Cultivated plant taxonomy - Knowledge (XXG)

1189: 1016: 602:(234–149 BCE) in a list that includes 120 kinds (cultivars) of figs, grapes, apples and olives. The names are presented in a way that implies that they would have been familiar to fellow Romans. The "cultivar" names were mostly of one word and denoted the provenance of the cultivar (the geographical origin of the place where the plant selections were made). Writers up to the 15th century added little to this early work. In the Middle Ages the 721: 1304: 914: 5073: 833: 398: 931:

valuable economic plants, including those from the tropics, were distributed among the colonies. This plant trade has provided the common global heritage of economic and ornamental cultigens that we use today and which formed the stock for modern plant selection, breeding, and genetic engineering. The plant exchange that occurred as a result of European trade can be divided into several phases:

465: 98:) are designed to serve both scientific and utilitarian ends by making provision for the names of plants used in commerce—the cultigens that have arisen in agriculture, forestry and horticulture. These names, sometimes called variety names, are not in Latin but are added onto the scientific Latin names, and they assist communication among the community of foresters, farmers and horticulturists. 1367:; the results of deliberate repeatable single crosses between two pure lines to produce plants of a particular general appearance that is desirable for horticulture, but which are not genetically identical. The question remains as to whether the classification categories of cultivar, Group and grex are the most appropriate and efficient way to deal with this broad range of plant variation. 501: 585: 1095:, all with Latin names. In doing this he was probably laying the ground for the later establishment of the cultigen classification categories cultivar and Group. In conjunction with the Brussels International Botanical Congress of 1910 there was an International Horticultural Congress having a horticultural nomenclature component. 30: 1130:. The rules established in 1935 were accepted but needed to be extended to include the cultigens of agriculture and forestry, but it was only a result of discussions at the 1950 International Botanical Congress in Stockholm and the 18th International Horticultural Congress in London in 1952 the first 879:

Linnaeus had very definite and uncomplimentary views about cultigens, regarding them as inferior plants for the amusement of those people he disparagingly called anthophiles (flower-lovers); these were plants not deserving the attention of serious botanists. His views revealed both his prejudice, his

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reinvigorated the study of plants and their classification. From about 1400 CE European expansion established Latin as the common language of scholars and it was adopted for biological nomenclature. Then, from about 1500 CE, the publication of herbals (books often illustrated with woodcuts describing

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had a long history in trade, and there are good records of cultivar distribution by the Romans, European botanical and horticultural exploration rapidly increased in the 19th century with the colonial expansion taking place at the time. New plants were brought back to Europe while, at the same time,

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From the time of the ancient world, at least, plants have been classified in two ways. On the one hand there is the detached academic, philosophical or scientific interest in plants themselves: this groups plants by their relationship to one another according to their similarities and differences in

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was responsible for coining the word cultigen in 1918 and cultivar in 1923, the word cultivar only coming into general circulation with the new Code of 1953. The use of these two terms belies the multitude of classification terms and categories that had been suggested as designations for cultigens.

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In horticulture at this time there existed all the problems that had confronted botanists in the 19th century – a plethora of names of various length, written and published in many languages with much duplication. The period between 1867 and 1953 was an uneasy time in which American horticulturists

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expressed the opinion that cultigens (as we call them now) were produced from wild plants as the result of the care bestowed on them by man, a revolutionary view at a time when they were regarded as the special creation and gift of the gods. In devising ways of classifying organisms the philosopher

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so it is not surprising that these are among the first known plant selections perpetuated in cultivation in the West. Migrating people would take their plant seeds and cuttings with them; there is evidence of early Fertile Crescent cereal cultigens being transferred from Western Asia to surrounding

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Then, most "wild" plants fit neatly into the nested hierarchy of ranks used in Linnaean classification (species into genera, genera into families etc.) which aligns with Darwinian descent with modification. Choosing classification categories for cultigens is not clear-cut. Included among cultigens

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in London from 1722 to 1770. New plants were coming into Western Europe from southern Europe and the overseas colonies of the Dutch, British and French. These new plants came largely to the botanic gardens of Amsterdam, Leiden, Chelsea and Paris and they needed recording. In 1724 Miller produced a

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fulfill three criteria: they have special features considered of sufficient importance to warrant a name; the special features are the result of deliberate human breeding or selection and are not found in wild populations (except in rare cases where the special features represent desirable part of

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All the species recognized by Botanists came forth from the Almighty Creator's hand, and the number now and always will be exactly the same, while every day new and different florist's species arise from the true species recognized by botanists, and when they have arisen they eventually revert to

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he listed about 10,000 different plants, which he called species, organised into 698 genera with illustrations. The establishment of this precursor of scientific classification vastly improved the organisation of plant variation into approximately equivalent groups or ranks and many of his genera

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botany has been overborne by the system of varieties for long enough … few, if any, agree as to what constitutes a species, or what a variety; … I wish the system of varieties were entirely excluded from Botany and turned over entirely to the Anthophiles, since it causes nothing but ambiguities,

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The ways in which the plant variation resulting from human activity is named and classified remains contentious. The replacement of the expression "cultivated plant" with the word "cultigen" is not universally accepted. The debate continues concerning the notions of ranks and taxa as applied to

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thus making secure the biological system of binomial nomenclature. In these works Linnaeus used a third name as a variety within a species. These varieties included both wild and horticultural variants. The horticultural varieties were still written in Latin and some have persisted to this day.

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International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP or Cultivated Plant Code) incorporating the Rules and Recommendations for naming plants in cultivation. 8th edn, adopted by the International Union of Biological Sciences International Commission for the Nomenclature of Cultivated

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In the early 18th century colonial expansion and exploration created a demand for the description of thousands of new organisms. This highlighted difficulties in communication about plants, the replication of their descriptions, and the importance of an agreed way of presenting, publishing and

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is a general-purpose term for plants that have been deliberately altered or specially selected by humans, while cultivar is a formal classification category. Cultigens include not only plants with cultivar names but also those with names in the classification categories of grex and Group. The

429:(the fertile river valleys of the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates) in the Western Mediterranean. Food plant selections would also have been made in the ten or so other centres of settlement that occurred around the world at this time. Confining crops to local areas gave rise to 809:. The first edition was in 1724, subsequently revised and enlarged until the last and 8th edition in 1768 by which time he had adopted Linnaean binomials. For a while this publication was taken as the starting point for "horticultural" nomenclature equivalent to Linnaeus' 333:

The following account of the historical development of cultivated plant taxonomy traces the way cultigens have arisen and been incorporated into botanical science; it also demonstrates how two approaches to plant nomenclature and classification have led to the present-day

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the appearance, medicinal properties, and other characteristics of plants used in herbal medicine) extended the formal documentation of plants and by the late 16th century the number of different plant kinds described in Europe had risen to about 4,000. In 1623

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The natural distribution of plants across the world has determined when and where cultigens have been produced. The botanical and horticultural collection of economically important plants, including ornamentals, was based in Europe. Although economic herbs and

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deliberately selected plants that may have arisen by intentional or accidental hybridization in cultivation, by selection from existing cultivated stocks, or from variants within wild populations that are maintained as recognizable entities solely by continued

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although still using the broad groupings of "trees" and "herbs" for flowering plants, began to use flower characteristics as distinguishing features and, most importantly, provided a clear definition of the genus as a basic unit of classification. In

789:. There was still at this time no common agreement on the way to present plant names so they ranged in length from one word to lengthy descriptive sentences. As the number of recorded plants increased this naming system became more unwieldy. 1264:'Granny Smith'. The formation and use of the three classification categories (ranks) used for cultigens, the cultivar, Group and grex, is regulated by the ICNCP. Examples of acceptable ways to present cultigen names are given below: 989:

As the community of people dealing with the cultigens of commerce grew so, once again, the divergence between taxonomy serving scientific purposes and utilitarian taxonomy meeting human needs re-emerged. In 1865 German botanist

761:– by their medicinal uses or whether they were trees, shrubs or herbs. Between 1650 and 1700 CE there was a move from the utilitarian back to a scientific natural classification based on the characters of the plants themselves. 290:

interest which groups plants according to their human use. Cultivated plant taxonomy is concerned with the special classification categories needed for the plants of agriculture, horticulture and forestry as regulated by the

1157:(Wageningen), which was published in 1953, has been followed by eight subsequent editions – in 1958 (Utrecht), 1961 (update of 1958), 1969 (Edinburgh), 1980 (Seattle), 1995 (Edinburgh), 2004 (Toronto) and 2009 (Wageningen). 329:

plants, plants with binomial Latin names that are the result of ancient human selection, and any plants that have been altered by humans but which have not been given formal names. In practice most cultigens are cultivars.

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ceased publication in the early 1990s. Another development was the launch, in 2007, at the Sixth Symposium on the Taxonomy of Cultivated Plants at Wageningen of the International Association for Cultivated Plant Taxonomy.

994:, who became General Secretary of the Berlin Horticultural Society, expressed resentment at the continued use of Latin for cultigen names. Many proposals to deal with this were made, perhaps the most prominent being the 1071:

and other groups in Europe, such as the specialist orchid community, made attempts to put order into this chaos within their particular group of interest and devising their own rules for naming the plants of commerce.

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McNeill, John (2004). "Nomenclature of cultivated plants: a historical botanical standpoint in: C.G. Davidson and P. Trehane (eds), Proc. XXVI IHC – IVth International Symposium on the Taxonomy of Cultivated Plants".

295:. This Code serves not only the scientific interests of formal nomenclature, it also caters for the special utilitarian needs of people dealing with the plants of commerce. Those cultigens given names governed by the 1031:(with a minor amendment in 1935 suggesting the use of the letter 'c' before the horticultural name and antedating formal recognition of the cultivar) through 1906, 1912 and 1935 until the separation, in 1953, of the 756:

With increasing trade in economic and medicinal plants the need for a more comprehensive classification system increased. Up to about 1650 CE plants had been grouped either alphabetically or according to utilitarian

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McNeill, J.; Barrie, F.R.; Buck, W.R.; Demoulin, V.; Greuter, W.; Hawksworth, D.L.; Herendeen, P.S.; Knapp, S.; Marhold, K.; Prado, J.; Prud'homme Van Reine, W.F.; Smith, G.F.; Wiersema, J.H.; Turland, N.J. (2012).

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has commented that "cultivated plants are mankind's most vital and precious heritage from remote antiquity". Cultigens of our most common economic plants probably date back to the first settled communities of the

561:. "Cultivars" listed here are named after people, places or special plant characteristics. Most notable is the work of Dioscorides (ca.40–ca.90 CE) a Greek doctor who worked with the Roman army. His five-volume 1008:

Seedlings, half-breeds (métis) of unknown origin or sports should receive from horticulturists fancy names (noms de fantaisie) in common language, as distinct as possible from the Latin names of species or

1315:), especially for plant labels in nurseries; intellectual property and plants; adapting modern technology, in particular molecular techniques, to the creation and identification of cultivars; maintaining 813:

which is now taken as the starting point for botanical nomenclature in general. Miller's Dictionary was the first of many English horticultural compendia whose history has been traced by William Stearn.

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10,000 to 12,000 years ago although their exact time and place of true origin will probably remain a mystery. In the Western world among the first cultigens would have been selections of the cereals

1118:) for horticultural variants was accepted and so too were names in the local language – which were not to be translated and should preferably consist of one word and a maximum of three. This first 215:

Finally, the difference between cultivated plant taxonomy and the taxonomy of other plants has been attributed to the purpose for which the taxonomy has been devised, it being plant-centred in the

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to the first recorded naming of human plant selections by the Romans. The naming and classification of cultigens followed a similar path to that of all plants until the establishment of the first

59:, large nurseries, universities, or government departments. Areas of special interest for the cultivated plant taxonomist include: searching for and recording new plants suitable for cultivation ( 493:

ever since and is congruent with the relatively recent idea of evolution as descent with modification. All biological classification follows this principle of groups within groups, known as a

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Thirdly, cultivated plant taxonomy is concerned with plant variation that requires the use of special classification categories that do not conform with the hierarchy of ranks implicit in the

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Recent concerns have focused on international communication on cultivated plant taxonomy, organisation of international symposia, and general communication on topics of interest. In 1988 a

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their original forms. Accordingly to the former have been assigned by Nature fixed limits, beyond which they cannot go: while the latter display without end the infinite sport of Nature.

4908: 1148: 90: 3682: 573:. This work was endlessly plagiarised by later herbals including those printed between about 1470 and 1670 CE: it listed 600 to 1000 different kinds of plants including the cultigens 367:

The early development of cultigen taxonomy follows that of plant taxonomy in general as the early listing and documentation of plants made little distinction between those that were

52:—those plants whose origin or selection is primarily due to intentional human activity. Cultivated plant taxonomists do, however, work with all kinds of plants in cultivation. 3677: 3804: 3689: 199:

The purpose of giving a name to a taxon is not to indicate its characters or history, but to supply a means of referring to it and to indicate to which category it is assigned.

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Current challenges for cultivated plant taxonomists include: the use of large plant name databases; ways of dealing with the use of non-scientific names in commerce (known as

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and economic records indicate that plants grown by the Romans found their way into monastery gardens. For example, in 827 CE the following herbs were mentioned in the poem

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International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (Melbourne Code) adopted by the Eighteenth International Botanical Congress Melbourne, Australia, July 2011

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in 1953 which formally established the cultigen classification category of cultivar. Since that time the classification and naming of cultigens has followed its own path.

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natural variation found in wild populations that is not covered by a scientific name); it is possible to perpetuate the desirable features by propagation in cultivation.

3672: 2025: 702:. It seems likely that aromatic and culinary herbs were quite widespread and similar lists of plants occur in records of plants grown in Villa gardens at the time of 3663: 2938:

Address Given by the Secretary, W T Stearn, of the International Committee on Horticultural Nomenclature and Registration at the Opening Meeting on 7 September 1952

745:(1515–1544 CE) which were published in 1562 included many named "cultivars" including 30 apples and 49 pears, presumably local German selections. English herbalist 246:). The rules associated with naming plants are separate from the methods, principles or purposes of classification, except that the units of classification, the 78:

Much of the work of the cultivated plant taxonomist is concerned with the naming of plants as prescribed by two plant nomenclatural Codes. The provisions of the

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an attempt at a comprehensive compilation of all plants known at that time: it included about 6000 kinds. The combined works of a German physician and botanist

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The utilitarian approach, classifying plants according to their medicinal properties, is exemplified by the work of Roman nobleman, scientist and historian,

173: 1229:, a journal produced by the Royal Horticultural Society in London and dedicated to horticultural taxonomy. This filled a gap left when the American journal 847:

It was the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus who finally put order into this situation as he attempted to name all the known organisms of his day. In 1735 his

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Hetterscheid, Wilbert L. A. & Brandenburg, Willem A. (1994), "The Culton Concept: Setting the Stage for an Unambiguous Taxonomy of Cultivated Plants",

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International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Vienna Code) adopted by the Seventeenth International Botanical Congress Vienna, Austria, July 2005. A. R. G

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are: simple selections taken from plants in the wild or in cultivation; artificial hybrids produced both by accident and intention; plants produced by

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of human artificial selection "taxa" in the same way we do for the products of natural selection in the wild? To overcome this difficulty the term

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is set out in the form of an initial set of Principles followed by Rules and Recommendations that are subdivided into Articles. Amendments to the

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and nomenclature of cultivated plants and carrying out original research on these topics; describing the cultivated plants of particular regions (

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focuses on the needs of plant taxonomists as they attempt to maintain order and stability for the scientific names of all plants, while the

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anthophiles … practice a floral science all their own, grasped only by their devotees; no botanist in his senses will enlist in their camp.

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Hetterscheid, Wilbert L. A. & Brandenburg, Willem A. (1995), "Culton vs Taxon: Conceptual Issues in Cultivated Plant Systematics",

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and it was not until the mid-19th century that the nomenclatural path of cultigens began to diverge from mainstream plant taxonomy.

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Some of the traditional tools of cultivated plant taxonomy including: microscope, camera, flowers and book to assist identification.

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Trehane, Piers (2004). "50 years of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants: Future prospects for the Code".

2022: 3860: 3616: 2756: 2064: 1363:; selections from the wild; ancient selections of crops that date back thousands of years; selections of aberrant growth such as 1044: 212:

caters for the needs of people requiring names for plants used in the commercial world of agriculture, forestry and horticulture.

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includes a summary of the changes made to the previous version and these have also been summarised for the period 1953 to 1995.

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Jirásek, Václav (1961). "Evolution of the Proposals of Taxonomical Categories for the Classification of Cultivated Plants".

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in London in 1930 that the rules of a Horticulture Nomenclature Committee were agreed and added as an appendix to the 1935

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and Brandenberg, Hetterscheid and Berg. It has also been examined from a botanical perspective and from the origin of the

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The history of cultivated plant taxonomy can be traced from the first plant selections that occurred during the agrarian

4949: 4536: 4051: 2510: 1835: 999: 770: 5031: 4785: 3726: 3699: 3590: 1196: 1099: 776: 433:(selections that are highly adapted to local conditions) although these are now largely replaced by modern cultivars. 4765: 3714: 1855: 853:, which included animals (the tenth edition became the starting point for zoological nomenclature) was followed by 3625: 746: 490: 64: 258:– like species within genera, and genera within families. There are three classification categories used in the 5053: 4898: 3948: 3492: 3091: 5097: 3644: 557: 2805:

History of Botanical Science: An Account of the Development of Botany from Ancient Times to the Present Day

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stance on special creation, and his recognition of the difficulties entailed in cultivated plant taxonomy:

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that formalised the name of a genus with a single epithet to form the name of a species as two words, the

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The earliest scientific (rather than utilitarian) approach to plants is attributed to Aristotle's student

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Cultivated plant taxonomy is one part of the study of horticultural botany which is mostly carried out in

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are prompted by international symposia for cultivated plant taxonomy which allow for rulings made by the

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and in 1905 at the second Congress in Vienna an agreed set of nomenclatural rules was established, the

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are an extremely effective way of perpetuating desirable characters, especially of woody plants like

414: 392: 102: 88:) serve primarily scientific ends and the objectives of the scientific community, while those of the 2934:"ICNCP - It all started in 1952 or did it? International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants" 1798: 1027:

This Article, making provision for the cultigens of horticultural nomenclature was to remain in the

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and meetings to discuss revisions are held at six-yearly intervals, the latest being in 2005.

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In England the tradition of documenting garden plants was established long before Linnaeus'

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William T. Stearn (1911–2001), taxonomic botanist, classical scholar and author of the book

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collections of cultivars, including herbaria; the recording and registration of cultivars.

581:, the rose of uncertain origin known as Alba and other rose cultivars grown by the Romans. 5076: 5058: 4920: 4749: 4699: 4687: 4667: 4649: 4585: 4412: 4380: 4341: 4314: 4143: 4138: 4029: 3965: 3846: 3704: 3630: 3435: 3421: 3388: 3377: 3371: 3325: 3320: 3315: 3309: 3303: 3298: 3264: 3259: 3254: 3249: 3243: 3237: 2986:

Stearn, William T. (1992). "Historical Introduction". In Huxley, A. (ed. In chief) (ed.).

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Hetterscheid, Wilbert L. A.; van den Berg, Ronald G. & Brandenburg, Willem A. (1996),

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The Gardener's Dictionary, with an introduction by W.T. Stearn. Reprint 1969 (abridged)

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submitted in 1867 to the fourth Horticultural and Botanical Congress by Swiss botanist

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plants whose origin or selection is primarily due to the intentional actions of mankind

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consisted of 16 Articles. With the intercession of a World War I it was not until the

913: 489:— the principle that groups can be progressively subdivided. This has been assumed in 17: 5091: 5006: 4754: 4672: 4644: 4607: 4575: 4511: 4431: 4331: 4133: 4116: 4039: 4019: 3960: 3955: 3903: 3464: 3010: 2029: 1376: 1364: 836: 823: 797: 786: 758: 603: 570: 380: 2900: 2462: 2454: 5001: 4991: 4893: 4617: 4602: 4111: 4078: 3063: 3005: 2973:

Stearn, William T. (1986). "Historical survey of the naming of cultivated plants".

2941: 2784: 2721: 832: 753:(1629) lists 57 apple "cultivars", 62 pears, 61 plums, 35 cherries and 22 peaches. 691: 659: 631: 574: 533: 509: 243: 464: 397: 3078: 2428:

Bailey, Liberty Hyde (1923). "Various Cultigens, and Transfers in Nomenclature".

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Herbals, Their Origin and Evolution, a Chapter in the History of Botany 1470–1670

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Fourthly, cultivated plant taxonomy serves a particular community of people: the

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has been distinguished from the taxonomy of other plants in at least five ways.

4817: 4802: 4797: 4733: 4595: 4375: 4346: 4245: 4240: 4088: 3928: 3923: 3908: 2475:. Vol. 10. International Society of Horticultural Science. pp. 1–184. 2412: 2361: 927: 865:

in 1751. But it was his most comprehensive work on plants, the 1753 publication

729: 703: 283: 63:); communicating with and advising the general public on matters concerning the 2602: 4846: 4839: 4829: 4812: 4495: 4490: 4426: 4218: 4065: 4024: 3918: 3447: 1335:) has been suggested to replace the word taxon when speaking about cultigens. 1080: 627: 584: 1827: 1250:

Most cultigens have names consisting of a Latin name that is governed by the

497:, but this form of classification does not necessarily presuppose evolution. 454:

400 BCE to 1400 – the ancient world: Greco-Roman influence to the Middle Ages

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Plant Names: A Guide for Horticulturists, Nurserymen, Gardeners and Students

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Plant Names: A Guide for Horticulturists, Nurserymen, Gardeners and Students

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in the Netherlands. One development promoting discussion was the newsletter

619: 545: 541: 537: 494: 482: 251: 72: 2603:"An annotated history of the principles of cultivated plant classification" 2420: 921:

of 1753, his catalogue of all the world's plants known to European science.

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Theophrastus described 480 kinds of plant, dividing the plant kingdom into

500: 168:" — plants that have evolved under natural selection with human assistance. 807:

The Gardeners and Florists Dictionary or a complete System of Horticulture

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The key activities of cultivated plant taxonomy relate to classification (

143:— that is, whether they are wild or cultivated. This is alluded to by the 4996: 4986: 4930: 4925: 4692: 4565: 4541: 4458: 4128: 3913: 3404: 3383: 1356: 1348: 1312: 984: 695: 679: 529: 430: 263: 178: 118: 49: 2861: 2636:

Jeffrey, Charles (1968). "Systematic Categories for Cultivated Plants".

4181: 4176: 4093: 4083: 3441: 2686: 2657: 2594: 2543: 1409:

A committee of cultivated plant taxonomists based in the British Isles.

1352: 1344: 1260:, to which is added a cultivar epithet, enclosed in single quotes e.g. 796:

starting with the herbals, but the most prominent early chronicler was

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Brandenburg, Willem A. (1986). "Classification of cultivated plants".

839:(1707–1778) who established the binomial system of plant nomenclature. 4634: 4526: 4480: 4446: 4400: 4390: 4351: 4289: 4270: 4265: 4260: 4255: 4250: 3869: 3196: 3180: 2853: 1204: 1076: 944:

1560–1620 Near East (esp. bulbous plants from Turkey – "tulipomania")

715: 687: 671: 651: 566: 422: 41: 2988:

The New Royal Horticultural Society Dictionary of Gardening (4 vols)

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McNeill, John (1998). "Culton: A Useful Term, Questionably Argued".

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Hunt Botanic Garden account of Linnaeus' work. Retrieved: 2010-08-05

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harvester's sickle made from baked clay and dated to about 3000 BCE.

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1953 – the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants

4858: 4792: 4714: 4682: 4639: 4531: 4473: 4468: 4463: 4451: 4436: 4405: 4326: 3984: 3975: 3484: 3398: 3083: 2960:(1965b). "The origin and later development of cultivated plants". 1302: 1187: 912: 831: 719: 699: 583: 521: 499: 463: 446: 442: 438: 418: 401: 396: 29: 28: 1174:

International Commission on the Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants

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was established. The use of simple descriptive Latin names (e.g.

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As a result of general dissatisfaction and a submission from the

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International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants

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International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants

336:

International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants

81:

International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants

4629: 4191: 473: 2745:. Vol. Regnum Vegetabile 154. A.R.G. Gantner Verlag KG. 1225:

which was superseded in February 2006 by the first issue of

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Spencer, Roger & Cross, Robert (2008), "The Cultigen",

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McNeill, John (2008). "The Taxonomy of Cultivated Plants".

2522:

Heller, John L. (1968). "Linnaeus's Hortus cliffortianus".

2167: 1408: 1199:

flagship gardens and a focus for cultivated plant taxonomy.

1134:

was published in 1953. The American horticultural botanist

979:

1900 to 1950 – the Botanical Code and cultigen nomenclature

962:

1820–1900 Tropical glasshouse plants; hardy Japanese plants

356:

The history of cultigen nomenclature has been discussed by

325:

Included within the group of plants known as cultigens are

193:). This feature is also referred to in the Preamble to the 2868:

Spencer, Roger; Cross, Robert & Lumley, Peter (2007).

2824:

Royal Horticultural Society (1911). "Horticultural Code".

3838: 1941:

John Parkinson's Paradisi in Sole … Retrieved: 2011-05-04

1323:

cultigens. Is it appropriate to call the highly modified

1213:) was formed in the UK and a parallel organisation, the 1149: