History of construction - Knowledge (XXG)

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of study by the aristocracy. Previously it was viewed merely as a technical art, suited only to the artisan. The resulting change in status of architecture and more importantly the architect is key to understanding the changes in the process of design. The Renaissance architect was often an artist (a painter or sculptor) who had little knowledge of building technology but a keen grasp of the rules of classical design. The architect thus had to provide detailed drawings for the craftsmen setting out the disposition of the various parts. This was what is called the process of design, from the Italian word for drawing. Occasionally the architect would get involved in particularly difficult technical problems but the technical side of architecture was mainly left up to the craftsmen. This change in the way buildings were designed had a fundamental difference on the way problems were approached. Where the Medieval craftsmen tended to approach a problem with a technical solution in mind, the Renaissance architects started with an idea of what the end product needed to look like and then searched around for a way of making it work. This led to extraordinary leaps forward in engineering.

793: 778: 821: 597: 2264: 1129: 2240:. Brickmakers were typically paid by the brick, which gave them an incentive to make them too small. As a result, legislation was laid down regulating the minimum sizes and each town kept measures against which bricks had to be compared. An increasing amount of ironwork was used in roof carpentry for straps and tension members. The iron was fixed using forelock bolts. The screw-threaded bolt (and nut) could be made and are found in clockmaking in this period, but they were labour-intensive and thus not used on large structures. Roofing was typically of terracotta roof tiles. In Italy they followed Roman precedents. In northern Europe plain tiles were used. Stone, where available, remained the material of choice for prestige buildings. 730: 1098: 1442: 742: 2535: 1197: 1082: 1409: 2292:. Brunelleschi managed to devise a way of building a huge dome without formwork, relying instead on the weight of the bricks and the way they were laid to keep them in position and the shape of the dome to keep it standing. The exact way the dome was built is still subject to debate today as it is not possible to take the dome apart to study its construction without destroying it. The dome is a double skin, linked by ribs, with a series of wooden and stone chains around it at intervals to attempt to deal with hoop stresses. 718: 1424: 1114: 518: 766: 1209: 2840:

and steel frame construction, architects, who had been the chief audience for such studies, were no longer as interested as they had been in understanding traditional construction, which suddenly appeared redundant. Very little was thus published between 1920 and 1950. The revival of interest started in archaeology with the studies of Roman construction in the 1950s, but it was not until the 1980s that construction history began to emerge as an independent field.

1141: 2546: 754: 2558: 2060: 1823: 924: 1806:. Their sewerage and water-supply works were remarkable and some systems are still in operation today. The only aspect of Roman construction for which very little evidence survives is the form of timber roof structures, none of which seem to have survived intact. Possibly, triangulated roof trusses were built, this being the only conceivable way of constructing the immense spans achieved, the longest exceeding 30 metres (see 4482: 72: 1641: 4474: 243: 1854: 120: 31: 2868: 2118: 805: 2341:, held together with lime mortar. Experiments were made mixing lime with other materials to provide a hydraulic mortar, but there was still no equivalent of the Roman concrete. In England, France and the Dutch Republic, cut and gauged brickwork was used to provide detailed and ornate facades. The triangulated roof truss was introduced to England and used by 1622: 1395:). The engineering problems involved were chiefly to do with the transport of blocks, sometimes over long distances, their movement into location and exact alignment. It is now generally agreed that the skilled building workers were respected and well treated, but undoubtedly very large numbers of labourers were necessary to provide the brute force. 2856:, twice annually. The International Congress on Construction History is held every three years, with the First International Congress on Construction History held in Madrid in 2003. This has been followed by editions held in Queens College, Cambridge, England (2006), Cottbus (2009), Paris (2012), Chicago (2015), Brussels (2018), and Lisbon (2021). 182: 2764:. Although the subject has been studied since the Renaissance and there were a number of important studies in the nineteenth century, it largely went out of fashion in the mid-twentieth century. In the last thirty years there has been an enormous increase in interest in this field, which is vital to the growing practice of building conservation. 1471:, like the Egyptians and the Mesopotamians, tended to build most of their common buildings out of mud brick, leaving no record behind them. However, many structures do survive, some of which are in a very good state of repair, although some have been partly reconstructed or re-erected in the modern era. The most dramatic are the 841:

less brittle, more durable material cut better. These advantages caused the switch from stone tools to metal tools. Both were also used to "harden" the cutting edge of tools such as the Egyptians using copper and bronze points for working soft stone including quarrying blocks and making rock-cut architecture.

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Rome, but otherwise the same types of timber scaffolding that had been in use centuries before were retained. Cranes and scaffolding depended on timber. Complex systems of pulleys allowed comparatively large loads to be lifted, and long ramps were used to haul loads up to the upper parts of buildings.

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Brick production increased markedly during this period. Many buildings throughout Europe were built of brick, but they were often coated in lime render, sometimes patterned to look like stone. Brick production itself changed little. Bricks were moulded by hand and fired in kilns no different to those

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The major breakthroughs in this period were to do with the technology of conversion. Water mills in most of western Europe were used to saw timber and convert trees into planks. Bricks were used in ever increasing quantities. In Italy the brickmakers were organised into guilds although the kilns were

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There were no standard textbooks on building in the Middle Ages. Master craftsmen transferred their knowledge through apprenticeships and from father to son. Trade secrets were closely guarded, as they were the source of a craftsman's livelihood. Drawings only survive from the later period. Parchment

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and paved roads, sometimes supported on raft or pile foundations and bridges. Vitruvius gives details of many Roman machines. The Romans developed sophisticated timber cranes allowing them to lift considerable weights to great heights. The upper limit of lifting appears to have been about 100 tonnes.

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Although the Egyptians achieved extraordinary feats of engineering, they appear to have done so with relatively primitive technology. As far as is known they did not use wheels or pulleys. They transported massive stones over great distances using rollers, ropes and sledges hauled by large numbers of

2792:'s treatise explicitly show Roman wall construction, but most of the interest in antiquity was in understanding its proportions and detail and the architects of the time were content to build using current techniques. While early archaeological studies and topographic works such as the engravings of 2389:

at Coalbrookdale (1779) is a particularly notable example. Large-scale mill construction required fire-proof buildings and cast iron became increasingly used for columns and beams to carry brick vaults for floors. The Louvre in Paris boasted an early example of a wrought-iron roof. Steel was used in

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The 18th century saw the development of many the ideas that had been born in the late 17th century. The architects and engineers became increasingly professionalised. Experimental science and mathematical methods became increasingly sophisticated and employed in buildings. At the same time the birth

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changed the character of construction. The rediscovery of Vitruvius had a strong influence. During the Middle Ages buildings were designed by the people that built them. The master mason and master carpenters learnt their trades by word of mouth and relied on experience, models and rules of thumb to

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or free men. The use of slave labour undoubtedly cut costs and was one of the reasons for the scale of some of the structures. The Romans placed a considerable emphasis in building their buildings extremely fast, usually within two years. For very large structures the only way this could be achieved

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counterparts. While later cultures tended to construct their stone buildings with thin skins of finished stones over rubble cores, the Greeks tended to build out of large cut blocks, joined with metal cramps. This was a slow, expensive and laborious process which limited the number of buildings that

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has suggested that it was modernism, with its emphasis on the employment of new materials, that abruptly ended the interest in construction history that appeared to have been growing in the last few decades of the nineteenth century and the early years of the twentieth. With the advent of concrete

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The use of cast and wrough iron brough breakthroughs in this period. Iron columns had been used in Wren's designs for the House of Commons and were used in several early 18th-century churches in London, but these supported only galleries. In the second half of the 18th century the decreasing costs

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The rebirth of the idea of an architect in the Renaissance radically changed the nature of building design. The Renaissance reintroduced the classical style of architecture. Leon Battista Alberti's treatise on architecture raised the subject to a new level, defining architecture as something worthy

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Most of the (restored) Great Wall sections seen today were built with bricks, and cut stone blocks/slabs. Where bricks and blocks were unavailable, tamped earth, uncut stones, wood, and even reeds were used as local materials. Wood was used for forts and as an auxiliary material. Where local timber

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is the oldest complete technical manual on Chinese architecture. The Chinese followed the state rules for thousands of years so many of the ancient, surviving buildings were built with the methods and materials still used in the 11th century. Chinese temples are typically wooden timber frames on an

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such as bronze (made when tin is added to copper) and brass (made when zinc is added to copper). Bronze could be cast into desired shapes and, if damaged, could be recast increasing the types of tools developed in this period. Copper and bronze were used for the same types of tools as stone but the

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The birth of the modern science in the 17th century greatly affected building construction. Towards the end of the centuy, architect-engineers began to use experimental science to analyse the forms of their buildings. Seventeenth-century structures relied strongly on experience, rules of thumb and

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The wish to return to classical architecture created problems for the Renaissance buildings. The builders did not use concrete and thus comparable vaults and domes had to be replicated in brick or stone. The greatest technical feats were undoubtedly in these areas. The first major breakthrough was

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developed in the twelfth century, and in the centuries that followed ever more incredible feats of constructional daring were achieved in stone. Thin stone vaults and towering buildings were constructed using rules derived by trial and error. Failures were frequent, particularly in difficult areas

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Copper came into use before 5,000 BC and was one of the early metals used by humans for producing tools, alongside gold, silver and lead. Unrefined copper was malleable, tough, strong, resistant to corrossion and much more versatile than stone causing a shift in preference of tool-making material.

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Construction is an ancient human activity that began at around 4000 BC as a response to the human need for shelter. It has evolved and undergone different trends over time, marked by a few key principles: durability of the materials used, increase in building height and span, the degree of control

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In the nineteenth century, lecturers increasingly illustrated their lectures with images of building techniques used in the past and these type of images increasingly appeared in construction textbooks, such as Rondelet's. The greatest advances, however, were made by English and French (and later

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increased the efficiency of construction. The United States was the first adopter of 3D printing technology in construction where huge machines would "print-out" cement in layers to form the walls of buildings. The development of robots and drones allowed constructors to view hard to reach areas.

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Despite the birth of experimental science, the methods of construction in this period remained largely medieval. The same types of crane that had been used in previous centuries were still being employed. Flying scaffolds were employed at St Paul's Cathedral, England and in the dome of St Peters,

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bricks. Bricks varied widely in size and format from small bricks that could be lifted in one hand to ones as big as large paving slabs. Rectangular and square bricks were both common. They were laid in virtually every bonding pattern imaginable and used with considerable sophistication. Drawings

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Most buildings in Northern Europe were constructed of timber until c. 1000 AD. In Southern Europe adobe remained predominant. Brick continued to be manufactured in Italy throughout the period 600–1000 AD but elsewhere the craft of brick-making had largely disappeared and with it the methods for

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The grandest buildings were constructed in stone, often from massive masonry blocks. The techniques used to move massive blocks used in pyramids and temples have been subject to extensive debate. Some authors have suggested that the larger may not be cut stone but fabricated with concrete.

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in the copper age but it will not be until around 3500 BC when it will be used in transportation. Heavy loads were moved on boats, sledges (a primitive sled) or on rollers. The oldest-preserved measuring rod made of copper-alloy bar dates back to 2650 BC and was found at the Sumerian city,

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No timber structures survive (roofs, floors etc.), so knowledge of how these were put together is limited. The spans are, in the main, limited and suggest very simple beam and post structures spanning stone walls. For the longer spans, it is uncertain if the Greeks or Romans invented the

2092:. Brick remained the most popular prestige material in these areas throughout the period. Elsewhere buildings were typically in timber or where it could be afforded, stone. Medieval stone walls were constructed using cut blocks on the outside of the walls and rubble infill, with weak 954:

The Iron Age began around 1200 BC and ended at around 500 BC. Humans may have smelted iron sporadically throughout the Bronze Age but was thought to be an inferior metal because iron tools and weapons weren't as hard or durable as bronze counterparts. It was not until the creation of

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By the mesolithic era, humans started to develop agriculture. Hunter-gatherers built temporary shelter for hunters who would ambush their prey. Currently, the first evidence of man-made shelter dates back to 400,000 B.C. in Terra Amata, France which served as housing for hunters.

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were hunter-gatherers. Their nomadic lifestyle led to temporary and short-lived buildings leading to a lack of surviving evidences of construction. However, it is believed that the earliest evidence of construction in the world is the 1.8 million year-old stone circle found at

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In mountain areas, workers quarried stone to build the Great Wall. Using the mountains themselves as footings, the outer layer of the Great Wall was built with stone blocks (and bricks), and filled with uncut stone and anything else available (like earth and dead workers).

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in Tivoli, Italy. The concrete was made of nothing more than rubble and mortar. It was cheap and very easy to produce and required relatively unskilled labour to use, enabling the Romans to build on an unprecedented scale. They not only used it for walls but also to form

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West China around Dunhuang is desert. Innovative builders there made use of reeds and willow brought in from rivers and oases to build a strong wall. Jade Gate Pass (Yumenguan) Great Wall Fort was built with 20-cm layers of sand and reed, an impressive 9 meters high.

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was too expensive to be commonly used and paper did not appear until the end of the period. Models were used for designing structures and could be built to large scales. Details were mostly designed at full size on tracing floors, some of which survive.

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the mortar would harden under water thus creating a self-healing cement. This provided them with a strong material for bulk walling. They used brick or stone to build the outer skins of the wall and then filled the cavity with massive amounts of

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Recent paleoanthropological work at DK East, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Charles Egeland, Alexa Uberseder, Cynthia Fadem. Presented at The 80th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, San Francisco, California. 2015 ( tDAR id:

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were the greatest construction projects. The Middle Ages began with the end of the Roman era and many Roman building techniques were lost. But some Roman techniques, including the use of iron ring-beams, appear to have been used in the

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by their inhabitants rather than by specialist builders, using locally available materials and traditional designs and methods. Because of this, what little can be said about very early construction is mostly conjecture and based on

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Brunelleschi's dome was completed (up to the base of the lantern) in 1446. Its size was soon surpassed by the dome of St Peter's, built using flying scaffolding supported on the cornices and constructed using two stone shells.

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dating from 782 AD. However, Chinese temple builders regularly rebuild the wooden temples so some parts of these ancient buildings are of different ages. Traditional Chinese timber frames do not use trusses but rely only on

1881:, stones, and wood and later bricks and tiles with lime mortar. Wooden gates blocked passageways. The oldest archaeological examples of mortise and tenon type woodworking joints were found in China dating to about 5000 BC. 3110:

Schönicke, Julia (2019). "There and Back Again — Towards a New Understanding of Abandonment Practices at the Neolithic Settlement of Göbekli Tepe". Bridging the Gap: Disciplines, Times, and Spaces in Dialogue. Vol. 1. pp.

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and took particular care to build them out of materials that last, which has ensured that very considerable parts have remained intact. Major technical achievement is evidenced by the construction of great cities such as

1235:) construction was used for ancillary buildings and normal houses in ancient times and is still commonly used in rural Egypt. The hot, dry climate was ideal for mud-brick, which tends to wash away in the rain. The 1741:. Romans also made use of glass in construction with colored glass in mosaics and clear glass for windows. Glass came to be fairly commonly used in windows of public buildings. Central heating in the form of a 2986:

Snir, Ainit (2015). "The Origin of Cultivation and Proto-Weeds, Long before Neolithic Farming". PLOS ONE. 10 (7): e0131422. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1031422S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0131422. PMC 4511808. PMID

1067:, developed glazed brickwork to a very high degree, decorating the interiors and exteriors of their buildings with glazed brick reliefs, examples of which survive in the Tehran archaeological museum, the 1369:, and more. There are no surviving Egyptian manuals so there has been considerable speculation on how stones were lifted to great heights and obelisks erected. Most theories centre on the use of ramps. 848:

as early as 4400BC. In Chengtoushan, fired bricks were used as flooring for houses. Clay was also used as sewer pipes by the Mesopotamians at around 4000 BC, with the earliest examples found in the

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and cranes to lift heavy stonework to the upper parts of buildings. Their surveying skills were exceptional, enabling them to set out the incredibly exact optical corrections of buildings like the

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The Ming Dynasty Great Wall was mostly built with bricks. To build a strong wall with bricks, they used lime mortar. Workers built brick and cement factories with local materials near the wall.

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Building structures mostly used a simple beam and column system without vaults or arches, which based strict limits on the spans that could be achieved. However, the Greeks did construct some

2788:'s interest in researching Roman building techniques, although if he wrote anything on the subject it does not survive. In the seventeenth century, Rusconi's illustrations for his version of 4039: 2760:

of construction history but a growing number of researchers and academics are working in this field, including structural engineers, archaeologists, architects, historians of technology and

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As opposed to the cultures of ancient Mesopotamia which built in brick, the pharaohs of Egypt built huge structures in stone. The arid climate has preserved much of the ancient buildings.

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building in the Middle Ages was remarkable, but the outstanding buildings of the period were the Gothic cathedrals with thin masonry vaults and walls of glass. Outstanding examples are:

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joints. There is also evidence of prefabrication of the stonework; the symmetrical geometric arrays of stone clearly indicate that the builders of Stonehenge had mastered sophisticated

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in France and Ungewitter in Germany. None of these however were seeking to suggest that the history of construction represented a new approach to the subject of architectural history.

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was one of the first of the new style of architects. He started life as a goldsmith and educated himself in Roman architecture by studying ruins. He went on to engineer the dome of

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determine the sizes of building elements. Vitruvius, however, describes in detail the education of the perfect architect who, he said, must be skilled in all the arts and sciences.

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In striking contrast to previous cultures, an enormous amount is known about Roman building construction. A very large amount survives, including complete intact buildings like the

3189: 1939:, etc.) and rammed it into compact layers. Jiayuguan's Great Wall section in west China was mainly built with dusty loess soil, claimed as "the most erodible soil on the planet". 1717:, which they built over huge spans. The Romans developed systems of hollow pots for making their domes and sophisticated heating and ventilation systems for their thermal baths. 820: 596: 1408: 3964: 1392: 616:

The absence of metal tools placed limitations on the materials that could be worked, but it was still possible to build quite elaborate stone structures with ingenuity using

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Romanesque buildings of the period 600–1100 AD were entirely roofed in timber or had stone barrel vaults covered by timber roofs. The Gothic style of architecture with its

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and started to cultivate plants and domesticate animals. This change from the nomadic lifstyle meant that humans started building walls and forming cities. In addition to

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Life in general was governed by complex ritual and this extended to rituals for setting-out buildings and moulding the first bricks. Contrary to popular belief the

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Jackson, B. J. (2020). Construction management jumpstart: The best first step toward a career in Construction Management (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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The hand plane developed in the Iron Age and was known to be used by the Romans. These Roman planes were found in Germany and date to the 1st to 3rd century AD

995:. The smaller dwellings only survive in traces of foundations, but the later civilizations built very sizeable structures in the forms of palaces, temples and 365:. It explains the evolution of how humans created shelter and other structures that comprises the entire built environment. It covers several fields including 2951: 2471:. The steam engine combined with two other technologies which blossomed in the nineteenth century, the circular saw and machine cut nails, lead to the use of 2008:

and Romanesque periods. The downfall of the Roman empire led to a decline in building activities and technology. Construction efforts were mostly done by the

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the use of scale models. It was not until the eighteenth century that engineering theory developed sufficiently to allow sizes of members to be calculated.

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Trajan's column in Rome contains some of the largest stones ever lifted in a Roman building, and engineers are still uncertain exactly how it was achieved.

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is the world's oldest open-spandrel stone segmental arch bridge built in 595–605 AD. The bridge is built with sandstone joined with dovetail, iron joints.

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is the oldest brick pagoda dating to 523 AD. It was built with yellow fired bricks laid in clay mortar, with twelve sides and fifteen levels of roofs. The

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was happening during the 17th century. The first cast plate glass were developed in France and iron was increasingly employed in structures. For example,

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Modern residential homes would be built at fabrication homes and assembled on-site. Computer software could produce 3D versions of the building allowing

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Yoshinori Yasuda (2012). Water Civilization: From Yangtze to Khmer Civilizations. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 30–31. ISBN 9784431541103.

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may have been responsible for reintroducing brick-making to the area from the Netherlands, through Denmark and Northern Germany to Poland leading to

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are chiefly impressive for their enormous size and the staggering manpower that must have been employed in their construction. The largest is the

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A bronze saw from the archaeological site of Akrotiri - Museum of prehistoric Thera - Santorini, Greece. Image: Norbert Nagel / Wikimedia Commons

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came into use and surviving records show a very complex division of labour into separate tasks and trades. Fired bricks and stone were used for

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has been increasingly popular in the 21st century. Some estimates suggest that 40% of construction projects are now fast-track construction.

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construction. Extensive storehouses with mud-brick vaults also survive, all constructed with sloping courses to avoid the need for formwork.

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By the end of the twentieth century, steel and concrete construction were themselves becoming the subject of historical investigation. The

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were built of wood, but after this date began to be built of stone. The process of a timber structure being repeated in stone is called

3924: 3026: 2096:. The poor hardening properties of these mortars were a continual problem, and the settlement of the rubble filling of Romanesque and 2012:. Craft training and education became a major focus in this period and craft guilds were organized. Three distinct levels of ability ( 1570: 1091:(575 BC) showing the exceptionally fine glazed brickwork of the later period. Glazed bricks have been found from the 13th century B.C. 588:. These mudbricks were formed with the hands rather than wooden moulds and herringbone pattern were made by the brick-maker's thumbs. 307: 82: 4378: 3725: 3536: 3511: 3470: 3416: 3387: 3290:

Haltenberger, M. (1915). Primitive Carriers in Land Transportation. Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, 47(10), 729–745.

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German) architects attempting to understand, record and analyse Gothic buildings. Typical of this type of writing are the works of

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or what is known about the way nomadic hunter-gatherers and herdsmen in remote areas build shelters today. For example, the first

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This article is about the history of construction tools, methods and systems. For the history of building types and styles, see

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Sand does not stick together, so it was used as a fill material between reed and willow layers to build sections of the wall.

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producing a sharp, durable cutting edge allowing for the creating of better tools such as hammers, chisels, knives and axes.

753: 609: 264: 655:. It was a long, narrow timber dwelling built by the first farmers in Europe at least as early as 5000 to 6000 BC. Like all 1441: 4214: 4090: 3811: 2615: 2381:

of the industrial revolution saw an increase in the size of cities and increase in the pace and quantity of construction.

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Workers transport a large stone on an ox-drawn sledge for the construction of a church. A sculpture from the 10th-century

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in modern Iran. Cities created demands for new technologies such as drains for animal and human sewage and paved streets.

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The methods used in the construction of the pyramids have been the subject of considerable research and discussion (see

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was not invented by the Romans, but was used in these civilizations. The later Mesopotamian civilizations, particularly

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survive on clay tablets from later periods showing that buildings were set out on brick modules. By 3500 BC, fired

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as a discipline. The various building professions (architecture, engineering, and construction) were becoming defined.

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The Code of Hammurbi by the Babylonians of Ancient Mesopotamia is known to contain the earliest written building code.

557:), and tools to pound, pierce, roll, pull and lever were made and used. As building materials, they used bones such as 197: 3824: 3771: 1728:

had the trusses replaced with wood and melted the bronze down for other uses. The Romans also made bronze roof tiles.

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is an outstanding building of the period, despite major reconstruction work. Another fine example is the ziggurat at

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in Scotland, Europe's most complete Neolithic village. Another example of a settlement built in the neolithic is the

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Woolley, C. Leonard (1972) . The Ziggurat and its Surroundings. Ur Excavations. Vol. 5. Trustees of the Two Museums.

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Greek mathematics was technically advanced and it is certain that they employed and understood the principles of

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roof. Archeologists presume that the walls were made of timber planking using a side ax to remove excess timber.

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The ancient Greeks never developed the strong mortars which became an important feature of Roman construction.

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was formed in the UK in 1982. It produces the only academic international journal devoted to the subject,

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The earliest surviving book detailing historical building techniques is the treatise of the Roman author,

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construction and include massive sandstone lintels which were located on supporting uprights by means of

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exercised over the interior environment, and finally, the energy available for the construction process.

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decreased the workforce needed. Skyscrapers dominated the construction field and new technologies like

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Lead was used for roof covering material and water supply and waste pipes. The Latin name for lead is

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had become important issues of construction. Construction methods prioritize sustainability and the

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construction method was popularized by the Egyptians at around 3100 BC to build temples such as the

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of Europe span from the 5th to 15th centuries AD, from the fall of the Western Roman Empire to the

1985: 1968: 1874: 1612: 1429: 1208: 3190:"Why was Stonehenge constructed with those woodwork joints (mortise and tenon; tongue in groove)?" 1375:, who lived circa 2650–2600 BC, is credited with being the first recorded architect and engineer. 864:

have raised fired brick foot platforms at around 3200 BC. Mudbricks faced were burnt brick set in

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the manufacture of tools but could not be made in sufficient quantities to be used for building.

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made by humans were probably simple wooden logs placed across a stream and later on evolved into

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building methods and styles evolved from China. A famous example of Chinese construction is the

2545: 1122:, the archaeological site in 1932, before major reconstruction work undertaken by Sadam Hussein 533:, wood, grass, metals (gold, copper and silver) and animal fibers. Various tools for cutting ( 4405: 4303: 4219: 3853: 3796: 3756: 3682: 3532: 3507: 3466: 3412: 3383: 3222: 3085: 2701: 2672: 2654: 2189: 2145: 2068: 1775: 1608: 1523: 1291: 1191: 1049: 900: 896: 699: 695: 633: 378: 370: 4353: 3486: 804: 4126: 3485:

Iribaar, I. (2023, July 11). 3D printing in construction: How does it work. CEMEX Ventures.

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construction they were not explicitly analytical and much of what they do show is made up.

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which was commissioned between 27 BC and 14 AD. The bronze trusses were unique but in 1625

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traces the changes in building tools, methods, techniques and systems used in the field of

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The earliest large-scale buildings for which evidence survives have been found in ancient

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The most remarkable Neolithic structure in Western Europe is the iconic megalith known as

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The most common type of building during the Iron Age the present-day United Kingdom were

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mostly in rural areas because of the risk of fire and easy availability of firewood and

1549:. Very prominent buildings were roofed in stone tiles, which mimicked the form of their 4461: 3786: 3776: 3050: 2818: 2814: 2597: 2507: 2503: 2476: 2436: 2154: 2089: 2077: 2064: 2013: 1907: 1721: 1681: 1665: 1649: 1541:

and associated decorations, but these were quite elaborate. The roof tiles allow a low

1492: 1468: 1267: 1009: 869: 656: 478: 393:. The fields allow both modern and ancient construction to be analyzed, as well as the 3303: 2080:. Roofs were largely thatched. Houses were small and gathered around a large communal 1822: 923: 4498: 4410: 4395: 4121: 3503: 3174: 2737:

of buildings before construction starts reducing the costs brought by change orders.

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characteristic of ancient Greek architecture. Fired bricks began to be employed with

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https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/british_prehistory/ironage_roundhouse_01.shtml

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panes also went into mass production, and went from a luxury to a commonplace item.

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of iron production allowed the construction of major pieces of iron engineering.

1865:: The concept is the same but as shown here the log is angled and no pit is used. 4400: 4390: 3903: 3868: 3838: 2777: 2705: 2650: 2646: 2607: 2593: 2517: 2395: 2342: 2215: 2207: 2161: 2149: 2093: 2085: 2001: 1997: 1911: 1790:

A list of the longest, highest and deepest Roman structures can be found in the

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The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland

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7ICCH: Seventh International Congress on Construction History, Final Programme

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The Far East used a different method of sawing logs than the West's method of

1853: 1688:. Previous cultures had used lime mortars but by adding volcanic ash called a 1550: 1542: 679: 621: 554: 530: 382: 3089: 2821:

was perhaps the first author to seriously attempt to undertake such a study.

4422: 3888: 3848: 3751: 3027:"The History of Construction Innovations from the Stone Age to Industry 4.0" 2776:, but his approach was neither scholarly nor systematic. Much later, in the 2773: 2619: 2581: 2468: 2117: 1877:, built between the 7th and 2nd centuries BC. The Great Wall was built with 1742: 1689: 1669: 1661: 1585: 1351: 1244: 1236: 1232: 1201: 1036: 895:(c. 2560). This technique was later on adapted by the Greek, as seen in the 876: 853: 703: 683: 668: 645: 629: 617: 526: 482: 454: 448: 428: 2047:

style of architecture began in the late 11th century. Also notable are the

1700:

An example of a temple made of Roman concrete in the 1st century BC is the

1592:, was usually left until after the drums of the columns were put in place. 93:

by adding information on neglected viewpoints, or discuss the issue on the

1588:, although the methods used remain a mystery. Simpler decoration, such as 3954: 3833: 3552: 3342:"Parthian Brick Vaults in Mesopotamia, Their Antecedents and Descendants" 2713: 2638: 2623: 2573: 2499: 1870: 1774:

for architectural purposes after about 100 CE and used double glazing as

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At around 3,100 BC, humans started experimenting with metals and forming

648:(c. 3,200 BC) shows that corbel archs were used since the neolithic age. 601: 577: 534: 2867: 2486:

was mass-produced from the mid-19th century, it was used in the form of

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could be constructed. The metal cramps often failed through corrosion.

1510:. An unfinished stone wall was etched with the profiles of columns and 1446: 1384: 1372: 1359: 1323: 1319: 1119: 1060: 865: 585: 558: 486: 386: 1391:

which remained the tallest structure in the world for 3800 years (see

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Egyptian stonework showing tool marks and butterfly interlocks in the

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A reconstruction of a pit-house type dwelling made with mammoth bones

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Inadequate lead, disorganized sections, overall need for copyediting.

3081: 148:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. 1720:

The Romans substituted bronze for wood in the roof truss(s) of the

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have been applied since the 19th century, with special respect to

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Many tools have been made obsolete by modern technology, but the

2084:. Monasticism spread more sophisticated building techniques. The 1680:

The great Roman development in building materials was the use of

1019:

Archaeological evidence has shown the existence of pitched-brick

667:) in early cultures, only the very lowest parts of the walls and 4363: 2690: 2285: 2081: 1935:

On the plains, Great Wall workers made use of local soil (sand,

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Dried bricks stacked ready for firing without the use of a kiln.

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Becchi, A.; Corradi, M.; Foce, F.; Pedemonte, O., eds. (2004).

1758:

was by the application of vast numbers of workers to the task.

1745:, a raised floor heated by the exhaust of a wood or coal fire. 1266:

workers. The ancient Egyptians are credited with inventing the

698:

joints; the lintels themselves being end-jointed by the use of

2717: 1817: 1506:

The oldest construction drawing is in the Temple of Apollo at

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The Annotated Arch: A Crash Course in History of Architecture

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also came into use, and have become mandatory at most sites.

3146:"Newgrange World Heritage Site : Boyne Valley, Ireland" 600:

A reconstruction of a neolithic fortified village showing a

3500:

Building: 3000 years of Design Engineering and Construction

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were formed to protect construction workers' interests and

1770:, and arch were by the Romans. The Romans also began using 1753:

The Romans had trade guilds. Most construction was done by

1005: 675:

of the upper parts of these buildings largely conjectural.

4040:

National Railroad Construction and Maintenance Association

3487:

https://www.cemexventures.com/3d-printing-in-construction/

2629:

Governmental construction projects were used as a part of

2274:, illustrating construction techniques of the 16th century 3327:

Bennett, P. (2014, March 29). Iron Age roundhouses. BBC.

2922:"History of Building and Construction Materials - Hanson" 3382:. New York, N.Y.: Chelsea House Publishers. p. 24. 2700:

developed in the early industrial revolution to develop

1889:

earth and stone base. The oldest wooden building is the

1039:, formed in wooden moulds similar to those used to make 3971:

Chartered Institute of Plumbing and Heating Engineering

2132:

as a building constructed entirely out of wood, in the

1834: 1417:, the tallest building in the world for over 3800 years 970:. These were made from stone or wooden posts joined by 935: 481:. Huts were built as protection from the elements like 457:

era, also known as the New Stone Age, humans developed

137: 90: 3579:"First International Congress on Construction History" 1869:

China is a cultural hearth area of eastern Asia. Many

747:

A sickle for harvesting crops and thatching materials.

3529:

Construction History: Research Perspectives in Europe

2564:, the world's tallest building, was finished in 2010. 2394:

used for centuries before. Terracotta in the form of

1660:. The first surviving treatise on architecture is by 651:

One of the largest structures of this period was the

3965:

Chartered Institution of Civil Engineering Surveyors

3215:

Solving Stonehenge: The New Key to an Ancient Enigma

2691:

Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)

2100:

walls and piers is still a major cause for concern.

1393:

List of tallest freestanding structures in the world

844:

During the copper age, the ancient Chinese invented

671:

are unearthed in archaeological excavations; making

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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1565:and, with the Egyptians, the first high rise, the 2257:The structure of the dome of Florence cathedral 3949:Association of Plumbing and Heating Contractors 1243:(Luxor) provides one of the finest examples of 833:was developed and was used as a building tool. 565:, stone, metal, bark, bamboo, and animal dung. 3988:Construction Management Association of America 2998:"A Brief History of the Construction Industry" 1204:in Thebes with its associated adobe structures 4022:National Association of Women in Construction 3653: 1107:is a type found in Mesopotamia circa 2000 BC. 8: 3937:Asbestos Testing and Consultancy Association 3430: 3428: 3020: 3018: 2649:if the cost exceeds US$ 1 billion), such as 2633:stimulation policies, especially during the 2321:used iron hangers to suspend floor beams at 2398:was used as an artificial stone in the UK. 1732: 771:Bone hammer from the Linear Pottery Culture 735:A Neolithic stone axe with a wooden handle. 59:Learn how and when to remove these messages 3660: 3646: 3638: 2945: 2943: 2941: 1943:Sand (and reed/willow) Great Wall sections 686:translated into stone, a process known as 620:walling techniques such as those found at 3977:Civil Engineering Contractors Association 3943:Associated General Contractors of America 2704:concepts. Advances in technology such as 1794:. Roman building ingenuity extended over 1580:, which would have enabled them to build 1212:A copy of a wall painting in the tomb of 345:Learn how and when to remove this message 327:Learn how and when to remove this message 225:Learn how and when to remove this message 164:Learn how and when to remove this message 4384:List of tallest buildings and structures 4058:Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors 2661:3rd Industrial Revolution (21st century) 2524:2nd Industrial Revolution (20th century) 2407:1st Industrial Revolution (19th century) 1400:Egyptian pyramid construction techniques 485:, and as fortifications for safety like 4034:National Kitchen & Bath Association 3240: 3238: 2913: 2451:roads. These required large amounts of 1404: 1077: 713: 3403:Strickland, Carol; Handy, Amy (2001). 2892:History of water supply and sanitation 1449:techniques of ancient Greece and Rome. 868:were used to originally construct the 4046:National Tile Contractors Association 4016:National Association of Home Builders 3994:Construction Specifications Institute 3353:. Columbia University. Archived from 1918:was not enough, it was delivered in. 1808:List of ancient Greek and Roman roofs 1792:List of ancient architectural records 1463:List of ancient Greek and Roman roofs 1459:List of ancient architectural records 381:, which are relatives to branches of 7: 4028:National Fire Protection Association 3445:Der Dom zu Aachen (Aachen Cathedral) 2740:The Digital age also led to various 2696:Innovators utilized the concepts of 2502:appeared, and gave common access to 2455:. New construction devices included 1537:Fired clay was mainly restricted to 1035:The chief building material was the 798:A sledge for moving heavy materials. 576:as building materials. For example, 265:adding citations to reliable sources 4070:Society of Construction Arbitrators 3931:American Society of Civil Engineers 2420:became recognized as separate from 2259:, showing the double skin structure 1984:'s drawing of a flying buttress at 1475:. The Greeks made many advances in 525:Pre-historic men made tools out of 3925:American Institute of Constructors 3553:"The Construction History Society" 3531:. Associazione Eduardo Benvenuto. 1766:The inventions of the waterwheel, 1571:Seven Wonders of the Ancient World 469:, the first buildings were simple 14: 4379:Lists of buildings and structures 3459:Architecture in the United States 2950:Swenson, Alfred; Chang, Pao-Chi. 2887:History of structural engineering 2744:such as fast-track construction. 1652:and very well preserved ruins at 1031:Building Techniques and Materials 690:. The now ruinous remains are of 40:This article has multiple issues. 4481: 4480: 4472: 2866: 2677:By the end of the 20th century, 2172:The scale of fortifications and 1821: 1422: 1407: 1139: 1127: 1112: 1096: 1080: 922: 899:(c.1250 BC), and by the Romans. 803: 791: 776: 764: 752: 740: 728: 716: 241: 180: 118: 70: 29: 4473: 3447:Arend und Ortmann, Aachen, 1972 2475:and the decline of traditional 2435:was manifested in new kinds of 2284:Brunelleschi's project for the 1526:. Before 650 BC the now famous 584:dated to 9000 BC were found in 252:needs additional citations for 48:or discuss these issues on the 4447:Sustainability in construction 4278:Modern methods of construction 3584:Technical University of Madrid 3378:Bancroft-Hunt, Norman (2009). 3292:https://doi.org/10.2307/201681 2722:building information modelling 2612:occupational safety and health 1522:but the Romans certainly used 1338:, a method of drilling stone, 1184:List of ancient Egyptian sites 907:, was also widely used by the 875:The wheel was invented by the 610:Pfahlbau Museum Unteruhldingen 427:representing the remains of a 1: 4215:Building services engineering 2616:Personal protective equipment 1180:Ancient Egyptian architecture 974:panels topped with a conical 759:Various bone tools from China 4331:Construction equipment theft 4064:Scottish Building Federation 3960:Construction History Society 3612:Construction History Society 3558:Construction History Society 3064:Kenyon, Kathleen M. (1954). 2897:Construction History Society 2850:Construction History Society 2570:Second Industrial Revolution 2530:Second Industrial Revolution 513:Building materials and tools 3772:Chartered Building Surveyor 3736:Water supply and sanitation 3350:Jewish Theological Seminary 3188:Berry, Colin (2012-06-02). 2693:certification was created. 2572:in the early 20th century, 2549:A structural worker on the 2333:. Most buildings had stone 2329:and strengthen the dome of 2210:in Italy, the invention of 1898:construction. An important 1261:Ancient Egyptian technology 628:. It is made with T-shaped 568:Pre-historic men also used 200:. The specific problem is: 144:the claims made and adding 4526: 4309:List of building materials 3169:Atkinson, Richard (1956). 3122:"The Chamber at Newgrange" 2825:Early 20th century studies 2794:Giovanni Battista Piranesi 2670: 2664: 2541:under construction in 1912 2527: 2410: 2368:are still in regular use. 2325:, and iron rods to repair 2199: 2164:was invented around 1500. 1966: 1605:Ancient Roman architecture 1602: 1455:Ancient Greek architecture 1452: 1258: 1173: 1159: 710:Gallery of Neolithic tools 492:Their shelters were built 442: 196:to meet Knowledge (XXG)'s 17: 4470: 4247:Environmental engineering 4210:Architectural engineering 3409:Andrews McMeel Publishing 3246:"The Discovery of Metals" 3213:Johnson, Anthony (2008). 3025:Team, Join (2022-08-29). 3002:constructible.trimble.com 2830:Santiago Huerta Fernández 2041:Palatine Chapel at Aachen 1955:Brick Great Wall sections 1922:Stone Great Wall sections 1216:between 1550 and 1292 BC. 1188:List of Egyptian pyramids 816:Copper Age and Bronze Age 785:Sechseläutenplatz, Zürich 632:pillars carved out using 276:"History of construction" 85:toward certain viewpoints 4252:Geotechnical engineering 4230:Construction engineering 4005:Home Builders Federation 3731:Timeline of architecture 3693:Underground construction 3380:Living in ancient Greece 3066:"Excavations at Jericho" 2902:Timeline of architecture 2762:architectural historians 2756:There is no established 2268:Pieter Bruegel the Elder 2202:Renaissance Architecture 2125:, Russia is listed as a 1931:Soil Great Wall sections 1567:Lighthouse of Alexandria 1534:or petrified carpentry. 1445:An illustration showing 1071:Museum in Paris and the 829:During this period, the 4505:History of construction 4437:Real estate development 4339:Construction management 4194:Vernacular architecture 4179:Indigenous architecture 4167:Industrial architecture 4052:Railway Tie Association 3629:History of construction 3463:Oxford University Press 2882:History of architecture 2746:Fast-track construction 2687:sustainable development 2439:installations, such as 1662:Marcus Vitruvius Pollio 1430:Menkaures Pyramid, Giza 783:A chisel made of bone, 529:, ivory, antler, hide, 499:vernacular architecture 359:history of construction 20:History of architecture 4283:Monocrete construction 4242:Earthquake engineering 4235:Structural engineering 4189:Landscape architecture 3726:Structural engineering 2565: 2554: 2542: 2345:and Christopher Wren. 2275: 2260: 2137: 2072: 2004:, and is divided into 1993: 1990:Bibliothèque nationale 1891:Nanchan Temple (Wutai) 1866: 1749:Organisation of labour 1733: 1645: 1637: 1450: 1217: 1205: 825: 613: 522: 445:Neolithic architecture 367:structural engineering 4510:History of industries 4273:Earthbag construction 4184:Interior architecture 3688:Offshore construction 2790:Leon Battista Alberti 2731:construction managers 2602:computer-aided design 2560: 2551:Empire State Building 2548: 2537: 2433:Industrial Revolution 2413:Industrial Revolution 2402:Industrial Revolution 2266: 2255: 2225:Santa Maria del Fiore 2200:Further information: 2186:King's College Chapel 2120: 2062: 2010:Roman Catholic Church 1982:Villard de Honnecourt 1980: 1967:Further information: 1900:architectural element 1856: 1643: 1624: 1603:Further information: 1528:ancient Greek temples 1453:Further information: 1444: 1415:Great Pyramid of Giza 1389:Great Pyramid of Giza 1211: 1199: 1174:Further information: 1027:in what is now Iraq. 893:Great Pyramid of Giza 823: 638:rock-cut architecture 599: 520: 443:Further information: 4321:Construction bidding 4011:Lighting Association 3983:The Concrete Society 3859:Construction foreman 3498:Addis, Bill (2007). 3457:Upton, Dell (1998). 2854:Construction History 2804:19th century studies 2786:Filippo Brunelleschi 2742:construction methods 2323:Hampton Court Palace 2221:Filippo Brunelleschi 1988:, ca. AD 1320–1335 ( 1973:Vault (architecture) 723:Man using a hand axe 653:Neolithic long house 261:improve this article 207:improve this article 4452:Unfinished building 4225:Coastal engineering 3864:Construction worker 3807:Structural engineer 3698:Tunnel construction 3407:. Kansas City, MO: 3219:Thames & Hudson 2953:History of Building 2874:Architecture portal 2758:academic discipline 2752:Academic discipline 2683:energy conservation 2653:in Brazil, and the 2492:reinforced concrete 2331:St Paul's Cathedral 2327:Salisbury Cathedral 2130:World Heritage Site 2024:) were recognized. 1969:Medieval technology 1875:Great Wall of China 1613:Concrete Revolution 1524:timber roof trusses 1255:Building Technology 1200:Aerial view of the 1105:pitched-brick vault 987:Ancient Mesopotamia 884:(modern-day Iraq) 592:Building Techniques 473:, like the Inuit's 91:improve the article 4344:Construction waste 4326:Construction delay 3767:Building officials 3762:Building estimator 3614:. 2021. p. 5. 3194:Sussing Stonehenge 3126:www.carrowkeel.com 2698:lean manufacturing 2667:Digital Revolution 2566: 2555: 2543: 2539:Woolworth Building 2358:carpenter's square 2337:surfaces covering 2290:Florence Cathedral 2276: 2261: 2182:Chartres Cathedral 2178:Beauvais Cathedral 2138: 2073: 1994: 1906:bracket sets. The 1867: 1833:. You can help by 1722:Pantheon's portico 1646: 1638: 1590:fluting on columns 1451: 1328:measurement system 1218: 1206: 1148:Temple of Kom Ombo 934:. You can help by 826: 614: 523: 418:Humans during the 401:, and tools used. 399:building materials 129:possibly contains 4492: 4491: 4335:Construction loan 4304:Building material 4220:Civil engineering 3854:Concrete finisher 3797:Quantity surveyor 3757:Building engineer 3683:Home construction 3340:Kawami, Trudy S. 3228:978-0-500-05155-9 3150:www.newgrange.com 2844:Late 20th century 2702:lean construction 2673:Lean construction 2655:Million Programme 2508:sewage collection 2190:Notre Dame, Paris 2146:flying buttresses 1851: 1850: 1776:insulated glazing 1609:Roman engineering 1326:, a standardized 1292:irrigation system 1192:Egyptian pyramids 952: 951: 901:Cyclopean masonry 897:Tomb of Agamemnon 700:tongue and groove 696:mortise and tenon 494:self-sufficiently 379:population growth 371:civil engineering 355: 354: 347: 337: 336: 329: 311: 235: 234: 227: 198:quality standards 189:This article may 174: 173: 166: 131:original research 112: 111: 63: 4517: 4484: 4483: 4476: 4475: 4359:Design–bid–build 4127:Construction law 3662: 3655: 3648: 3639: 3616: 3615: 3609: 3599: 3593: 3592: 3587:. Archived from 3575: 3569: 3568: 3566: 3565: 3549: 3543: 3542: 3524: 3518: 3517: 3495: 3489: 3483: 3477: 3476: 3454: 3448: 3443:Stephany, Erich 3441: 3435: 3432: 3423: 3422: 3400: 3394: 3393: 3375: 3369: 3368: 3366: 3365: 3359: 3346: 3337: 3331: 3325: 3319: 3318: 3316: 3315: 3300: 3294: 3288: 3282: 3279: 3270: 3267: 3261: 3260: 3258: 3257: 3242: 3233: 3232: 3210: 3204: 3203: 3201: 3200: 3185: 3179: 3178: 3166: 3160: 3159: 3157: 3156: 3142: 3136: 3135: 3133: 3132: 3118: 3112: 3108: 3102: 3101: 3076:(1/2): 103–110. 3061: 3055: 3054: 3047: 3041: 3040: 3038: 3037: 3022: 3013: 3012: 3010: 3009: 2994: 2988: 2984: 2978: 2974: 2968: 2967: 2965: 2959:. Archived from 2958: 2947: 2936: 2935: 2933: 2932: 2918: 2876: 2871: 2870: 2838: 2735:constructability 2643:economy of scale 2635:Great Depression 2588:possible, while 2426:building science 2366:drafting compass 2319:Christopher Wren 2051:in Scandinavia. 1846: 1843: 1825: 1818: 1736: 1630:treadwheel crane 1617:Roman technology 1485:spiral staircase 1426: 1411: 1312:plaster of Paris 1150:begun 180-145 BC 1143: 1131: 1116: 1100: 1084: 947: 944: 926: 919: 807: 795: 780: 768: 756: 744: 732: 720: 507:timber trackways 350: 343: 332: 325: 321: 318: 312: 310: 269: 245: 237: 230: 223: 219: 216: 210: 184: 183: 176: 169: 162: 158: 155: 149: 146:inline citations 122: 121: 114: 107: 104: 98: 74: 73: 66: 55: 33: 32: 25: 4525: 4524: 4520: 4519: 4518: 4516: 4515: 4514: 4495: 4494: 4493: 4488: 4466: 4374:Interior design 4369:Heavy equipment 4292: 4256: 4198: 4141: 4110: 4074: 3913: 3822: 3816: 3792:Project manager 3782:Civil estimator 3740: 3704: 3671: 3666: 3625: 3620: 3619: 3607: 3601: 3600: 3596: 3577: 3576: 3572: 3563: 3561: 3551: 3550: 3546: 3539: 3526: 3525: 3521: 3514: 3506:. p. 632. 3497: 3496: 3492: 3484: 3480: 3473: 3465:. p. 153. 3456: 3455: 3451: 3442: 3438: 3433: 3426: 3419: 3402: 3401: 3397: 3390: 3377: 3376: 3372: 3363: 3361: 3357: 3344: 3339: 3338: 3334: 3326: 3322: 3313: 3311: 3302: 3301: 3297: 3289: 3285: 3280: 3273: 3268: 3264: 3255: 3253: 3244: 3243: 3236: 3229: 3212: 3211: 3207: 3198: 3196: 3187: 3186: 3182: 3168: 3167: 3163: 3154: 3152: 3144: 3143: 3139: 3130: 3128: 3120: 3119: 3115: 3109: 3105: 3082:10.2307/2844004 3063: 3062: 3058: 3049: 3048: 3044: 3035: 3033: 3024: 3023: 3016: 3007: 3005: 2996: 2995: 2991: 2985: 2981: 2975: 2971: 2963: 2956: 2949: 2948: 2939: 2930: 2928: 2920: 2919: 2915: 2910: 2872: 2865: 2862: 2846: 2832: 2827: 2806: 2770: 2754: 2733:to analyze the 2726:pre-fabrication 2675: 2669: 2663: 2590:heavy equipment 2532: 2526: 2473:balloon framing 2415: 2409: 2404: 2387:The Iron Bridge 2378: 2307: 2302: 2281: 2246: 2233: 2204: 2198: 2170: 2155:crossing towers 2115: 2106: 2057: 1975: 1965: 1957: 1945: 1933: 1924: 1896:post and lintel 1847: 1841: 1838: 1831:needs expansion 1816: 1764: 1751: 1726:Pope Urban VIII 1702:Temple of Vesta 1678: 1619: 1601: 1489:central heating 1465: 1439: 1432: 1427: 1418: 1412: 1381: 1346:, proportional 1263: 1257: 1226: 1194: 1172: 1164: 1158: 1151: 1144: 1135: 1132: 1123: 1117: 1108: 1101: 1092: 1085: 1073:Pergamon Museum 1033: 989: 984: 972:wattle-and-daub 948: 942: 939: 932:needs expansion 917: 905:Arkadiko Bridge 889:post and lintel 860:in the city of 818: 811: 808: 799: 796: 787: 781: 772: 769: 760: 757: 748: 745: 736: 733: 724: 721: 712: 692:post and lintel 594: 515: 463:living in caves 451: 441: 420:Paleolithic era 416: 411: 409:Prehistoric Era 351: 340: 339: 338: 333: 322: 316: 313: 270: 268: 258: 246: 231: 220: 214: 211: 204: 185: 181: 170: 159: 153: 150: 135: 123: 119: 108: 102: 99: 88: 75: 71: 34: 30: 23: 12: 11: 5: 4523: 4521: 4513: 4512: 4507: 4497: 4496: 4490: 4489: 4471: 4468: 4467: 4465: 4464: 4462:Urban planning 4459: 4454: 4449: 4444: 4439: 4434: 4433: 4432: 4431: 4430: 4420: 4415: 4414: 4413: 4398: 4393: 4388: 4387: 4386: 4376: 4371: 4366: 4361: 4356: 4351: 4346: 4341: 4336: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4318: 4317: 4316: 4311: 4300: 4298: 4294: 4293: 4291: 4290: 4285: 4280: 4275: 4270: 4264: 4262: 4258: 4257: 4255: 4254: 4249: 4244: 4239: 4238: 4237: 4232: 4227: 4217: 4212: 4206: 4204: 4200: 4199: 4197: 4196: 4191: 4186: 4181: 4176: 4175: 4174: 4164: 4163: 4162: 4151: 4149: 4143: 4142: 4140: 4139: 4134: 4129: 4124: 4118: 4116: 4112: 4111: 4109: 4108: 4106:United Kingdom 4103: 4098: 4093: 4088: 4082: 4080: 4076: 4075: 4073: 4072: 4067: 4061: 4055: 4049: 4043: 4037: 4031: 4025: 4019: 4013: 4008: 4002: 3997: 3991: 3985: 3980: 3974: 3968: 3962: 3957: 3952: 3946: 3940: 3934: 3928: 3921: 3919: 3915: 3914: 3912: 3911: 3906: 3901: 3896: 3891: 3886: 3881: 3876: 3871: 3866: 3861: 3856: 3851: 3846: 3841: 3836: 3830: 3828: 3821:Trades workers 3818: 3817: 3815: 3814: 3812:Superintendent 3809: 3804: 3799: 3794: 3789: 3787:Clerk of works 3784: 3779: 3777:Civil engineer 3774: 3769: 3764: 3759: 3754: 3748: 3746: 3742: 3741: 3739: 3738: 3733: 3728: 3723: 3718: 3712: 3710: 3706: 3705: 3703: 3702: 3701: 3700: 3690: 3685: 3679: 3677: 3673: 3672: 3667: 3665: 3664: 3657: 3650: 3642: 3636: 3635: 3624: 3623:External links 3621: 3618: 3617: 3594: 3591:on 2011-07-16. 3570: 3544: 3537: 3519: 3512: 3490: 3478: 3471: 3449: 3436: 3424: 3417: 3411:. p. 12. 3395: 3388: 3370: 3332: 3320: 3295: 3283: 3271: 3262: 3234: 3227: 3205: 3180: 3161: 3137: 3113: 3103: 3056: 3053:. 31 May 2023. 3042: 3014: 2989: 2979: 2969: 2966:on 2016-03-04. 2937: 2912: 2911: 2909: 2906: 2905: 2904: 2899: 2894: 2889: 2884: 2878: 2877: 2861: 2858: 2845: 2842: 2826: 2823: 2819:Auguste Choisy 2815:Viollet-le-Duc 2805: 2802: 2769: 2766: 2753: 2750: 2665:Main article: 2662: 2659: 2598:prefabrication 2584:buildings and 2528:Main article: 2525: 2522: 2514:Building codes 2504:drinking water 2477:timber framing 2437:transportation 2411:Main article: 2408: 2405: 2403: 2400: 2377: 2374: 2306: 2303: 2301: 2298: 2280: 2277: 2272:Tower of Babel 2245: 2242: 2232: 2229: 2197: 2194: 2169: 2166: 2114: 2111: 2105: 2102: 2090:Backsteingotik 2065:Korogho church 2056: 2053: 2049:stave churches 2028:Fortifications 2006:Pre-Romanesque 1964: 1961: 1956: 1953: 1944: 1941: 1932: 1929: 1923: 1920: 1908:Songyue Pagoda 1849: 1848: 1828: 1826: 1815: 1812: 1802:, and covered 1784:corduroy roads 1763: 1760: 1750: 1747: 1684:mortar called 1682:hydraulic lime 1677: 1674: 1666:master builder 1650:Pantheon, Rome 1625:Reconstructed 1600: 1597: 1493:urban planning 1469:ancient Greeks 1438: 1437:Ancient Greece 1435: 1434: 1433: 1428: 1421: 1419: 1413: 1406: 1380: 1377: 1348:scale drawings 1259:Main article: 1256: 1253: 1225: 1222: 1171: 1168: 1160:Main article: 1157: 1154: 1153: 1152: 1145: 1138: 1136: 1133: 1126: 1124: 1118: 1111: 1109: 1102: 1095: 1093: 1087:Detail of the 1086: 1079: 1032: 1029: 1010:Ziggurat of Ur 988: 985: 983: 980: 950: 949: 929: 927: 916: 913: 870:Ziggurat of Ur 817: 814: 813: 812: 809: 802: 800: 797: 790: 788: 782: 775: 773: 770: 763: 761: 758: 751: 749: 746: 739: 737: 734: 727: 725: 722: 715: 711: 708: 673:reconstruction 642:corbelled roof 593: 590: 514: 511: 440: 437: 415: 412: 410: 407: 353: 352: 335: 334: 249: 247: 240: 233: 232: 188: 186: 179: 172: 171: 126: 124: 117: 110: 109: 78: 76: 69: 64: 38: 37: 35: 28: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4522: 4511: 4508: 4506: 4503: 4502: 4500: 4487: 4479: 4469: 4463: 4460: 4458: 4455: 4453: 4450: 4448: 4445: 4443: 4440: 4438: 4435: 4429: 4426: 4425: 4424: 4421: 4419: 4416: 4412: 4409: 4408: 4407: 4404: 4403: 4402: 4399: 4397: 4396:Megastructure 4394: 4392: 4389: 4385: 4382: 4381: 4380: 4377: 4375: 4372: 4370: 4367: 4365: 4362: 4360: 4357: 4355: 4352: 4350: 4347: 4345: 4342: 4340: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4319: 4315: 4312: 4310: 4307: 4306: 4305: 4302: 4301: 4299: 4295: 4289: 4286: 4284: 4281: 4279: 4276: 4274: 4271: 4269: 4266: 4265: 4263: 4259: 4253: 4250: 4248: 4245: 4243: 4240: 4236: 4233: 4231: 4228: 4226: 4223: 4222: 4221: 4218: 4216: 4213: 4211: 4208: 4207: 4205: 4201: 4195: 4192: 4190: 4187: 4185: 4182: 4180: 4177: 4173: 4170: 4169: 4168: 4165: 4161: 4158: 4157: 4156: 4153: 4152: 4150: 4148: 4144: 4138: 4135: 4133: 4130: 4128: 4125: 4123: 4122:Building code 4120: 4119: 4117: 4113: 4107: 4104: 4102: 4099: 4097: 4094: 4092: 4089: 4087: 4084: 4083: 4081: 4077: 4071: 4068: 4065: 4062: 4059: 4056: 4053: 4050: 4047: 4044: 4041: 4038: 4035: 4032: 4029: 4026: 4023: 4020: 4017: 4014: 4012: 4009: 4006: 4003: 4001: 3998: 3995: 3992: 3989: 3986: 3984: 3981: 3978: 3975: 3972: 3969: 3966: 3963: 3961: 3958: 3956: 3953: 3950: 3947: 3944: 3941: 3938: 3935: 3932: 3929: 3926: 3923: 3922: 3920: 3918:Organizations 3916: 3910: 3907: 3905: 3902: 3900: 3897: 3895: 3892: 3890: 3887: 3885: 3882: 3880: 3877: 3875: 3872: 3870: 3867: 3865: 3862: 3860: 3857: 3855: 3852: 3850: 3847: 3845: 3842: 3840: 3837: 3835: 3832: 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3266: 3263: 3251: 3247: 3241: 3239: 3235: 3230: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3209: 3206: 3195: 3191: 3184: 3181: 3176: 3175:Penguin Books 3172: 3165: 3162: 3151: 3147: 3141: 3138: 3127: 3123: 3117: 3114: 3107: 3104: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3060: 3057: 3052: 3046: 3043: 3032: 3028: 3021: 3019: 3015: 3003: 2999: 2993: 2990: 2983: 2980: 2973: 2970: 2962: 2955: 2954: 2946: 2944: 2942: 2938: 2927: 2926:www.hanson.my 2923: 2917: 2914: 2907: 2903: 2900: 2898: 2895: 2893: 2890: 2888: 2885: 2883: 2880: 2879: 2875: 2869: 2864: 2859: 2857: 2855: 2851: 2843: 2841: 2836: 2831: 2824: 2822: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2811:Robert Willis 2803: 2801: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2768:Early writers 2767: 2765: 2763: 2759: 2751: 2749: 2747: 2743: 2738: 2736: 2732: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2694: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2674: 2668: 2660: 2658: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2631:macroeconomic 2627: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2563: 2559: 2552: 2547: 2540: 2536: 2531: 2523: 2521: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2480: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2461:machine tools 2458: 2457:steam engines 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2429: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2414: 2406: 2401: 2399: 2397: 2391: 2388: 2382: 2375: 2373: 2369: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2346: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2311: 2304: 2299: 2297: 2293: 2291: 2287: 2278: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2243: 2241: 2239: 2230: 2228: 2227:in Florence. 2226: 2222: 2217: 2213: 2212:moveable type 2209: 2203: 2195: 2193: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2167: 2165: 2163: 2158: 2156: 2151: 2150:gothic arches 2147: 2143: 2135: 2131: 2128: 2124: 2119: 2112: 2110: 2103: 2101: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2078:burning tiles 2070: 2066: 2061: 2054: 2052: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1974: 1970: 1962: 1960: 1954: 1952: 1948: 1942: 1940: 1938: 1930: 1928: 1921: 1919: 1915: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1892: 1887: 1886:Yingzao Fashi 1882: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1864: 1860: 1855: 1845: 1836: 1832: 1829:This section 1827: 1824: 1820: 1819: 1814:Ancient China 1813: 1811: 1809: 1805: 1804:amphitheatres 1801: 1797: 1793: 1788: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1761: 1759: 1756: 1748: 1746: 1744: 1740: 1735: 1729: 1727: 1723: 1718: 1716: 1712: 1711:barrel vaults 1708: 1703: 1698: 1696: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1675: 1673: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1642: 1635: 1631: 1628: 1623: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1606: 1598: 1596: 1593: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1574: 1572: 1569:, one of the 1568: 1564: 1560: 1555: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1539:roofing tiles 1535: 1533: 1532:petrification 1529: 1525: 1521: 1515: 1513: 1509: 1504: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1473:Greek Temples 1470: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1448: 1443: 1436: 1431: 1425: 1420: 1416: 1410: 1405: 1403: 1401: 1396: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1378: 1376: 1374: 1370: 1368: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1262: 1254: 1252: 1248: 1246: 1242: 1241:Thebes, Egypt 1238: 1234: 1230: 1223: 1221: 1215: 1210: 1203: 1198: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1176:Ancient Egypt 1170:Ancient Egypt 1169: 1167: 1163: 1162:Building Code 1156:Building Code 1155: 1149: 1142: 1137: 1130: 1125: 1121: 1115: 1110: 1106: 1099: 1094: 1090: 1083: 1078: 1076: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1053: 1051: 1047: 1042: 1038: 1030: 1028: 1026: 1025:Tell al-Rimah 1022: 1017: 1015: 1014:Chogha Zanbil 1011: 1007: 1003: 998: 994: 986: 982:Civilizations 981: 979: 977: 973: 969: 964: 962: 958: 946: 937: 933: 930:This section 928: 925: 921: 920: 914: 912: 910: 906: 902: 898: 894: 890: 885: 883: 878: 873: 871: 867: 863: 859: 855: 851: 850:Temple of Bel 847: 842: 839: 834: 832: 822: 815: 810:A stone drill 806: 801: 794: 789: 786: 779: 774: 767: 762: 755: 750: 743: 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The 639: 635: 631: 627: 623: 619: 611: 607: 603: 598: 591: 589: 587: 583: 579: 575: 571: 566: 564: 560: 556: 552: 548: 544: 540: 536: 532: 528: 519: 512: 510: 508: 504: 500: 495: 490: 488: 484: 480: 476: 472: 468: 467:rock shelters 464: 460: 456: 450: 446: 439:Neolithic Era 438: 436: 432: 430: 426: 425:Olduvai Gorge 421: 413: 408: 406: 402: 400: 396: 392: 388: 384: 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 360: 349: 346: 331: 328: 320: 309: 306: 302: 299: 295: 292: 288: 285: 281: 278: – 277: 273: 272:Find sources: 266: 262: 256: 255: 250:This article 248: 244: 239: 238: 229: 226: 218: 208: 203: 199: 195: 194: 187: 178: 177: 168: 165: 157: 147: 143: 139: 133: 132: 127:This article 125: 116: 115: 106: 96: 92: 86: 84: 79:This article 77: 68: 67: 62: 60: 53: 52: 47: 46: 41: 36: 27: 26: 21: 16: 4457:Urban design 4442:Stonemasonry 4354:Design–build 4297:Other topics 4288:Slip forming 4147:Architecture 3802:Site manager 3721:Construction 3720: 3716:Architecture 3669:Construction 3603: 3597: 3589:the original 3582: 3573: 3562:. Retrieved 3556: 3547: 3528: 3522: 3499: 3493: 3481: 3458: 3452: 3444: 3439: 3404: 3398: 3379: 3373: 3362:. Retrieved 3355:the original 3348: 3335: 3323: 3312:. Retrieved 3310:. 2023-06-13 3307: 3298: 3286: 3265: 3254:. Retrieved 3252:. 2012-06-20 3249: 3214: 3208: 3197:. Retrieved 3193: 3183: 3170: 3164: 3153:. Retrieved 3149: 3140: 3129:. Retrieved 3125: 3116: 3106: 3073: 3069: 3059: 3045: 3034:. Retrieved 3030: 3006:. Retrieved 3004:. 2022-03-04 3001: 2992: 2982: 2972: 2961:the original 2952: 2929:. Retrieved 2925: 2916: 2853: 2847: 2828: 2813:in England, 2807: 2771: 2755: 2739: 2695: 2676: 2628: 2608:Trade unions 2606: 2567: 2562:Burj Khalifa 2512: 2481: 2467:and optical 2430: 2418:Construction 2416: 2392: 2383: 2379: 2376:18th century 2370: 2362:spirit level 2347: 2339:rubble cores 2312: 2308: 2305:17th century 2300:Early Modern 2294: 2282: 2271: 2256: 2247: 2234: 2205: 2171: 2168:Achievements 2159: 2148:and pointed 2139: 2134:log building 2107: 2094:lime mortars 2074: 2026: 1995: 1958: 1949: 1946: 1934: 1925: 1916: 1883: 1879:rammed earth 1868: 1839: 1835:adding to it 1830: 1789: 1765: 1752: 1738: 1730: 1719: 1699: 1686:Roman cement 1679: 1647: 1599:Roman Empire 1594: 1575: 1563:arch bridges 1559:groin vaults 1556: 1536: 1516: 1505: 1503:, and more. 1466: 1397: 1382: 1379:Achievements 1371: 1314:, the bath, 1310:, a form of 1264: 1249: 1227: 1219: 1165: 1104: 1054: 1034: 1018: 990: 965: 953: 940: 936:adding to it 931: 903:used in the 886: 874: 846:fired bricks 843: 835: 827: 677: 665:stilt houses 663:structures ( 650: 634:flint points 626:Göbekli Tepe 615: 606:stilt houses 574:lime plaster 567: 524: 491: 452: 433: 417: 403: 391:architecture 363:construction 358: 356: 341: 323: 314: 304: 297: 290: 283: 271: 259:Please help 254:verification 251: 221: 212: 205:Please help 201: 190: 160: 151: 128: 103:January 2013 100: 80: 56: 49: 43: 42:Please help 39: 15: 4401:Plasterwork 4391:Megaproject 4203:Engineering 4132:Site safety 3904:Steel fixer 3869:Electrician 3839:Boilermaker 3745:Professions 3051:"Stone Age" 2833: [ 2778:Renaissance 2706:3D Printing 2657:in Sweden. 2647:megaproject 2594:power tools 2586:skyscrapers 2518:fire safety 2396:Coade stone 2343:Inigo Jones 2216:Reformation 2208:Renaissance 2196:Renaissance 2162:pile driver 2086:Cistercians 2002:Renaissance 1998:Middle Ages 1963:Middle Ages 1912:Anji Bridge 1780:Roman roads 1658:Herculaneum 1547:lime mortar 1497:water wheel 1344:steam power 1231:(sun-baked 1089:Ishtar Gate 1063:and thence 1023:such as at 993:Mesopotamia 968:roundhouses 459:agriculture 385:, science, 375:city growth 209:if you can. 4499:Categories 4418:Parge coat 4349:Demolition 4115:Regulation 4079:By country 3884:Millwright 3879:Ironworker 3844:Bricklayer 3564:2022-07-28 3502:. London: 3364:2014-04-02 3314:2024-08-25 3304:"Iron Age" 3256:2024-08-25 3217:. 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