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level, solid surface that would withstand weather or traffic. Through his road-building experience, McAdam had learned that a layer of broken angular stones would act as a solid mass and would not require the large stone layer previously used to build roads. By keeping the surface stones smaller than the wheel width, a good running surface could be created for traffic. The small surface stones also provided low stress on the road, so long as they could be kept reasonably dry. In practice, his roads proved to be twice as strong as
Telford's roads.
396:
899:
1013:
977:, placing a typical macadam layer, and finally sealing the macadam with a mixture of tar and sand. Tar-grouted macadam was in use well before 1900 and involved scarifying the surface of an existing macadam pavement, spreading tar, and re-compacting. Although the use of tar in road construction was known in the 19th century, it was little used and was not introduced on a large scale until the motorcar arrived on the scene in the early 20th century.
642:
410:, there was a need for armies to be able to travel quickly from one area to another, and the roads that existed were often muddy, which greatly delayed the movement of large masses of troops. To solve this problem, the Romans built great roads. These roads used deep roadbeds of crushed stone as an underlying layer to ensure that they kept dry, as the water would flow out from the crushed stone instead of becoming mud in clay soils. The
638:. The basic principle was that the trustees would manage resources from the several parishes through which the highway passed, augment this with tolls from users from outside the parishes, and apply the whole to the maintenance of the main highway. This became the pattern for the turnpiking of a growing number of highways, sought by those who wished to improve flow of commerce through their part of a county.
582:
895:). His road building method was simpler than Telford's yet more effective at protecting roadways: he discovered that massive foundations of rock upon rock were unnecessary and asserted that native soil alone would support the road and traffic upon it, as long as it was covered by a road crust that would protect the soil underneath from water and wear.
958:
main goal of the movement was education for road building in rural areas between cities and to help rural populations gain the social and economic benefits enjoyed by cities where citizens benefited from railroads, trolleys and paved streets. Even more than traditional vehicles, the newly invented bicycles could benefit from good country roads.
808:
795:) is to transfer the weight of the road and its traffic to the ground, while protecting the ground from deformation by spreading the weight evenly. Therefore, the sub-base did not have to be a self-supporting structure. The upper running surface provided a smooth surface for vehicles, while protecting the large stones of the sub-base.
823:
take place, a major improvement on the work of Trésaguet. The surface consisted of broken stone. He improved on methods for the building of roads by improving the selection of stone based on thickness, taking into account traffic, alignment and slopes. During his later years, Telford was responsible for rebuilding sections of the
915:
were checked by supervisors who carried scales. A workman could check the stone size himself by seeing if the stone would fit into his mouth. The importance of the 20 mm stone size was that the stones needed to be much smaller than the 100 mm width of the iron carriage wheels that traveled on the road.
1214:
and access to highways but not to parkways and freeways; the latter two are distinguished in that the purpose of a parkway is recreation, while the purpose of a freeway is movement. Thus as originally conceived, a freeway is a strip of public land devoted to movement to which abutting property owners
842:
from 45 hours to just 27 hours, and the best mail coach speeds rose from 5-6 mph (8–10 km/h) to 9-10 mph (14–16 km/h). Between London and
Shrewsbury, most of his work on the road amounted to improvements. Beyond Shrewsbury, and especially beyond Llangollen, the work often involved
957:
turned local agitation into a national political movement. Outside cities, roads were dirt or gravel consisting of mud in the winter and dusty in the summer. Early organizers cited Europe where road construction and maintenance was supported by national and local governments. In its early years, the
922:
McAdam directed that no substance that would absorb water and affect the road by frost should be incorporated into the road, neither was anything to be laid on the clean stone to bind the road. The action of the road traffic would cause the broken stone to combine with its own angles, merging into a
914:
Size of stones was central to McAdam's road-building theory. The lower 200-millimetre (7.9 in) road thickness was restricted to stones no larger than 75 millimetres (3.0 in). The upper 50-millimetre (2.0 in) layer of stones was limited to 20 millimetres (0.79 in) size, and stones
125:
developed, which are more difficult to build than travois but are easier to propel over smooth surfaces. Pack animals, ridden horses, and bullocks dragging travois or sleds require wider paths and higher clearances than people on foot, and improved tracks were required. As a result, by about 5000 BC
918:
McAdam believed that the "proper method" of breaking stones for utility and rapidity was accomplished by people sitting down and using small hammers, breaking the stones so that none was larger than six ounces in weight. He wrote that the quality of the road would depend on how carefully the stones
822:
made substantial advances in the engineering of new roads and the construction of bridges. His method of road building involved digging a large trench in which a foundation of heavy rock was set. He designed his roads so that they sloped downwards from the centre (crown slope), allowing drainage to
681:
The quality of early turnpike roads varied. Although turnpiking did result in some improvement to each highway, the technologies used to deal with geological features, drainage, and the effects of weather were all in their infancy. Road construction improved slowly, initially through the efforts of
203:
around 5000 BC, perhaps originally for the making of pottery. Their original transport use may have been as attachments to travois or sleds to reduce resistance. It has been argued that logs were used as rollers under sleds prior to the development of wheels, but there is no archaeological evidence
70:
and through swamps. The first improvements would have consisted largely of clearing trees and big stones from the path. As commerce increased, the tracks were often flattened or widened to accommodate human and animal traffic. Some of these dirt tracks were developed into fairly extensive networks,
798:
Trésaguet understood the importance of drainage by providing deep side ditches, but he insisted on building his roads in trenches so that they could be accessed from the sides, which undermined this principle. Well-maintained surfaces and drains protect the integrity of the sub-base, and Trésaguet
677:
and not damaging the road surface. Trusts could take additional tolls during the summer to pay for watering the road in order to curtail the dust thrown up by vehicles. Parliament also passed a few general turnpike acts dealing with the administration of the trusts and restrictions on the width of
790:
to road building in France. He wrote a memorandum on his method in 1775, which became general practice in France. It involved a layer of large rocks covered by a layer of smaller gravel. The lower layer improved on Roman practice in that it was based on the understanding that the purpose of this
247:
Wheeled transport created the need for better roads. Generally, natural materials cannot be both soft enough to form well-graded surfaces and strong enough to bear wheeled vehicles, especially when wet, and stay intact. In urban areas it began to be worthwhile to build stone-paved streets and, in
926:
Although McAdam had been adamantly opposed to the filling of the voids between his small cut stones with smaller material, in practice road builders began to introduce filler materials such as smaller stones, sand, and clay, and it was observed that these roads were stronger as a result. Macadam
653:
In the early 18th century, sections of the main radial roads into London were put under the control of individual turnpike trusts. The pace at which new turnpikes were created picked up in the 1750s as trusts were formed to maintain the cross-routes between the Great Roads radiating from London.
775:(gorse) tied in bundles as foundations. This established his reputation as a road builder since other engineers had believed it could not be done. He acquired a mastery of his trade with his own method of calculating costs and materials, which he could not successfully explain to others.
693:
Turnpikes built in the United States were usually constructed by private companies under a government franchise. They typically paralleled or replaced existing routes with some volume of commerce, hoping the improved road would divert enough traffic to make the enterprise profitable.
662:, the roads of complete counties were put under single turnpike trusts in the 1760s. A further surge of trust formation occurred in the 1770s, with the turnpiking of subsidiary connecting roads, routes over new bridges, new routes in the growing industrial areas and roads in
1120:, contained only one lane in each direction and no interchanges. The Bronx River Parkway was the first road in North America to utilize a median strip to separate the opposing lanes, to be constructed through a park and where intersecting streets crossed over bridges. The
766:
surface to allow rainwater to drain quickly into ditches at the side. He understood the importance of good drainage, knowing it was precipitation that caused most problems on the roads. He worked out a way to build a road across a bog using a series of rafts made from
988:, who noticed that spilled tar on the roadway kept the dust down and created a smooth surface. He took out a patent in 1901 for tarmac. Hooley's 1901 patent involved mechanically mixing tar and aggregate prior to lay-down and then compacting the mixture with a
713:
927:
roads were being built widely in the United States and
Australia in the 1820s and in Europe in the 1830s and 1840s. Macadam roads were adequate for use by horses and carriages or coaches, but they were very dusty and subject to erosion with heavy rain.
208:, which would have required regular lubrication by animal fats or vegetable oils or separation by leather to be effective. The first simple two-wheel carts, apparently developed from travois, appear to have been used in Mesopotamia and northern
906:
Unlike
Telford and other road builders, McAdam laid his roads as level as possible. His 30-foot-wide (9.1 m) road required only a rise of three inches from the edges to the center. Cambering and elevation of the road above the
698:
were particularly attractive as they greatly reduced rolling resistance and mitigated the problem of getting mired in mud. Better grading to lessen the steepness of the worst stretches allowed draft animals to haul heavier loads.
188:. It connects the northern quarter with the southern quarter. The street is five meters wide and has an incline of 18% in the steepest part. It is paved with limestone blocks and on one side there is a small gutter for drainage.
626:
for a period of eleven years, and the revenues so raised should be used for the maintenance of the Great North Road in their jurisdictions. The toll gate erected at
Wadesmill became the first effective toll gate in England.
666:. About 150 trusts were established by 1750; by 1772 a further 400 were established and, in 1800, there were over 700 trusts. In 1825 about 1,000 trusts controlled 18,000 miles (29,000 km) of road in England and Wales.
421:
from wheels. The pavers allowed the Roman chariots to travel very quickly, ensuring good communication with the Roman provinces. Farm roads were often paved first on the way into town, to keep produce clean. Early forms of
605:
petitioned
Parliament for help to maintain their section of the Great North Road. Parliament passed an act that gave the local justices powers to erect toll gates on a section of the Great North Road, between
503:, new roads and bridges began to be built, often based on Roman designs. Although there were attempts to rediscover Roman methods, there was little useful innovation in road building before the 18th century.
341:
which was one of the finest highways of its time. The road was used even after Roman times. Because of the road's superior quality, mail couriers could travel 2,699 kilometres (1,677 mi) in seven days.
223:
Heavy four-wheeled wagons developed about 2500 BC, which were only suitable for oxen-haulage and therefore were only used where crops were cultivated, particularly
Mesopotamia. Two-wheeled chariots with
526:
were established with the function of collecting yearly taxes based on the goods carried by the people of
Dahomey and their occupation. The Royal Road was built in the late 18th century by King
1066:. Traffic could turn left between the parkway and connectors, crossing oncoming traffic, so it was not a controlled-access highway (or "freeway" as later defined by the federal government's
902:
Construction of the first macadamized road in the United States (1823). In the foreground, workers are breaking stones "so as not to exceed 6 ounces in weight or to pass a two-inch ring".
1964:
1077:, the demand for faster movement between cities and as a consequence of improvements in paving processes, techniques and materials. These original high-speed roads were referred to as "
690:
in the 1760s. British turnpike builders began to realise the importance of selecting clean stones for surfacing and excluding vegetative material and clay to make better lasting roads.
669:
The acts for these new trusts and the renewal acts for the earlier trusts incorporated a growing list of powers and responsibilities. From the 1750s, acts required trusts to erect
2042:
576:
557:, using Roman road designs with large stones at the bottom and gravel on top, with a typical overall depth of two metres. They were so poorly aligned and steep, according to
452:
because of a lack of resources and skills to maintain them, but many continued to be used. The alignments are still partially used today, for instance, parts of
England's
2073:
1909:
518:
that connected the
Ashanti capital with territories within its jurisdiction and influence. After significant road construction undertaken by the kingdom of
353:, water wells, education centers, rest houses and hospitals for humans and animals along the highways across Indian subcontinent and planted trees like
1659:
1996:
1067:
417:
On the more heavily traveled routes, there were additional layers that included six-sided capstones, or pavers, that reduced the dust and reduced the
673:
indicating the distance between the main towns on the road. Users of the road were obliged to follow what were to become rules of the road, such as
941:
783:
2126:
1923:
456:. Before the 13th century, there were no organized networks of streets inside cities, merely shifting footpaths. With the invention of the
1722:
2032:
1084:
Italy was the first country in the world to build controlled-access highways reserved for fast traffic and for motor vehicles only. The
1677:
180:
2316:
630:
The first scheme that had trustees who were not justices was established through a turnpike act in 1707, for a section of the London-
2256:
2188:
2159:
1885:
1466:
1432:
1054:, opened in 1908 as a private venture, was the world's first limited-access roadway. It included many modern features, including
586:
953:
occurred in the United States between the late 1870s and the 1920s. Advocates for improved roads led by bicyclists such as the
1490:
434:
426:
and shocks to reduce the bumps were incorporated in horse-drawn transport, as the original pavers were not perfectly aligned.
2095:
2065:
1684:
1504:
1383:
799:
introduced a system of continuous maintenance, where a roadman was allocated a section of road to be kept up to a standard.
1370:
954:
844:
732:
716:
683:
654:
Roads leading into some provincial towns, particularly in western England, were put under single trusts, and key roads in
1396:
589:
near Highgate on the approach to London before turnpiking. The highway was deeply rutted and spread onto adjoining land.
264:
in 3300 BC, and brick-paved roads were built in the Indus Valley Civilisation from around the same time. Improvements in
1250:
674:
1452:
1915:
1875:
1195:
898:
736:
515:
395:
1448:
1245:
1125:
1073:
Modern controlled-access highways originated in the early 1920s in response to the rapidly increasing use of the
1043:
1039:
1031:
735:, who constructed about 180 miles (290 km) of turnpike road mainly in the north of England, from 1765, when
143:
2292:
550:
488:
387:
2233:
1656:
835:
453:
961:
Later on, macadam roads did not hold up to higher-speed motor vehicle use. Methods to stabilise roads with
1164:
1129:
1121:
888:
828:
646:
611:
598:
1133:
1107:
1103:
1027:
1023:
728:
1012:
62:, humans did not need constructed tracks in open country. The first improved trails would have been at
1734:
1086:
1018:
985:
887:, who designed the first modern roads. He developed an inexpensive paving material of soil and stone
460:
and wagons with swivelled front axles that could make tight turns, urban street networks stabilized.
1632:
1176:
1168:
950:
484:
277:
147:
296:, a port on the south coast of the island, which had side drains, a 200 mm thick pavement of
2037:
1560:
1552:
1137:
884:
875:, Telford deviated from the original road, built by Romans during their occupation of this area.
860:
554:
464:
2268:
The road: An Ethnography of (im)mobility, spaces and cross-border infrastructures in the Balkans
400:
130:, developed along ridges in England to avoid crossing rivers and bogs. In central Germany, such
2151:
1175:
boasted the longest illuminated stretch of roadway built. A decade later, the first section of
1163:, which featured a median divider between opposing traffic flow, as well as the nation's first
94:
The first goods transport was on human backs and heads, but the use of pack animals, including
2252:
2184:
2155:
2122:
1919:
1881:
1500:
1482:
1462:
1428:
1156:
868:
787:
229:
142:
Street paving has been found from the first human settlements around 4000 BC in cities of the
2176:
1898:. (Details of this story vary a bit, but the essence of is the same, as are the basic facts).
2143:
1853:
1688:
1544:
1496:
1063:
1051:
759:. He explored the section of the countryside alone and worked out the most practical route.
739:
passed an act authorising the creation of turnpike trusts to build toll funded roads in the
641:
362:
350:
330:
308:
33:
2121:. Ontario Ministry of Transportation and Communications, Historical Committee. p. 55.
1179:
was opened, based on earlier designs. It has since become North America's busiest highway.
1171:, which featured a cloverleaf and trumpet interchange when it opened in 1937 and until the
843:
building a highway from scratch. Notable features of this section of the route include the
2296:
1969:
1663:
1152:
1141:
1111:
993:
864:
763:
635:
623:
570:
423:
319:
131:
63:
762:
He believed a good road should have good foundations, be well-drained, and have a smooth
678:
wheels—narrow wheels were said to cause a disproportionate amount of damage to the road.
2237:
1730:
1207:
1187:
824:
819:
811:
743:
area. Metcalf won a contract to build a three-mile (5 km) section of road between
615:
558:
511:
418:
162:. Roads in the towns were straight and long, intersecting one another at right angles.
51:
43:
1790:
US Department of Transportation - Federal Highway Administration (Accessed 2008-10-10)
2310:
2181:
The World Beyond the Windshield: Roads and Landscapes in the United States and Europe
2144:
1564:
1099:
1001:
872:
756:
740:
602:
561:, "as to be unfit for the purposes of civil life" and also rough and poorly drained.
457:
358:
293:
256:(road beds made of logs laid perpendicular to the direction of travel) were built in
253:
84:
76:
67:
55:
2301:
1785:
1486:
1230:
1199:
1190:. Bassett argued that roads should be classified into three basic types: highways,
1172:
1078:
936:
852:
594:
411:
407:
237:
175:
159:
134:
remained the predominant form of the long-distance road till the mid 18th century.
127:
2103:
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1235:
1055:
1047:
989:
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856:
848:
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659:
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507:
500:
449:
443:
382:
323:
269:
257:
200:
72:
59:
47:
21:
2211:
Bassett, Edward M. (February 1930). "The Freeway: A New Kind of Thoroughfare".
1224:
1211:
1116:
1074:
1059:
981:
839:
695:
366:
338:
265:
241:
2017:
Patton, Phil (9 October 2008). "A 100-Year-Old Dream: A Road Just for Cars".
1946:
1756:
1492:
The Early State in African Perspective: Culture, Power, and Division of Labor
184:
Greek street - 4th or 3rd century BC - The Porta Rosa was the main street of
1780:
1608:
1458:
1095:
752:
748:
687:
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607:
523:
468:
315:
297:
111:
99:
919:
were spread on the surface over a sizeable space, one shovelful at a time.
807:
581:
593:
Responsibility for the state of the roads lay with the local parish since
268:
meant that by 2000 BC stone-cutting tools were generally available in the
1306:
Beiträge Zur Geschichte der Alten Heer- und Handelsstraßen in Deutschland
974:
970:
663:
370:
151:
80:
1997:"The "Milano-Laghi" by Piero Puricelli, the first motorway in the world"
1409:
1384:
Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia
414:
made good time on these roads, and some are still used millennia later.
2277:
Transport and Economy: the turnpike roads of eighteenth century England
1556:
1203:
1191:
1160:
1145:
892:
768:
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631:
619:
527:
519:
472:
281:
261:
233:
213:
155:
107:
103:
1034:
ever built in the world, in 1925, the year following its inauguration.
973:, patented "Pitch Macadam". This method involved spreading tar on the
549:
constructed 250 miles (400 km) of road and 40 bridges to improve
539:
535:
531:
438:
Jan Brueghel (I) - Travellers on the Way, second half of 16th Century
354:
346:
312:
305:
289:
273:
217:
118:
114:
95:
2289:
1548:
965:
date back to at least 1834 when John Henry Cassell, operating from
719:, also known as Blind Jack of Knaresborough. Drawn by J R Smith in
276:
allowing local streets to be paved. Notably, in about 2000 BC, the
71:
allowing communications, trade and governance over wide areas. The
1091:
1011:
997:
940:
897:
806:
711:
655:
649:
to Rollright Turnpike Trust on the Great Road to Worcester in 1751
640:
580:
433:
394:
386:
285:
225:
204:
for this. Most early wheels appear to have been attached to fixed
196:
192:
185:
179:
88:
37:
1524:(Volume I ed.). Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.
483:
in the 8th century. Tar was derived from petroleum accessed from
772:
476:
334:
301:
209:
205:
171:
122:
1950:, "Apparatus for the preparation of tar macadam", July 26, 1904
1151:
In Canada, the first precursor with semi-controlled access was
2146:
Asphalt and Politics: A History of the American Highway System
1965:"The motorway that built Italy: Piero Puricelli's masterpiece"
962:
480:
1090:("Lakes Motorway"), the first built in the world, connecting
1382:
Andrea L. Stanton, Edward Ramsamy, Peter J. Seybold, 2012,
814:, the "Colossus of the Roads" in early 19th century Britain
499:
As states developed and became richer, especially with the
249:
248:
fact, the first paved streets appear to have been built in
228:
wheels appear to have been developed around 2000 BC by the
20:
started with the development of tracks by humans and their
2177:"Physical and Social Constructions of the Capital Beltway"
911:
enabled rainwater to run off into ditches on either side.
106:, a frame used to drag loads, which probably developed in
727:
The first professional road builder to emerge during the
2033:"Built to Meander, Parkway Fights to Keep Measured Pace"
1081:" and have been modernized and are still in use today.
1042:
evolved during the first half of the 20th century. The
2242:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Company.
1635:
University of Portsmouth. Accessdate 6 December 2012
838:
in the 1820s reduced the journey time of the London
577:
History of turnpikes and canals in the United States
1535:Alpern, Stanley B. (1999). "Dahomey's Royal Road".
1114:and was inaugurated in 1924. This motorway, called
357:and mango groves for the benefit of travelers. The
2179:. In Mauch, Christof & Zeller, Thomas (eds.).
992:. The tar was modified by adding small amounts of
827:, a task completed by his assistant of ten years,
1991:
1989:
1987:
102:. The first vehicle is believed to have been the
1576:
1574:
373:in Pakistan. Its length was around 2,000 miles.
322:. This road could be considered superior to any
1329:
1327:
1325:
1323:
1136:(opened 1936). In Germany, construction of the
786:is widely credited with establishing the first
487:in the region, through the chemical process of
216:appeared in about 2800 BC. They were hauled by
91:, are examples of effective use of such paths.
50:carrying goods over tracks that often followed
2183:. Athens: Ohio University Press. p. 195.
1958:
1956:
2150:. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co. p.
1877:Construction UK: Introduction to the Industry
645:The schedule of maximum tolls allowed on the
471:. The most sophisticated roads were those of
8:
2117:Shragge, John & Bagnato, Sharon (1984).
1427:(2nd ed.). Knowledge House Publishers.
1215:do not have rights of light, air or access.
240:. At much the same time the first primitive
2066:"Bronx River Parkway on an Endangered List"
2270:. Manchester: Manchester University press.
2206:
2204:
2202:
2200:
1590:
1588:
1586:
1880:, Oxford: Blackwell Science, p. 51,
1068:Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices
195:appear to have been developed in ancient
2251:. Sydney: Primavera Press. p. 401.
2096:"German Myth 8: Hitler and the Autobahn"
1522:Dahomey: An Ancient West African Kingdom
1140:began in 1929 and was opened in 1932 by
1854:From: 'Northern Millwall: Tooke Town',
1666:Schools History.org, Accessed July 2011
1261:
1128:was closed in 1937 and replaced by the
984:was patented by British civil engineer
945:Modes of road transport in Dublin, 1929
467:, many roads were built throughout the
1620:
1454:Warfare in Atlantic Africa, 1500-1800
333:started an extensive road system for
244:enabling horse-haulage was invented.
7:
2064:Hershenson, Roberta (18 June 1995).
1963:Lenarduzzi, Thea (30 January 2016).
1781:"1823 - First American Macadam Road"
1676:Huxford, Robert (3 September 2003).
1251:Public transport bus service#History
1022:("Lakes Motorway"; now parts of the
1186:was first used in February 1930 by
280:built a 50 km paved road from
2290:Macadam - Road Building in America
1860:Poplar, Blackwall and Isle of Dogs
1167:. This highway developed into the
883:It was another Scottish engineer,
14:
1132:(opened 1931) and the contiguous
967:Cassell's Patent Lava Stone Works
110:after the first use of bullocks (
98:and horses, developed during the
2076:from the original on 14 May 2013
2045:from the original on 14 May 2013
1520:Herskovits, Melville J. (1967).
1410:"No. 1913: Inventing the Street"
510:, road transport throughout the
365:which stretched from modern-day
212:in about 3000 BC, and two-wheel
399:Road construction, depicted on
1685:Institution of Civil Engineers
859:and then the descent from the
545:Between 1725 and 1737 General
1:
2266:Dalakoglou, Dimitris (2017).
1194:, and freeways. In Bassett's
784:Pierre-Marie-Jérôme Trésaguet
682:individual surveyors such as
597:times. In 1656 the parish of
1425:The Miracle of Islam Science
1371:Kaplan AP World History 2016
1038:The first version of modern
834:His engineering work on the
448:Roman roads deteriorated in
2302:UK Vehicle Recovery History
1916:National Geographic Society
1308:, Kassel, Bärenreiter, 1958
955:League of American Wheelmen
855:, the ascent from there to
391:Map of Roman roads in 125CE
87:, neither of which had the
2335:
2142:Karnes, Thomas L. (2009).
2119:From Footpaths to Freeways
1864:Date accessed: 24 May 2009
1124:opened in 1927, while the
1110:motorways, was devised by
1040:controlled-access highways
1008:Controlled-access highways
934:
867:. Between Capel Curig and
836:Holyhead Road (now the A5)
818:The surveyor and engineer
634:road between Fornhill and
574:
568:
516:network of well-kept roads
441:
380:
169:
31:
2317:History of road transport
1395:Sudeshna Sengupta, 2008,
1246:Horses in the Middle Ages
1126:Long Island Motor Parkway
1044:Long Island Motor Parkway
1032:controlled-access highway
703:Civil engineering designs
288:through the mountains to
144:Indus Valley Civilisation
18:history of road transport
1678:"How old is that route?"
1596:English Local Government
1483:Eisenstadt, Shmuel Noah.
1423:Dr. Kasem Ajram (1992).
1204:abutting property owners
1062:and reinforced concrete
771:(a type of heather) and
721:The Life of John Metcalf
489:destructive distillation
479:, which were paved with
345:From 268 BCE to 22 BCE,
311:, covered by a layer of
1808:McAdam (1824), pp.39-40
1757:"The Colossus of Roads"
1102:, and now parts of the
825:London to Holyhead road
791:layer (the sub-base or
406:With the advent of the
337:, including the famous
1911:The Book of Inventions
1908:Harrison, Ian (2004),
1647:, 1840, Vol 256 xxvii.
1397:History & Civics 9
1369:Patrick Whelan, 2015,
1165:cloverleaf interchange
1130:Northern State Parkway
1122:Southern State Parkway
1035:
946:
903:
815:
724:
650:
590:
465:medieval Islamic world
439:
403:
392:
189:
2175:Korr, Jeremy (2008).
1874:Ralph Morton (2002),
1858:: volumes 43 and 44:
1721:Bellis, Mary (2007).
1138:Bonn-Cologne Autobahn
1134:Grand Central Parkway
1015:
944:
901:
810:
729:Industrial Revolution
715:
644:
584:
575:Further information:
530:which stretched from
514:was maintained via a
442:Further information:
437:
398:
390:
183:
170:Further information:
32:Further information:
1944:Hooley, E. Purnell,
1826:Lay (1992), pp.76-77
1645:Parliamentary Papers
1623:, pp. 341, 260.
1485:; Abitbol, Michael;
1449:Thornton, John Kelly
1227:in the United States
1144:, then the mayor of
1087:Autostrada dei Laghi
1019:Autostrada dei Laghi
986:Edgar Purnell Hooley
121:. In about 5000 BC,
54:trails, such as the
2275:Pawson, E. (1977),
2239:Union and Democracy
1947:U.S. patent 765,975
1862:(1994), pp. 423-433
1817:McAdam (1824), p.41
1799:McAdam (1824), p.38
1206:have the rights of
1169:Queen Elizabeth Way
951:Good Roads Movement
788:scientific approach
751:on a new road from
675:driving on the left
658:were turnpiked. In
495:Early modern period
148:Indian subcontinent
42:The first forms of
2295:2016-12-06 at the
2070:The New York Times
2038:The New York Times
2019:The New York Times
1914:, Washington, DC:
1711:Lay (1992), p73-74
1662:2014-05-25 at the
1657:The Turnpike Trust
1036:
947:
904:
885:John Loudon McAdam
861:Nant Ffrancon Pass
816:
725:
651:
591:
555:Scottish Highlands
553:'s control of the
440:
404:
393:
300:blocks bound with
190:
2249:Ways of the World
2247:Lay, M G (1992).
2128:978-0-7743-9388-1
1925:978-0-7922-8296-9
1537:History in Africa
1188:Edward M. Bassett
610:, Hertfordshire;
318:and had separate
230:Andronovo culture
166:Wheeled transport
126:roads, including
83:Confederation in
2324:
2279:
2271:
2262:
2243:
2221:
2220:
2208:
2195:
2194:
2172:
2166:
2165:
2149:
2139:
2133:
2132:
2114:
2108:
2107:
2102:. Archived from
2100:German.about.com
2092:
2086:
2085:
2083:
2081:
2061:
2055:
2054:
2052:
2050:
2029:
2023:
2022:
2014:
2008:
2007:
2005:
2003:
1993:
1982:
1981:
1979:
1977:
1960:
1951:
1949:
1942:
1936:
1935:
1934:
1932:
1905:
1899:
1897:
1896:
1894:
1871:
1865:
1856:Survey of London
1851:
1845:
1842:
1836:
1833:
1827:
1824:
1818:
1815:
1809:
1806:
1800:
1797:
1791:
1778:
1772:
1771:
1770:
1768:
1752:
1746:
1745:
1743:
1742:
1737:on June 30, 2012
1733:. Archived from
1727:About: inventors
1723:"Thomas Telford"
1718:
1712:
1709:
1703:
1702:
1700:
1699:
1693:
1687:. Archived from
1682:
1673:
1667:
1654:
1648:
1642:
1636:
1630:
1624:
1618:
1612:
1605:
1599:
1592:
1581:
1578:
1569:
1568:
1532:
1526:
1525:
1517:
1511:
1510:
1479:
1473:
1472:
1445:
1439:
1438:
1420:
1414:
1413:
1406:
1400:
1393:
1387:
1380:
1374:
1367:
1361:
1358:
1352:
1349:
1343:
1340:
1334:
1331:
1318:
1315:
1309:
1302:
1296:
1293:
1287:
1284:
1278:
1275:
1269:
1266:
1173:Second World War
587:Great North Road
506:In 18th century
363:Grand Trunk Road
331:Darius the Great
34:Packhorse bridge
22:beasts of burden
2334:
2333:
2327:
2326:
2325:
2323:
2322:
2321:
2307:
2306:
2297:Wayback Machine
2286:
2274:
2265:
2259:
2246:
2232:
2229:
2224:
2210:
2209:
2198:
2191:
2174:
2173:
2169:
2162:
2141:
2140:
2136:
2129:
2116:
2115:
2111:
2094:
2093:
2089:
2079:
2077:
2063:
2062:
2058:
2048:
2046:
2041:. 6 June 1995.
2031:
2030:
2026:
2016:
2015:
2011:
2001:
1999:
1995:
1994:
1985:
1975:
1973:
1970:The Independent
1962:
1961:
1954:
1945:
1943:
1939:
1930:
1928:
1926:
1918:, p. 277,
1907:
1906:
1902:
1892:
1890:
1888:
1873:
1872:
1868:
1852:
1848:
1844:Lay (1992), p83
1843:
1839:
1835:Lay (1992), p77
1834:
1830:
1825:
1821:
1816:
1812:
1807:
1803:
1798:
1794:
1779:
1775:
1766:
1764:
1754:
1753:
1749:
1740:
1738:
1720:
1719:
1715:
1710:
1706:
1697:
1695:
1691:
1680:
1675:
1674:
1670:
1664:Wayback Machine
1655:
1651:
1643:
1639:
1631:
1627:
1619:
1615:
1606:
1602:
1593:
1584:
1580:Lay (1992), p72
1579:
1572:
1549:10.2307/3172135
1534:
1533:
1529:
1519:
1518:
1514:
1507:
1481:
1480:
1476:
1469:
1447:
1446:
1442:
1435:
1422:
1421:
1417:
1408:
1407:
1403:
1394:
1390:
1381:
1377:
1368:
1364:
1360:Lay (1992), p44
1359:
1355:
1351:Lay (1992), p43
1350:
1346:
1342:Lay (1992), p51
1341:
1337:
1333:Lay (1992), p28
1332:
1321:
1317:Lay (1992), p27
1316:
1312:
1304:Landau, Georg:
1303:
1299:
1294:
1290:
1286:Lay (1992), p25
1285:
1281:
1276:
1272:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1221:
1202:-based system,
1153:The Middle Road
1142:Konrad Adenauer
1112:Piero Puricelli
1010:
994:Portland cement
939:
933:
881:
845:Waterloo Bridge
805:
781:
723:published 1801.
710:
705:
636:Stony Stratford
624:Huntingdonshire
579:
573:
571:Turnpike trusts
567:
497:
450:medieval Europe
446:
432:
401:Trajan's Column
385:
379:
178:
168:
140:
68:mountain passes
60:Paleolithic Age
40:
30:
12:
11:
5:
2332:
2331:
2328:
2320:
2319:
2309:
2308:
2305:
2304:
2299:
2285:
2284:External links
2282:
2281:
2280:
2272:
2263:
2257:
2244:
2234:Johnson, Allen
2228:
2225:
2223:
2222:
2196:
2189:
2167:
2160:
2134:
2127:
2109:
2106:on 8 May 2006.
2087:
2056:
2024:
2009:
1983:
1952:
1937:
1924:
1900:
1886:
1866:
1846:
1837:
1828:
1819:
1810:
1801:
1792:
1773:
1755:Craig, David,
1747:
1731:New York Times
1729:. About, Inc,
1713:
1704:
1668:
1649:
1637:
1633:Hampshire Maps
1625:
1613:
1600:
1582:
1570:
1527:
1512:
1505:
1499:. p. 86.
1474:
1467:
1461:. p. 73.
1440:
1433:
1415:
1401:
1388:
1375:
1362:
1353:
1344:
1335:
1319:
1310:
1297:
1295:Lay (1992), p9
1288:
1279:
1277:Lay (1992), p7
1270:
1268:Lay (1992), p5
1260:
1258:
1255:
1254:
1253:
1248:
1243:
1238:
1233:
1228:
1220:
1217:
1009:
1006:
935:Main article:
932:
929:
880:
877:
820:Thomas Telford
812:Thomas Telford
804:
801:
780:
777:
709:
706:
704:
701:
616:Cambridgeshire
569:Main article:
566:
563:
559:Thomas Telford
512:Ashanti Empire
496:
493:
431:
428:
381:Main article:
378:
375:
254:Corduroy roads
167:
164:
150:in modern-day
139:
138:Harappan roads
136:
117:) for pulling
44:road transport
29:
26:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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2258:1-875368-05-1
2254:
2250:
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2240:
2235:
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2230:
2226:
2218:
2214:
2213:American City
2207:
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2201:
2197:
2192:
2190:9780821417676
2186:
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2178:
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2161:9780786442829
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2020:
2013:
2010:
1998:
1992:
1990:
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1984:
1972:
1971:
1966:
1959:
1957:
1953:
1948:
1941:
1938:
1927:
1921:
1917:
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1901:
1889:
1887:0-632-05852-8
1883:
1879:
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1796:
1793:
1789:
1787:
1782:
1777:
1774:
1763:, Strum.co.uk
1762:
1758:
1751:
1748:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1717:
1714:
1708:
1705:
1694:on 2007-09-27
1690:
1686:
1679:
1672:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1658:
1653:
1650:
1646:
1641:
1638:
1634:
1629:
1626:
1622:
1617:
1614:
1610:
1604:
1601:
1598:. pp. 157-159
1597:
1591:
1589:
1587:
1583:
1577:
1575:
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1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
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1531:
1528:
1523:
1516:
1513:
1508:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1493:
1488:
1487:Chazan, Naomi
1484:
1478:
1475:
1470:
1468:9781135365844
1464:
1460:
1456:
1455:
1450:
1444:
1441:
1436:
1434:0-911119-43-4
1430:
1426:
1419:
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1411:
1405:
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1135:
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1123:
1119:
1118:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1100:Lake Maggiore
1097:
1093:
1089:
1088:
1082:
1080:
1079:dual highways
1076:
1071:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1033:
1030:), the first
1029:
1028:Autostrada A9
1025:
1024:Autostrada A8
1021:
1020:
1014:
1007:
1005:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
978:
976:
972:
968:
964:
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943:
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928:
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916:
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910:
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896:
894:
890:
886:
878:
876:
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
846:
841:
837:
832:
830:
829:John MacNeill
826:
821:
813:
809:
802:
800:
796:
794:
789:
785:
778:
776:
774:
770:
765:
760:
758:
757:Boroughbridge
754:
750:
746:
742:
741:Knaresborough
738:
734:
730:
722:
718:
714:
707:
702:
700:
697:
691:
689:
685:
679:
676:
672:
667:
665:
661:
657:
648:
643:
639:
637:
633:
628:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
604:
603:Hertfordshire
600:
596:
588:
583:
578:
572:
564:
562:
560:
556:
552:
548:
543:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
504:
502:
494:
492:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
461:
459:
458:horse harness
455:
451:
445:
436:
429:
427:
425:
420:
415:
413:
409:
402:
397:
389:
384:
376:
374:
372:
368:
364:
360:
359:Maurya Empire
356:
352:
349:built roads,
348:
343:
340:
336:
332:
327:
325:
321:
317:
314:
310:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
245:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
221:
219:
215:
211:
207:
202:
198:
194:
187:
182:
177:
173:
165:
163:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
137:
135:
133:
129:
124:
120:
116:
113:
109:
105:
101:
100:Neolithic Age
97:
92:
90:
86:
85:North America
82:
78:
77:South America
74:
69:
65:
61:
57:
56:Natchez Trace
53:
49:
45:
39:
35:
27:
25:
23:
19:
2276:
2267:
2248:
2238:
2216:
2212:
2180:
2170:
2145:
2137:
2118:
2112:
2104:the original
2099:
2090:
2078:. Retrieved
2069:
2059:
2047:. Retrieved
2036:
2027:
2018:
2012:
2000:. Retrieved
1974:. Retrieved
1968:
1940:
1929:, retrieved
1910:
1903:
1891:, retrieved
1876:
1869:
1859:
1855:
1849:
1840:
1831:
1822:
1813:
1804:
1795:
1786:Carl Rakeman
1784:(Painting -
1783:
1776:
1765:, retrieved
1760:
1750:
1739:. Retrieved
1735:the original
1726:
1716:
1707:
1696:. Retrieved
1689:the original
1671:
1652:
1644:
1640:
1628:
1616:
1603:
1595:
1540:
1536:
1530:
1521:
1515:
1491:
1477:
1453:
1443:
1424:
1418:
1404:
1391:
1378:
1365:
1356:
1347:
1338:
1313:
1305:
1300:
1291:
1282:
1273:
1264:
1231:Caravanserai
1200:property law
1183:
1181:
1150:
1115:
1085:
1083:
1072:
1056:banked turns
1037:
1017:
1016:The Italian
979:
966:
960:
948:
937:Road surface
931:Modern roads
925:
921:
917:
913:
905:
882:
873:Ogwen Valley
853:Betws-y-Coed
833:
817:
797:
782:
761:
733:John Metcalf
726:
720:
717:John Metcalf
692:
684:John Metcalf
680:
668:
652:
629:
592:
544:
505:
498:
462:
447:
416:
408:Roman Empire
405:
344:
328:
284:in northern
252:in 4000 BC.
246:
238:Central Asia
232:in southern
222:
191:
176:Bullock cart
160:Mohenjo-Daro
141:
128:the Ridgeway
93:
48:pack animals
41:
17:
15:
1621:Pawson 1977
1241:Trade route
1236:Dromography
1225:Auto trails
1177:Highway 401
1060:guard rails
1048:Long Island
990:steamroller
909:water table
857:Capel Curig
849:River Conwy
847:across the
793:base course
696:Plank roads
660:South Wales
547:George Wade
508:West Africa
501:Renaissance
469:Arab Empire
444:Gravel road
430:Middle Ages
383:Roman roads
377:Roman roads
329:In 500 BC,
270:Middle East
258:Glastonbury
201:Mesopotamia
73:Inca Empire
2227:References
1761:Palimpsest
1741:2007-01-19
1698:2007-01-19
1506:9004083553
1399:, page 97.
1117:autostrada
1075:automobile
982:tarmacadam
891:(known as
840:mail coach
737:Parliament
671:milestones
565:Toll roads
524:toll roads
485:oil fields
367:Bangladesh
361:built the
339:Royal Road
324:Roman road
316:flagstones
266:metallurgy
154:, such as
1609:15 Cha. 2
1565:161238713
1543:: 11–24.
1459:Routledge
1182:The word
1096:Lake Como
889:aggregate
871:, in the
779:Trésaguet
753:Harrogate
749:Ferrensby
688:Yorkshire
647:Woodstock
608:Wadesmill
320:shoulders
298:sandstone
132:ridgeways
112:castrated
58:. In the
28:Antiquity
2311:Category
2293:Archived
2236:(1915).
2080:13 April
2074:Archived
2049:13 April
2043:Archived
1660:Archived
1607:Statute
1489:(1988).
1451:(1999).
1219:See also
1192:parkways
1157:Hamilton
1155:between
1052:New York
1026:and the
975:subgrade
971:Millwall
869:Bethesda
863:towards
664:Scotland
534:through
371:Peshawar
313:basaltic
214:chariots
152:Pakistan
81:Iroquois
79:and the
1931:23 June
1893:22 June
1767:18 June
1611:. c. 1.
1557:3172135
1386:, p 41.
1184:freeway
1161:Toronto
1146:Cologne
980:Modern
893:macadam
803:Telford
745:Minskip
708:Metcalf
632:Chester
620:Stilton
599:Radwell
551:Britain
528:Kpengla
520:Dahomey
473:Baghdad
463:In the
424:springs
412:legions
282:Knossos
278:Minoans
262:England
242:harness
234:Siberia
218:onagers
156:Harappa
146:on the
108:Eurasia
104:travois
96:donkeys
2255:
2187:
2158:
2125:
2002:10 May
1976:12 May
1922:
1884:
1594:Webb.
1563:
1555:
1503:
1465:
1431:
1196:zoning
1064:tarmac
1000:, and
879:McAdam
865:Bangor
764:convex
618:; and
612:Caxton
540:Ouidah
538:up to
532:Abomey
355:banyan
351:edicts
347:Ashoka
335:Persia
309:mortar
306:gypsum
294:Lebena
290:Gortyn
274:Greece
226:spoked
193:Wheels
115:cattle
2219:: 95.
1692:(PDF)
1681:(PDF)
1561:S2CID
1553:JSTOR
1497:Brill
1257:Notes
1208:light
1092:Milan
1002:pitch
998:resin
773:furze
656:Wales
595:Tudor
286:Crete
206:axles
197:Sumer
123:sleds
119:plows
89:wheel
64:fords
46:were
38:Trail
2253:ISBN
2185:ISBN
2156:ISBN
2123:ISBN
2082:2010
2051:2010
2004:2022
1978:2022
1933:2010
1920:ISBN
1895:2010
1882:ISBN
1769:2010
1501:ISBN
1463:ISBN
1429:ISBN
1198:and
1159:and
1106:and
1098:and
949:The
769:ling
747:and
731:was
585:The
536:Cana
477:Iraq
419:drag
302:clay
292:and
272:and
236:and
210:Iran
186:Elea
174:and
172:Cart
158:and
52:game
36:and
16:The
2152:131
1545:doi
1212:air
1094:to
1070:).
1046:on
969:in
963:tar
851:at
755:to
686:in
481:tar
369:to
199:in
75:in
2313::
2217:42
2215:.
2199:^
2154:.
2098:.
2072:.
2068:.
2035:.
1986:^
1967:.
1955:^
1759:,
1725:.
1683:.
1585:^
1573:^
1559:.
1551:.
1541:26
1539:.
1495:.
1457:.
1322:^
1210:,
1148:.
1108:A9
1104:A8
1058:,
1050:,
1004:.
996:,
831:.
622:,
614:,
601:,
542:.
522:,
491:.
475:,
454:A1
326:.
260:,
250:Ur
220:.
66:,
24:.
2261:.
2193:.
2164:.
2131:.
2084:.
2053:.
2021:.
2006:.
1980:.
1788:)
1744:.
1701:.
1567:.
1547::
1509:.
1471:.
1437:.
1412:.
1373:.
304:-
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