123:
interpret situation as hostile), limited ability to generate a broad range of potential responses, and difficulty appropriately evaluating responses and selecting an optimal response. Furthermore, biases in any of the steps affect the rest of the steps. Hostile attribution bias has been particularly linked to step 2 of social information processing (i.e., interpretation of information), but is linked to impairments in other steps as well, including inaccurate perception/encoding of social situations and problems with generating a broad range of potential behavioral responses. For example, a child with high levels of hostile attribution bias may generate fewer potential responses than other children, and these responses may be limited to hostile or ineffective responses to a situation.
52:), including the way individuals perceive, interpret, and select responses to situations. While occasional hostile attribution bias is normative (particularly for younger children), researchers have found that individuals who exhibit consistent and high levels of hostile attribution bias across development are much more likely to engage in aggressive behavior (e.g., hitting/fighting, reacting violently, verbal or
63:. For example, children exposed to peer teasing at school or child abuse at home are much more likely to develop high levels of hostile attribution bias, which then lead them to behave aggressively at school and/or at home. Thus, in addition to partially explaining one way aggression develops, hostile attribution bias also represents a target for the intervention and prevention of aggressive behaviors.
188:
relational problems in adulthood, including marital conflict/violence and marital/relationship dissatisfaction. Finally, parents with high levels of hostile attribution bias are also much more likely to use harsh discipline and aggressive parenting, which may further contribute to the intergenerational continuity in hostile attribution bias and aggression across time.
37:, is the tendency to interpret others' behaviors as having hostile intent, even when the behavior is ambiguous or benign. For example, a person with high levels of hostile attribution bias might see two people laughing and immediately interpret this behavior as two people laughing about them, even though the behavior was ambiguous and may have been benign.
152:"). Multiple trials are administered with various ambiguous scenarios, and these attributions are then used by the researchers to determine the level of the child's hostile attribution bias. Careful selection of stimuli and comparison of stimuli across mediums is helpful for accurately assessing an individual's level of hostile attribution bias. A
175:"reactive aggression" (i.e., impulsive and "hot-blooded" aggression that reflects an angry retaliation to perceived provocation) rather than "proactive aggression" (i.e., unprovoked, planned/instrumental, or "cold-blooded" aggression). Beyond physical aggression, elevated hostile attribution bias is also associated with increased use of
71:
The term hostile attribution bias first emerged in 1980 when researchers began noticing that some children, particularly aggressive and/or rejected children, tended to interpret social situations differently compared to other children. For example, Nasby and colleagues presented photographs of people
147:
In research settings, hostile attribution bias is typically measured with a laboratory task, in which participants are presented with staged interaction (live actors), video, picture, audio, or written presentations of ambiguous social situations. For example, an ambiguous social situation presented
102:
Accurately encode information in the brain and store it in short-term memory. During this step, an individual will pay attention to and code specific stimuli/cues in their environment, including external factors (e.g., someone bumping into you; other people's reactions to the situation) and internal
174:
in youth. Hostile attribution bias is traditionally associated with overt physical aggression (e.g., hitting, fighting), such that higher levels of hostile attribution bias predict more aggressive behavior. In particular, much evidence suggests that hostile attribution bias is especially linked to
122:
Hostile attribution bias is theorized to result from deviations in any of these steps, including paying attention to and encoding biased information (e.g., only paying attention to cues suggestive of hostility), biases toward negative interpretations of social interactions (e.g., more likely to
76:
and colleagues conducted a study on a sample of school-aged children between 3rd–5th grade and found that children who were rejected were much more likely than other children to exhibit hostile attributions of intent to ambiguous social situations (e.g., when a behavior could have been either
187:
Hostile attribution bias has also been documented in adult populations, and adults with high levels of hostile attribution bias are over four times more likely to die by the age of 50 than adults with low levels of hostile attribution bias. Hostile attribution bias is particularly linked to
200:
designed to increase accurate identification of others' intentions and attribution of benign intentions. Relative success has been documented from these interventions in changing levels of hostile attribution bias, although actual enduring changes in aggressive behavior have been modest.
148:
might be a video of a child opening a door, causing the door to knock over a tower of toys that another child was building. After the stimulus is presented, participants would be asked to make attributions about the intent of the actor (i.e., hostile vs. benign). (For example: "
156:
investigating the link between hostile attribution bias and aggressive behavior found that the strongest effect sizes were linked with actual staging of social interactions, followed by audio presentation of stimuli, then video and picture presentation.
80:
Early studies investigating links between hostile attribution bias and aggression were somewhat mixed, with some studies reporting no significant effects or small effects and other studies reporting large effects. Since then, over 100 studies and a
97:
framework, in which social information (e.g., during an interaction) is processed in a series of steps that leads to a behavioral reaction. Accurate social information processing requires a person to engage in six steps that occur in order.
179:(e.g., gossip, spreading rumors, social exclusion). This is particularly the case when youth attribute hostile intent to ambiguous relational situations (e.g., not receiving an invitation to a party or not receiving a response to a text).
72:
to a group of aggressive adolescent boys (aged 10–16) and observed that a subgroup of these youth exhibited a consistent tendency to attribute hostile intent to the photographs, even when the cues were ambiguous or benign. Similarly,
130:
about the world that are formed through an interaction between a child's neural dispositions and his/her early exposures to hostile socialization experiences. These experiences may include disrupted parental
44:), that a subgroup of children tend to attribute hostile intent to ambiguous social situations more often than other children. Since then, hostile attribution bias has been conceptualized as a bias of
85:
have documented a robust association between hostile attribution bias and aggressive behavior across various samples ranging in age, gender, race, countries, and clinical populations.
77:
accidental or intentional). Furthermore, Dodge and colleagues found that children with high hostile attribution bias then went on to exhibit the most aggressive behaviors later on.
59:
In addition, hostile attribution bias is hypothesized to be one important pathway through which other risk factors, such as peer rejection or harsh parenting behavior, lead to
40:
The term "hostile attribution bias" was first coined in 1980 by Nasby, Hayden, and DePaulo who noticed, along with several other key pioneers in this research area (e.g.,
1292:"The relation between mothers' hostile attribution tendencies and children's externalizing behavior problems: the mediating role of mothers' harsh discipline practices"
2127:
106:
Accurately interpret or give meaning to encoded information. During this step, an individual may decide if a behavior or situation was meant to be hostile or benign.
2102:
94:
45:
2132:
924:"Relationally and physically aggressive children's intent attributions and feelings of distress for relational and instrumental peer provocations"
1482:"Dismantling anger control training for children: A randomized pilot study of social problem-solving versus social skills training components"
456:
1065:"Differentiating Forms and Functions of Aggression in Emerging Adults: Associations with Hostile Attribution Biases and Normative Beliefs"
877:"The Role of Overt Aggression, Relational Aggression, and Prosocial Behavior in the Prediction of Children's Future Social Adjustment"
1529:
196:
Hostile attribution bias has been tested as a malleable target for intervention for aggressive behaviors in youth, including in
2122:
1932:
2051:
1937:
1591:
1586:
1709:
436:
2045:
1571:
1677:
373:"Translational science in action: hostile attributional style and the development of aggressive behavior problems"
2225:
2175:
1899:
1699:
572:"Reactive and proactive aggression in school children and psychiatrically impaired chronically assaultive youth"
2204:
2199:
2112:
1994:
1759:
1635:
220:
215:
970:
1290:
Nix, R. L.; Pinderhughes, E. E.; Dodge, K. A.; Bates, J. E.; Pettit, G. S.; McFadyen-Ketchum, S. A. (1999).
650:"Attributional and emotional determinants of aggression among African-American and Latino young adolescents"
197:
1151:"Attributing negative intent to wife behavior: the attributions of maritally violent versus nonviolent men"
249:"Attributional bias among aggressive boys to interpret unambiguous social stimuli as displays of hostility"
2185:
1869:
1849:
1630:
1608:
1339:"Intergenerational continuity in child maltreatment: mediating mechanisms and implications for prevention"
1434:
876:
1964:
1879:
1854:
1799:
479:"A review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanisms in children's social adjustment"
176:
53:
150:
Do you think the girl who opened the door was trying to be mean, nice, or could have been mean or nice?
1917:
1769:
1645:
1522:
523:
Orobio de Castro, Bram; Veerman, Jan W.; Koops, Willem; Bosch, Joop D.; Monshouwer, Heidi J. (2002).
2072:
1989:
1889:
1824:
1764:
1754:
1749:
1613:
127:
1969:
1954:
1714:
1704:
1687:
1481:
1018:"Do hostile attribution biases in children and parents predict relationally aggressive behavior?"
849:
708:
618:
332:
689:"Aggressive Boys' Hostile Perceptual and Response Biases: The Role of Attention and Impulsivity"
170:
Substantial literature has documented a robust association between hostile attribution bias and
736:"Toward an integrated gender-linked model of aggression subtypes in early and middle childhood"
2082:
2019:
2004:
1927:
1909:
1844:
1640:
1556:
1462:
1454:
1435:"An Attributional Intervention to Reduce Peer-directed Aggression among African-American Boys"
1415:
1376:
1358:
1319:
1311:
1272:
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132:
2149:
2009:
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1115:
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661:
630:
583:
536:
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384:
316:
260:
210:
73:
49:
41:
570:
Dodge, K. A.; Lochman, J. E.; Harnish, J. D.; Bates, J. E.; Pettit, G. S. (February 1997).
2117:
2107:
1884:
1864:
1779:
1682:
1657:
1652:
1625:
1603:
1515:
1102:
Barefoot, J. C.; Dodge, K. A.; Peterson, B. L.; Dahlstrom, W. G.; Williams, R. B. (1989).
619:"Deficient Social Problem-Solving in Boys With ODD/CD, With ADHD, and With Both Disorders"
139:, exposure to family violence, peer rejection or victimization, and community violence.
17:
2159:
2154:
2144:
2067:
1984:
1944:
1894:
1839:
1829:
1814:
1809:
1774:
1729:
1694:
1598:
1547:
1450:
1371:
1338:
986:
892:
405:
372:
1497:
2219:
2097:
2077:
2040:
2014:
1999:
1979:
1959:
1922:
1834:
1794:
1789:
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1662:
1566:
1395:
1354:
1119:
1064:
649:
634:
478:
153:
82:
2057:
1819:
1804:
126:
Dodge theorized that hostile attribution bias arises from an individual's hostile
1480:
Sukhodolsky, Denis G.; Golub, Arthur; Stone, Erin C.; Orban, Lisa (Winter 2005).
1033:
1974:
1744:
1734:
1724:
1620:
1260:
1166:
136:
1411:
1104:"The Cook-Medley hostility scale: item content and ability to predict survival"
830:"Social Information-Processing Mechanisms in Reactive and Proactive Aggression"
798:
665:
587:
494:
264:
2092:
2087:
2062:
1213:
1080:
388:
171:
60:
1458:
1419:
1396:"Cognitive mediators of aggression in adolescent offenders: II. Intervention"
1362:
1315:
1268:
1221:
1174:
1127:
1088:
1041:
994:
947:
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673:
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548:
502:
396:
328:
272:
2180:
1667:
1307:
1291:
1244:
1243:
MacBrayer, Elizabeth Kirby; Milich, Richard; Hundley, Mary (November 2003).
1017:
939:
923:
540:
524:
448:
1380:
1323:
1276:
1197:
1150:
1103:
1049:
955:
782:
767:
735:
571:
556:
414:
248:
1466:
1229:
1182:
1135:
1002:
908:
861:
814:
720:
603:
344:
280:
2139:
2024:
617:
Matthys, Waitek; Cuperus, Juliane M.; Engeland, Herman Van (March 1999).
525:"Hostile attribution of intent and aggressive behavior: a meta-analysis"
437:"A Social Information Processing Model of Social Competence in Children"
853:
829:
712:
688:
336:
304:
441:
Cognitive
Perspectives on Children's Social and Behavioral Development
751:
922:
Crick, Nicki R.; Grotpeter, Jennifer K.; Bigbee, Maureen A. (2002).
845:
704:
623:
Journal of the
American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry
320:
783:"Social maladjustment and problem solving in school-aged children"
1538:
971:"Response Decision Processes in Relational and Overt Aggression"
648:
Graham, Sandra; Hudley, Cynthia; Williams, Estella (July 1992).
1511:
1245:"Attributional biases in aggressive children and their mothers"
115:
Evaluate potential responses and select the "optimal" response
93:
Hostile attribution bias is typically conceptualized within a
1337:
Berlin, Lisa J.; Appleyard, Karen; Dodge, Kenneth A. (2011).
1507:
734:
Ostrov, Jamie M.; Godleski, Stephanie A. (January 2010).
103:
factors (e.g., your affective reaction to the situation).
1063:
Bailey, Christopher A.; Ostrov, Jamie M. (July 2008).
305:"Social Cognition and Children's Aggressive Behavior"
969:
Crick, Nicki R.; Werner, Nicole E. (December 1998).
2168:
2033:
1908:
1545:
477:Crick, Nicki R.; Dodge, Kenneth A. (January 1994).
247:Nasby, W.; Hayden, B.; DePaulo, B. M. (June 1980).
1149:Holtzworth-Munroe, A.; Hutchinson, G. (May 1993).
1433:Hudley, Cynthia; Graham, Sandra (February 1993).
1394:Guerra, Nancy G.; Slaby, Ronald G. (March 1990).
443:(0 ed.). Psychology Press. pp. 85–134.
1196:Bradbury, T. N.; Fincham, F. D. (January 1990).
828:Crick, Nicki R.; Dodge, Kenneth A. (June 1996).
1198:"Attributions in marriage: review and critique"
1523:
787:Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
8:
781:Richard, B. A.; Dodge, K. A. (April 1982).
2186:Heuristics in judgment and decision-making
1530:
1516:
1508:
1370:
404:
27:Interpreting others' behavior as hostile
232:
192:Clinical implications for intervention
7:
518:
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472:
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1451:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1993.tb02899.x
987:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06181.x
893:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01859.x
435:Perlmutter, M., ed. (2014-01-14).
25:
1022:The Journal of Genetic Psychology
109:Decide a goal for the interaction
1355:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01547.x
1120:10.1097/00006842-198901000-00005
1069:Journal of Youth and Adolescence
875:Crick, Nicki R. (October 1996).
635:10.1097/00004583-199903000-00019
687:Waldman, Irwin D. (June 1996).
377:Development and Psychopathology
1249:Journal of Abnormal Psychology
1155:Journal of Abnormal Psychology
576:Journal of Abnormal Psychology
253:Journal of Abnormal Psychology
1:
1498:10.1016/S0005-7894(05)80050-4
95:social information processing
46:social information processing
35:hostile attribution of intent
1034:10.1080/00221325.2011.600357
112:Generate potential responses
2052:DĂ©formation professionnelle
1261:10.1037/0021-843X.112.4.598
1167:10.1037/0021-843x.102.2.206
2242:
2046:Basking in reflected glory
1412:10.1037/0012-1649.26.2.269
1016:Werner, Nicole E. (2012).
799:10.1037/0022-006x.50.2.226
666:10.1037/0012-1649.28.4.731
588:10.1037/0021-843x.106.1.37
495:10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.74
371:Dodge, Kenneth A. (2006).
303:Dodge, Kenneth A. (1980).
265:10.1037/0021-843x.89.3.459
2194:
2176:Cognitive bias mitigation
1214:10.1037/0033-2909.107.1.3
1081:10.1007/s10964-007-9211-5
389:10.1017/s0954579406060391
1760:Illusion of transparency
1400:Developmental Psychology
654:Developmental Psychology
221:Psychological projection
216:Attribution (psychology)
31:Hostile attribution bias
18:Hostile Attribution Bias
1308:10.1111/1467-8624.00065
940:10.1111/1467-8624.00462
541:10.1111/1467-8624.00447
449:10.4324/9781315802343-7
198:cognitive interventions
183:Negative adult outcomes
89:Theoretical formulation
1202:Psychological Bulletin
1108:Psychosomatic Medicine
483:Psychological Bulletin
2128:Arab–Israeli conflict
1855:Social influence bias
1800:Out-group homogeneity
177:relational aggression
118:Enact chosen response
54:relational aggression
1770:Mere-exposure effect
1700:Extrinsic incentives
1646:Selective perception
740:Psychological Review
1995:Social desirability
1890:von Restorff effect
1765:Mean world syndrome
1740:Hostile attribution
1910:Statistical biases
1688:Curse of knowledge
50:attribution biases
48:(similar to other
2213:
2212:
1850:Social comparison
1631:Choice-supportive
1439:Child Development
1343:Child Development
1296:Child Development
975:Child Development
928:Child Development
881:Child Development
834:Child Development
693:Child Development
529:Child Development
458:978-1-315-80234-3
309:Child Development
56:) toward others.
16:(Redirected from
2233:
2226:Cognitive biases
2010:Systematic error
1965:Omitted-variable
1880:Trait ascription
1720:Frog pond effect
1548:Cognitive biases
1532:
1525:
1518:
1509:
1502:
1501:
1486:Behavior Therapy
1477:
1471:
1470:
1430:
1424:
1423:
1391:
1385:
1384:
1374:
1334:
1328:
1327:
1287:
1281:
1280:
1240:
1234:
1233:
1193:
1187:
1186:
1146:
1140:
1139:
1099:
1093:
1092:
1060:
1054:
1053:
1013:
1007:
1006:
981:(6): 1630–1639.
966:
960:
959:
934:(4): 1134–1142.
919:
913:
912:
887:(5): 2317–2327.
872:
866:
865:
825:
819:
818:
778:
772:
771:
752:10.1037/a0018070
731:
725:
724:
699:(3): 1015–1033.
684:
678:
677:
645:
639:
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614:
608:
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567:
561:
560:
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349:
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211:Attribution bias
74:Kenneth A. Dodge
42:Kenneth A. Dodge
21:
2241:
2240:
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2232:
2231:
2230:
2216:
2215:
2214:
2209:
2190:
2164:
2029:
1904:
1885:Turkey illusion
1653:Compassion fade
1550:
1541:
1536:
1506:
1505:
1479:
1478:
1474:
1432:
1431:
1427:
1393:
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1336:
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1010:
968:
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921:
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916:
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869:
846:10.2307/1131875
827:
826:
822:
780:
779:
775:
733:
732:
728:
705:10.2307/1131877
686:
685:
681:
647:
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616:
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611:
569:
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522:
521:
510:
476:
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434:
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370:
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321:10.2307/1129603
302:
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91:
69:
28:
23:
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15:
12:
11:
5:
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2208:
2207:
2202:
2195:
2192:
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2178:
2172:
2170:
2169:Bias reduction
2166:
2165:
2163:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2145:Political bias
2142:
2137:
2136:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2090:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2073:Infrastructure
2070:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2048:
2043:
2037:
2035:
2031:
2030:
2028:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1990:Self-selection
1987:
1982:
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1967:
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1877:
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1857:
1852:
1847:
1842:
1837:
1832:
1827:
1825:Pro-innovation
1822:
1817:
1812:
1810:Overton window
1807:
1802:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1782:
1777:
1772:
1767:
1762:
1757:
1752:
1747:
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1707:
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1697:
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1678:Dunning–Kruger
1675:
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1633:
1628:
1623:
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1606:
1601:
1596:
1595:
1594:
1592:Correspondence
1589:
1587:Actor–observer
1579:
1574:
1569:
1564:
1559:
1553:
1551:
1546:
1543:
1542:
1537:
1535:
1534:
1527:
1520:
1512:
1504:
1503:
1472:
1445:(1): 124–138.
1425:
1406:(2): 269–277.
1386:
1349:(1): 162–176.
1329:
1302:(4): 896–909.
1282:
1255:(4): 698–708.
1235:
1188:
1161:(2): 206–211.
1141:
1094:
1075:(6): 713–722.
1055:
1028:(3): 221–245.
1008:
961:
914:
867:
820:
793:(2): 226–233.
773:
746:(1): 233–242.
726:
679:
660:(4): 731–740.
640:
629:(3): 311–321.
609:
562:
535:(3): 916–934.
508:
464:
457:
420:
383:(3): 791–814.
350:
315:(1): 162–170.
286:
259:(3): 459–468.
231:
230:
228:
225:
224:
223:
218:
213:
206:
203:
193:
190:
184:
181:
167:
164:
162:
159:
144:
141:
120:
119:
116:
113:
110:
107:
104:
90:
87:
68:
65:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2238:
2227:
2224:
2223:
2221:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2197:
2196:
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2187:
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2179:
2177:
2174:
2173:
2171:
2167:
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2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2141:
2138:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2123:United States
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2098:False balance
2096:
2095:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2053:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2038:
2036:
2032:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1970:Participation
1968:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1939:
1938:Psychological
1936:
1935:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1915:
1913:
1911:
1907:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1858:
1856:
1853:
1851:
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1833:
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1826:
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1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1721:
1718:
1716:
1713:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1705:Fading affect
1703:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1693:
1689:
1686:
1685:
1684:
1681:
1679:
1676:
1674:
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1436:
1429:
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1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1390:
1387:
1382:
1378:
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1368:
1364:
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1348:
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1313:
1309:
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1297:
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1266:
1262:
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1254:
1250:
1246:
1239:
1236:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1192:
1189:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1145:
1142:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1098:
1095:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1059:
1056:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1012:
1009:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
984:
980:
976:
972:
965:
962:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
937:
933:
929:
925:
918:
915:
910:
906:
902:
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
871:
868:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
835:
831:
824:
821:
816:
812:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
777:
774:
769:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
737:
730:
727:
722:
718:
714:
710:
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
683:
680:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
651:
644:
641:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
613:
610:
605:
601:
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
577:
573:
566:
563:
558:
554:
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
519:
517:
515:
513:
509:
504:
500:
496:
492:
489:(1): 74–101.
488:
484:
480:
473:
471:
469:
465:
460:
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
431:
429:
427:
425:
421:
416:
412:
407:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
367:
365:
363:
361:
359:
357:
355:
351:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
299:
297:
295:
293:
291:
287:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
243:
241:
239:
237:
233:
226:
222:
219:
217:
214:
212:
209:
208:
204:
202:
199:
191:
189:
182:
180:
178:
173:
165:
160:
158:
155:
154:meta-analysis
151:
142:
140:
138:
134:
129:
124:
117:
114:
111:
108:
105:
101:
100:
99:
96:
88:
86:
84:
83:meta-analysis
78:
75:
66:
64:
62:
57:
55:
51:
47:
43:
38:
36:
32:
19:
2083:In education
2050:
2034:Other biases
2020:Verification
2005:Survivorship
1955:Non-response
1928:Healthy user
1870:Substitution
1845:Self-serving
1739:
1641:Confirmation
1609:Availability
1557:Acquiescence
1492:(1): 15–23.
1489:
1485:
1475:
1442:
1438:
1428:
1403:
1399:
1389:
1346:
1342:
1332:
1299:
1295:
1285:
1252:
1248:
1238:
1205:
1201:
1191:
1158:
1154:
1144:
1114:(1): 46–57.
1111:
1107:
1097:
1072:
1068:
1058:
1025:
1021:
1011:
978:
974:
964:
931:
927:
917:
884:
880:
870:
837:
833:
823:
790:
786:
776:
743:
739:
729:
696:
692:
682:
657:
653:
643:
626:
622:
612:
582:(1): 37–51.
579:
575:
565:
532:
528:
486:
482:
440:
380:
376:
312:
308:
256:
252:
195:
186:
169:
161:Implications
149:
146:
125:
121:
92:
79:
70:
58:
39:
34:
30:
29:
2150:Publication
2103:Vietnam War
1950:Length time
1933:Information
1875:Time-saving
1735:Horn effect
1725:Halo effect
1673:Distinction
1582:Attribution
1577:Attentional
1208:(1): 3–33.
143:Measurement
137:child abuse
2113:South Asia
2088:Liking gap
1900:In animals
1865:Status quo
1780:Negativity
1683:Egocentric
1658:Congruence
1636:Commitment
1626:Blind spot
1614:Mean world
1604:Automation
840:(3): 993.
227:References
172:aggression
166:Aggression
133:attachment
61:aggression
2181:Debiasing
2160:White hat
2155:Reporting
2068:Inductive
1985:Selection
1945:Lead time
1918:Estimator
1895:Zero-risk
1860:Spotlight
1840:Restraint
1830:Proximity
1815:Precision
1775:Narrative
1730:Hindsight
1715:Frequency
1695:Emotional
1668:Declinism
1599:Authority
1572:Anchoring
1562:Ambiguity
1459:0009-3920
1420:1939-0599
1363:1467-8624
1316:0009-3920
1269:0021-843X
1222:0033-2909
1175:0021-843X
1128:0033-3174
1089:0047-2891
1042:0022-1325
995:0009-3920
948:0009-3920
901:0009-3920
807:0022-006X
760:1939-1471
674:1939-0599
596:0021-843X
549:0009-3920
503:1939-1455
397:0954-5794
329:0009-3920
273:0021-843X
2220:Category
2078:Inherent
2041:Academic
2015:Systemic
2000:Spectrum
1980:Sampling
1960:Observer
1923:Forecast
1835:Response
1795:Optimism
1790:Omission
1785:Normalcy
1755:In-group
1750:Implicit
1663:Cultural
1567:Affinity
1381:21291435
1324:10446725
1277:14674871
1050:22919890
956:12146738
768:20063970
557:12038560
415:17152401
205:See also
2200:General
2198:Lists:
2133:Ukraine
2058:Funding
1820:Present
1805:Outcome
1710:Framing
1467:8436025
1372:3059248
1230:2404292
1183:8315133
1136:2928460
1003:9914643
909:9022243
862:8706540
854:1131875
815:7069028
721:8706507
713:1131877
604:9103716
406:2745254
345:7363732
337:1129603
281:7410713
128:schemas
67:History
2205:Memory
2118:Sweden
2108:Norway
1975:Recall
1745:Impact
1621:Belief
1539:Biases
1465:
1457:
1418:
1379:
1369:
1361:
1322:
1314:
1275:
1267:
1228:
1220:
1181:
1173:
1134:
1126:
1087:
1048:
1040:
1001:
993:
954:
946:
907:
899:
860:
852:
813:
805:
766:
758:
719:
711:
672:
602:
594:
555:
547:
501:
455:
413:
403:
395:
343:
335:
327:
279:
271:
2093:Media
2063:FUTON
850:JSTOR
709:JSTOR
333:JSTOR
33:, or
1463:PMID
1455:ISSN
1416:ISSN
1377:PMID
1359:ISSN
1320:PMID
1312:ISSN
1273:PMID
1265:ISSN
1226:PMID
1218:ISSN
1179:PMID
1171:ISSN
1132:PMID
1124:ISSN
1085:ISSN
1046:PMID
1038:ISSN
999:PMID
991:ISSN
952:PMID
944:ISSN
905:PMID
897:ISSN
858:PMID
811:PMID
803:ISSN
764:PMID
756:ISSN
717:PMID
670:ISSN
600:PMID
592:ISSN
553:PMID
545:ISSN
499:ISSN
453:ISBN
411:PMID
393:ISSN
341:PMID
325:ISSN
277:PMID
269:ISSN
2140:Net
2025:Wet
1494:doi
1447:doi
1408:doi
1367:PMC
1351:doi
1304:doi
1257:doi
1253:112
1210:doi
1206:107
1163:doi
1159:102
1116:doi
1077:doi
1030:doi
1026:173
983:doi
936:doi
889:doi
842:doi
795:doi
748:doi
744:117
701:doi
662:doi
631:doi
584:doi
580:106
537:doi
491:doi
487:115
445:doi
401:PMC
385:doi
317:doi
261:doi
2222::
1490:36
1488:.
1484:.
1461:.
1453:.
1443:64
1441:.
1437:.
1414:.
1404:26
1402:.
1398:.
1375:.
1365:.
1357:.
1347:82
1345:.
1341:.
1318:.
1310:.
1300:70
1298:.
1294:.
1271:.
1263:.
1251:.
1247:.
1224:.
1216:.
1204:.
1200:.
1177:.
1169:.
1157:.
1153:.
1130:.
1122:.
1112:51
1110:.
1106:.
1083:.
1073:37
1071:.
1067:.
1044:.
1036:.
1024:.
1020:.
997:.
989:.
979:69
977:.
973:.
950:.
942:.
932:73
930:.
926:.
903:.
895:.
885:67
883:.
879:.
856:.
848:.
838:67
836:.
832:.
809:.
801:.
791:50
789:.
785:.
762:.
754:.
742:.
738:.
715:.
707:.
697:67
695:.
691:.
668:.
658:28
656:.
652:.
627:38
625:.
621:.
598:.
590:.
578:.
574:.
551:.
543:.
533:73
531:.
527:.
511:^
497:.
485:.
481:.
467:^
451:.
439:.
423:^
409:.
399:.
391:.
381:18
379:.
375:.
353:^
339:.
331:.
323:.
313:51
311:.
307:.
289:^
275:.
267:.
257:89
255:.
251:.
235:^
135:,
1531:e
1524:t
1517:v
1500:.
1496::
1469:.
1449::
1422:.
1410::
1383:.
1353::
1326:.
1306::
1279:.
1259::
1232:.
1212::
1185:.
1165::
1138:.
1118::
1091:.
1079::
1052:.
1032::
1005:.
985::
958:.
938::
911:.
891::
864:.
844::
817:.
797::
770:.
750::
723:.
703::
676:.
664::
637:.
633::
606:.
586::
559:.
539::
505:.
493::
461:.
447::
417:.
387::
347:.
319::
283:.
263::
20:)
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