3531: 3530: 3526: 3520: 3514: 3510: 3505: 3501: 3495: 3491: 3487: 3486: 3480: 3469: 3465: 3464: 3457: 3456:public domain 3448: 3444: 3438: 3433: 3432: 3425: 3422: 3416: 3412: 3411: 3405: 3401: 3395: 3391: 3390: 3384: 3380: 3374: 3370: 3369: 3363: 3359: 3353: 3349: 3348: 3342: 3338: 3332: 3328: 3323: 3319: 3313: 3309: 3308: 3302: 3301: 3297: 3290:, p. 35. 3289: 3284: 3281: 3277: 3272: 3269: 3266:, p. 12. 3265: 3260: 3257: 3254:, p. 15. 3253: 3248: 3246: 3242: 3239:, p. 40. 3238: 3233: 3230: 3226: 3221: 3218: 3214: 3209: 3206: 3202: 3197: 3194: 3190: 3185: 3182: 3178: 3173: 3171: 3169: 3167: 3165: 3163: 3161: 3157: 3154:, p. 38. 3153: 3148: 3146: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3131: 3128: 3125:, p. 36. 3124: 3119: 3117: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3102: 3099: 3095: 3090: 3087: 3084:, p. 17. 3083: 3078: 3075: 3071: 3066: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3050: 3047: 3043: 3038: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3023: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3003: 3000: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2977: 2974: 2970: 2965: 2963: 2959: 2956:, p. 93. 2955: 2950: 2947: 2944:, p. 37. 2943: 2938: 2935: 2932:, p. 47. 2931: 2926: 2923: 2919: 2914: 2911: 2906: 2904:0-246-11103-8 2900: 2896: 2889: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2875: 2869: 2866: 2862: 2861: 2854: 2851: 2848:, p. 46. 2847: 2842: 2839: 2835: 2830: 2827: 2824:, p. 45. 2823: 2818: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2799: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2783: 2780: 2777:, p. 16. 2776: 2771: 2768: 2764: 2759: 2756: 2752: 2747: 2744: 2740: 2735: 2732: 2728: 2723: 2720: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2691: 2688: 2684: 2679: 2676: 2672: 2667: 2664: 2660: 2655: 2652: 2648: 2643: 2640: 2636: 2631: 2628: 2625:, Ch. 6. 2624: 2619: 2616: 2610: 2604: 2596: 2592: 2586: 2582: 2576: 2575: 2566: 2565: 2558: 2553: 2550: 2546: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2526: 2522: 2515: 2512: 2509:, p. 33. 2508: 2503: 2501: 2499: 2497: 2495: 2493: 2491: 2489: 2487: 2485: 2483: 2481: 2479: 2477: 2475: 2471: 2466: 2464:9780813348339 2460: 2456: 2449: 2446: 2442: 2437: 2434: 2431:, p. 24. 2430: 2425: 2423: 2421: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2406: 2403: 2399: 2394: 2391: 2387: 2382: 2380: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2365: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2350: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2331: 2329: 2325: 2322: 2318: 2315: 2311: 2306: 2304: 2300: 2295: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2270: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2250: 2246: 2245: 2237: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2222: 2219: 2216:, p. 37. 2215: 2210: 2208: 2206: 2204: 2202: 2200: 2198: 2194: 2187: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2170:Tel El-Hoween 2167: 2161: 2158: 2151: 2147: 2144: 2141: 2140: 2136: 2134: 2131: 2129: 2126: 2125: 2121: 2119: 2112: 2110: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2078: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2063:Ja'alin tribe 2060: 2056: 2055: 2046: 2044: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1988: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1963: 1955: 1951: 1947: 1942: 1935: 1933: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1902: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1878: 1875: 1871: 1862: 1861: 1855: 1848: 1843: 1841: 1839: 1835: 1834: 1829: 1825: 1824: 1819: 1813: 1811: 1806: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1791: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1752: 1745: 1743: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1728: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1705: 1703: 1700: 1696: 1691: 1687: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1672: 1668: 1663:1,067 mm 1660: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1641:new rail line 1638: 1634: 1629:1,067 mm 1626: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1606: 1604: 1600: 1588: 1583: 1581: 1576: 1574: 1569: 1568: 1566: 1565: 1562: 1559: 1558: 1552: 1549: 1547: 1544: 1542: 1539: 1537: 1534: 1532: 1529: 1527: 1524: 1522: 1519: 1517: 1514: 1512: 1509: 1507: 1504: 1502: 1499: 1497: 1494: 1492: 1489: 1487: 1484: 1482: 1479: 1478: 1476: 1475: 1470: 1464: 1461: 1459: 1456: 1455: 1453: 1452: 1447: 1436: 1429: 1426: 1424: 1421: 1419: 1416: 1414: 1411: 1410: 1409: 1408: 1406: 1403: 1402: 1398: 1391: 1388: 1386: 1383: 1382: 1381: 1380: 1378: 1375: 1374: 1370: 1368: 1365: 1364: 1360: 1353: 1350: 1349: 1348: 1347: 1345: 1342: 1341: 1337: 1330: 1327: 1326: 1325: 1324: 1322: 1319: 1318: 1314: 1312: 1309: 1308: 1305: 1304: 1299: 1291: 1289: 1286: 1285: 1281: 1279: 1278:Mahdist State 1276: 1275: 1271: 1269: 1266: 1265: 1261: 1259: 1256: 1255: 1251: 1249: 1246: 1245: 1239: 1237: 1234: 1233: 1228:16th cent. BC 1227: 1225: 1222: 1221: 1215: 1213: 1212:Kerma culture 1210: 1209: 1197: 1195: 1192: 1191: 1188: 1187: 1182: 1176: 1173: 1171: 1168: 1166: 1163: 1162: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1150: 1147: 1140: 1135: 1129: 1122: 1117: 1113: 1105: 1103: 1101: 1095: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1054: 1048: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1029: 1025: 1019: 1016: 1015: 1010: 1006: 1002: 995: 991: 984: 982: 979: 977: 971: 969: 965: 960: 956: 952: 948: 945: 938: 931: 926: 920: 919:J.L.G. Ferris 916: 911: 904: 902: 899: 895: 890: 888: 883: 880: 876: 872: 868: 864: 858: 856: 852: 847: 839: 837: 835: 831: 827: 823: 822: 817: 813: 808: 806: 802: 799: 795: 791: 787: 783: 778: 774: 769: 766: 762: 754: 749: 745: 743: 739: 735: 731: 727: 723: 719: 712: 708: 701: 699: 696: 692: 688: 684: 679: 677: 673: 669: 665: 661: 655: 653: 649: 645: 641: 637: 633: 627: 626:Turkish Sudan 619: 614: 612: 610: 606: 602: 597: 595: 591: 586: 584: 580: 576: 572: 568: 564: 560: 556: 552: 548: 544: 539: 537: 533: 529: 525: 521: 517: 513: 509: 505: 504:Mahdist Sudan 501: 500:Mahdist State 492: 488: 485: 483:Today part of 481: 465: 463: 460: 459: 451: 449: 446: 445: 442: 436: 433: 426: 425: 422: 421: 418: 415: 413: 410: 409: 405: 402: 399: 397: 396:ISO 3166 code 393: 387: 383: 379: 377: 373: 369: 366: 362: 361: 356: 353: 352: 350: 346: 342: 338: 328: 315: 307: 303: 299: 289: 286: 276: 266: 263: 253: 250: 237: 234: 230: 227:Shura council 226: 222: 218: 215: 212: 198: 196: 188: 185: 182: 168: 166: 159: 158:Islamic state 156: 154: 150: 147: 144: 140: 134: 130: 128: 125: 124: 122: 118: 115: 112: 108: 105: 102: 98: 91: 86: 77: 70: 65: 58: 49: 36:Mahdist State 33: 30: 19: 3876: 3697: 3680: 3646: 3642: 3619: 3600: 3583: 3579: 3556: 3548: 3533: 3508: 3484: 3471:. Retrieved 3462: 3430: 3413:, ABC-CLIO, 3409: 3388: 3367: 3346: 3326: 3306: 3283: 3271: 3264:Konstam 2016 3259: 3252:Konstam 2016 3237:Konstam 2016 3232: 3225:Konstam 2016 3220: 3213:Konstam 2016 3208: 3201:Konstam 2016 3196: 3189:Konstam 2016 3184: 3130: 3101: 3089: 3077: 3065: 3049: 3022: 3010: 3002: 2989: 2976: 2949: 2937: 2925: 2913: 2894: 2888: 2868: 2858: 2853: 2841: 2829: 2806: 2798: 2790: 2782: 2770: 2758: 2746: 2734: 2722: 2702: 2698: 2690: 2678: 2666: 2654: 2642: 2630: 2618: 2603:cite journal 2594: 2590: 2573: 2563: 2552: 2544: 2520: 2514: 2454: 2448: 2436: 2405: 2393: 2338: 2279: 2258: 2243: 2221: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2160: 2137: 2116: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2079: 2077:until 1885. 2074: 2070: 2058: 2052: 2050: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2007: 2003: 1995: 1989: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1973:Muhammed Ali 1972: 1968: 1964: 1959: 1953: 1929: 1928:of 25 under 1926:muqaddamiyya 1925: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1903: 1898: 1886: 1879: 1873: 1869: 1866: 1858: 1831: 1827: 1821: 1814: 1807: 1792: 1753: 1749: 1746:The Mahdiyah 1729: 1720:Sanin Husain 1709: 1692: 1688: 1607: 1596: 1277: 1258:Islamization 1240:9th cent. BC 1099: 1096: 1049: 1020: 1012: 998: 980: 975: 972: 962:Sudan, only 940: 891: 884: 859: 843: 819: 809: 770: 758: 724:and restore 715: 687:Urabi revolt 680: 656: 629: 611:until 1909. 599:The British 598: 587: 540: 507: 503: 499: 497: 417:Succeeded by 416: 411: 374: 360:Riyal maqbul 359: 355:Legal tender 298:Sanin Husain 29: 4008:Mahdist War 3867:Kanem–Bornu 3817:Futa Jallon 3719: / 3298:Works cited 3288:Knight 2005 3276:Knight 2005 3152:Knight 2005 3135:Knight 2005 3123:Knight 2005 3094:Nicoll 2005 3070:Nicoll 2005 3054:Nicoll 2005 3027:Nicoll 2005 3015:Nicoll 2005 2990:Slow Boring 2969:Nicoll 2005 2763:Nicoll 2005 2739:Nicoll 2005 2727:Nicoll 2005 2707:Nicoll 2005 2683:Nicoll 2005 2659:Nicoll 2005 2635:Nicoll 2005 2557:Nicoll 2005 2507:Knight 2005 2441:Nicoll 2005 2429:Knight 2005 2410:Knight 2005 2386:Knight 2005 2354:Nicoll 2005 2284:E. J. Brill 2214:Knight 2005 2178:Talahawiyeh 2166:Talahawiyeh 2133:Mahdist War 2103:Mulazimiyya 2000:naval mines 1969:Musselemieh 1924:, and into 1899:Mulazimiyya 1883:Beja people 1799:martial law 1712:Osman Digna 1526:Photography 1521:Decorations 1184:Before 1956 1143:History of 976:beit al-māl 887:Sufi orders 812:jihad state 805:Osman Digna 672:slave trade 590:Mahdist War 575:Islamic law 491:South Sudan 412:Preceded by 300:'s holdout 224:Legislature 3982:Categories 3942:Toucouleur 3842:Great Fulo 3707:32°29′03″E 3704:15°38′54″N 3566:0198216602 3106:White 2011 3058:White 2011 3042:White 2011 3007:Green 2007 2803:White 2011 2787:Green 2007 2751:Green 2007 2715:ghostwrote 2695:Green 2007 2671:White 2011 2623:Green 2007 2585:Green 2007 2539:2006049669 2335:White 2011 2188:References 2174:Tawfiqiyeh 2024:Tawfiqiyeh 2020:Tawfiqiyeh 2008:Tawfiqiyeh 1992:Emin Pasha 1962:steamboats 1950:steamboats 1803:Al Jazirah 1795:Borderland 1772:Christians 1756:Sharia law 1645:Wadi Halfa 1621:'s former 1611:Wadi Halfa 1546:Television 1506:Literature 1496:Demography 1301:Since 1955 1194:Prehistory 1110:See also: 1028:illiterate 968:Wadi Halfa 935:See also: 913:"Death of 846:Al Ubayyid 794:Khatmiyyah 738:Sammaniyah 648:Suez Canal 642:and later 620:Background 314:Population 153:Government 3962:Wassoulou 3822:Futa Toro 3622:. Brill. 3592:0021-9096 3490:Routledge 2954:Daly 2010 2713:in Cairo 1996:Ismailiah 1977:Ismailiah 1952:like the 1922:ra's mi'a 1895:Blue Nile 1716:Kabkabiya 1649:Abu Hamad 1597:In 1892, 1501:Languages 1449:By region 1423:2021 Coup 1418:2019 Coup 1399:1986–2019 1390:1989 Coup 1385:1985 Coup 1371:1983–2005 1361:1969–1985 1352:1969 Coup 1338:1956–1969 1315:1955–1972 1292:1899–1956 1282:1885–1899 1272:1820–1885 1100:umkowakia 1084:Equatoria 1033:genocidal 947:Gladstone 674:now that 668:abolition 329:7,000,000 254:1881–1885 142:Religion 67:1885–1899 3663:53521483 3473:5 August 2994:Archived 2930:Ali 2015 2918:Ali 2015 2877:Archived 2846:Ali 2015 2834:Ali 2015 2822:Ali 2015 2647:Ali 2015 2317:Archived 2122:See also 2065:and the 1930:muqaddam 1918:jihadiya 1914:jihadiya 1874:jihadiya 1870:jihadiya 1844:Military 1718:(led by 1695:Kordufan 1680:Omdurman 1561:Timeline 1531:Religion 1491:Economic 1472:By topic 1463:Khartoum 1428:2023 War 1134:a series 1132:Part of 1080:Belgians 1005:Muhammad 930:at Toski 871:Austrian 863:Rizeigat 798:Hadendoa 786:Kurdufan 777:Khartoum 636:Turkiyya 547:Khartoum 532:Omdurman 516:al-Mahdi 363:(silver) 348:Currency 114:Omdurman 3932:Songhai 3917:Shilluk 3887:Massina 3777:Bagirmi 2699:et seq. 2597:: 29–52 2142:(novel) 2067:Danagla 2047:Uniform 2041:Bordein 2012:Fashoda 1981:Bordein 1954:Bordein 1863:(1899). 1818:shahada 1810:burning 1784:alcohol 1676:Atbarah 1536:Slavery 1439:present 1198:before 1092:Eritrea 1088:Akordat 1076:Tushkah 1064:Metemma 1053:Emperor 1041:drought 1037:Juhaina 1024:Khalifa 1011:as his 964:Sawakin 901:Sudan. 851:Sheikan 790:Baggara 730:Dongola 615:History 528:Ottoman 506:or the 372:Ottoman 283:• 260:• 247:• 195:Khalifa 110:Capital 3947:Tunjur 3937:Takrur 3927:Sokoto 3912:Sennar 3907:Saloum 3857:Kaarta 3807:Darfur 3797:Dagbon 3782:Bamana 3772:Alodia 3687: 3661: 3626: 3607: 3590: 3563: 3540: 3515: 3496: 3458:. 3439: 3417: 3396: 3375: 3354: 3333: 3314: 3011:et seq 2901: 2807:et seq 2791:et seq 2545:et seq 2537: 2527: 2461: 2339:et seq 2290: 2251: 2172:) and 2029:Sultan 2022:. 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