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751:, which eventually spread over ancient Peru, Ecuador, Chile and Bolivia." Several sources challenge Cartwright's claim in stating that the Inca roads covered either more or less area then he describes. This number is difficult to solidify since some of the pathways of the Inca still may remain unaccounted for, being that they may have been washed away or covered by natural forces. "Inca engineers were also undaunted by geographical difficulties and built roads across ravines, rivers, deserts, and mountain passes up to 5,000 meters high." Many of the constructed roads are not uniform in design. Most of the uncovered roads are about one to four meters wide. Although this is true, some roads, such as the highway in
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opposite side, one of the thin, light-weight ropes would be thrown over to them. This rope would then be used to pull the main cables over the gorge. Stone beams were built on either side of the gorge and were used in helping to position and secure the cables. The cables were wrapped around these stone beams and tightened inch by inch to decrease any slack in the bridge. Once this was finished, the riggers carefully made their way across the hanging cables, tying the foot-ropes together and connecting the handrails and the foot-ropes with the remainder of the thin grass ropes. Not all rope bridges were exactly alike in terms of design and build. Some riggers also wove pieces of wood into the foot-ropes.
518:(similar to others that the Incas commonly wore on the left wrist) which the high priest had; it was large, larger than the common ones, it had for a medallion a concave vessel, the shape of a half orange and brightly polished, they put it against the sun, and at a certain point where the rays that came out of the vessel hit each other, they put a bit of finely unravelled cotton (they did not know how to make tinder), which caught fire naturally in a short space of time. With this fire, thus given by the hand of the sun, the sacrifice was burned and all the meat of that day was roasted."
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deliver their quota of rope to the builders. The rope was then divided into sections. Each section consisted of an amount of thin rope being laid out together in preparation to create a thicker rope cord. Once the sections are laid out, the strands of rope made earlier are twisted together tightly and evenly, producing the larger and thicker rope cord. These larger ropes are then braided together to create cables, some as thick as a human torso. Depending on the dimensions of the cable, each could weigh up to 200 pounds. These cables were then delivered to the bridge site.
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that are typically about 1.2 m high, except for the lowest fountain, which is a private fountain for the Temple of the Condor and has higher walls. At the head of each fountain, a cut stone conduit carries the water to a rectangular spout, which is shaped to create a jet of water suitable for filling aryballos–a typical Inca clay water jug. The water collects in a stone basin in the floor of the fountain, then enters a circular drain that delivers it to the approach channel for the next fountain.
303:
373:. These terraces allowed the Inca to utilize the land for farming that they never could in the past. Everything about how the terrace functions, looks, its geometric alignment, etc. all depend on the slope of the land. The different layering of materials is part of what makes the terraces so successful. It starts with a base layer of large rocks, followed by a second layer of smaller rocks, then a layer of sand-like material, and finally the topsoil. You can practice this in a simulation
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washed away, nutrients would always be added from previously grown crops year after year. The Inca even grew specific crops together, to balance out the optimal amount of nutrients for all plants. For example, a planting method is known as "three sisters" incorporated the growth of corn, beans, and squash in the same terrace. This was because the fixed nitrogen in the beans helped the corn grow, while the squash acted as mulch keeping the soil moist, and also acted as a weed repellant.
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consider the steep slopes of the site as well as the humid and rainy climate. The Inca people built this site atop a hill which was terraced (most likely for agricultural purposes). In addition to terraces, Machu Picchu is composed of two additional basic architectural elements; elite residential compounds and religious structures. The site is full of staircases and sculpted rock, which were also important to their architecture and engineering practices.
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wooden or cane posts, or piles of stones." Drainage was something that was of particular interest and importance to the Inca people. Drains and culverts were built to ensure that rainwater would effectively run off of the road's surface. The drains and culverts helped in directing the accumulating water either along or under the road.
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section, the Inca people mainly traveled on foot. Knowing this, the roads created were most likely built and paved for both humans and animals to walk and/or run along. Several roads were paved with stones or cobbles and some were "edged and protected with the use of small stone walls, stone markers,
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The most impressive part of the terraces was their drainage systems. Drain outlets were placed in the numerous stone retaining walls. The larger rocks at the base of each terrace level are what allowed the water to flow more easily through the larger spaces in between the rocks, eventually coming out
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helped avoid erosion and were built on a slope to aim excess water into channels that ran alongside the stairways. These channels carried the runoff into the main drain, avoiding the main water supply. This carefully planned drainage system shows the Incas' concern and appreciation for clean water.
331:. This incredible feat supplied the population of Machu Picchu, which varied between 300 and 1000 people when the emperor was present and also helped irrigate water to the farming steppes. The fountains and canal system were built so well that they would, after a few minor repairs, still work today.
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Today, many people travel to South
America to hike the Inca trail. Walking and climbing the trail not only serves the purpose of allowing visitors to experience the historic pathways of the Inca people, but it allows for tourists and locals to see the Inca ruins, mountains, and exotic vegetation and
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are learning much more than how objects are made. They are being taught to observe and test how archeology entwines with culture. Wilford's article was written in 2007. At this time, students involved in a course called “materials in human experience,” were busy making a 60-foot-long fiber bridge in
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Studies have indicated that when terraces like the ones in the Colca Valley were being constructed, the first step was excavating into the slope, and then a subsequent infilling of the slope. A retaining wall was built to hold the fill material. This wall had many uses, including absorbing heat from
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to what would become the city’s center. The canal descends the mountain slope, enters the city walls, passes through the agricultural sector, then crosses the inner wall into the urban sector, where it feeds a series of fountains. The fountains are publicly accessible and partially enclosed by walls
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were assembled using twisted mountain grass, other vegetation, and saplings, they were dependable. These structures were able to both support the weight of traveling people and animals as well as withstand weather conditions over certain amounts of time. Since grass rots away over time, the bridges
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Since the soil was now level, the water did not rush down the side of the mountain, which is what causes erosion. Previously, this erosion was so powerful that it had potential to wipe out major areas of the Inca road, as well as wash away all of the nutrients and fertile soil. Since the soil never
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system have been hailed as “the pinnacle of the architectural and engineering works of the Inca civilization”. Major Inca centers were chosen by experts who decided the site, its apportionment, and the basic layout of the city. In many cities we see great hydraulic engineering marvels. For example,
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people began building a grass suspension bridge, they would first gather natural materials of grass and other vegetation. They would then braid these elements together into rope. This contribution was made by the Inca women. Vast amounts of thin-looking rope were produced. The villagers would then
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the sun during the day and radiating it back out at night, often keeping crops from freezing in the chilling nighttime temperatures, and holding back the different layers of sediment. After the wall is built, the larger rocks would be placed on the bottom, then smaller rocks, then sand, then soil.
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Modern-day rope bridge builders in
Huinchiri, Peru make offerings to Pacha Mama, otherwise known as "Mother Earth," throughout their building process to ensure that the bridge will be strong and safe. This may have been a practice used by the Inca people since they too were religious. If all went
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It was considered bad luck for women to be anywhere near the construction of the bridge, so the Inca men were therefore in charge of the on-site construction. At the bridge site, a builder(s) would travel to the opposite landmass that they were working to connect. Once they were positioned on the
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eventually extended across western South
America from Quito in the north to Santiago in the south, making it the largest empire ever seen in the Americas and the largest in the world at that time (between c. 1400 and 1533 CE)." It is known to have "extended some 3500-4000 km along the mountainous
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Making models out of clay before beginning to build, the city planners remained consistent with Inca architecture and laid out a city that separated the agriculture and urban areas. Before construction began the engineers had to assess the spring and whether it could provide for all of the city’s
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was advanced. Today, it is famously known for its remarkable preservation as well as the beauty of the building's architecture. The site is located 120 km northwest of Cuzco in the
Urubamba river valley, Peru. At 2560 m above sea level, sitting atop a mountain, the city planners had to
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of the
American Indian in Washington, DC." This exhibit will be on display at the museum through June 1, 2020. Visitors are also encouraged to experience this exhibit online. Either way, museums like the Smithsonian are working to preserve and display examples and knowledge of the Inca inspired
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achieved clear spans of at least 150 feet, probably much greater. This was a longer span than any
European masonry bridges at the time." Since the Incan people did not use wheeled vehicles, most traveled by foot and/or used animals to help in the transporting of goods.
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To go along with the Incas' advanced water supply system, an equally impressive drainage system was built as well. Machu Picchu contains nearly 130 outlets in the center that moved the water out of the city through walls and other structures. The agriculture
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but leaves all of the nutritious value. The water in meats and vegetables is what gives them a lot of their weight. This is what made it very popular for transportation purposes and storage because dried meats lasted twice as long as non-freeze-dried foods.
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includes devices, technologies and construction methods used by the Inca people of western South
America (between the 1100s and their conquest by Spain in the 1500s), including the methods Inca engineers used to construct the cities and road network of the
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the
Peruvian style. Through this project, they were introduced to the Inca people's way of thinking and building. After creating their ropes and cables, they had planned to stretch the bridge across a dry basin between two campus buildings.
569:. By some estimates there were as many as 200 of them." As pictured to the right, these structures were used to connect two land masses, allowing for the flow of ideas, goods, people, animals, etc. across the
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The Incas built the canals on steady grades, using cut stones as the water channels. Most citizens worked on the construction and maintenance of the canal and irrigation systems, bronze and
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communities on two sides of a gorge join together to build a bridge out of grass, creating a form of ancient infrastructure that dates back at least five centuries to the
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made it essential that efficient and effective transportation systems were created and built to assist in the exchanging of goods, services, people, etc. At one point, "their (the
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backbone of South
America." The trails, roads, and bridges were designed not only to link the empire physically, but these structures also helped the empire to maintain communication.
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Both meats and vegetables went through a similar freezing process. They would start by laying all the different foods on rocks and during the cold nights in high
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were chosen among the strongest and fittest young males. They ran several miles per day, only to deliver messages. These messengers resided in cabins called "
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because large wild game was often reserved for special occasions. A very common and well known freeze-dried item was the potato, or when it was frozen,
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The process of freeze-drying was important for transportation and storage. The high elevation (low atmospheric pressure) and low temperatures of the
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people used the road/trail systems was to transport goods. They did this on foot and sometimes with the help of animals (llamas and alpacas).
514:"The fire for that sacrifice had to be new, given by the hand of the sun, as they said. For which they took a large bracelet, which they call
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at the “Main Drain”. The Inca even constructed different types of drainage channels that are used for different purposes throughout the city.
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with dry air they would freeze. The next morning, a combination of the thin dry air and the heat from the sun would melt the ice and
415:. Freeze drying is still very popular today. One of the biggest benefits for freeze-drying is that it takes out all of the water and
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D’Altroy, Terence N. and
Christine A. Hastorf. Empire and Domestic Economy. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 2001.
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Londoño, Ana (February 12, 2007). "Pattern and rate of erosion inferred from Inca agricultural terraces in arid southern Peru".
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also had natural springs that they built fountains for that supplied noble residents with water for non agricultural purposes.
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with a place to rest. These places of rest could also be used to house the Inca army in a situation of rebellion or war.
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smoothly and if tasks were performed in a timely fashion, a bridge had the potential of being constructed in three days.
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Kenneth R. Wright; Jonathan M. Kelly; Alfredo Valencia Zegarra. (1997). "Machu Picchu: Ancient Hydraulic Engineering".
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anticipated citizens. After evaluating the water supply, the civil engineers designed a 2,457-foot (749 m)-long
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456:) was much easier to transport and lasted longer than not dried meats. These all had potential to be freeze-dried.
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This trail was originally constructed by the Inca in Peru. It is now part of the Inca trail to Machu Picchu.
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799:." These structures were positioned along the roads and built by the Inca people. These buildings provided the
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Wright, Kenneth, Jonathan M. Kelly, Alfredo Valencia Zegarra. “Machu Pichu: Ancient Hydraulic Engineering”.
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results. The famous lost Inca city is an architectural remnant of a society whose understanding of civil and
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covered over 40,000 km (25,000 miles), principally in two main highways running north to south across the
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tools to complete the water-tight stone canals. The water then traveled through the channels into sixteen
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Common meats to freeze-dry included llama, alpaca, duck, and guinea pig. Transportation and storage of
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communities of the Huinchiri, Chaupibanda, Choccayhua, and Ccollana Quehue to their past ancestors.
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The builders of the empire planned and built impressive waterworks in their city centers, including
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The Inca faced many problems with living in areas with steep terrain. Two large issues were soil
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and area to grow crops. The solution to these problems was the development of terraces, called
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People today continue to honor Incan traditions and expand their knowledge in the building of
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that carried off his used bath water so it would never re-enter Machu Picchu’s water supply.
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Brown, Jeff L. “Water Supply and Drainage Systems at Machu Picchu” 19 September 2006
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Hyslop, John. Inka Settlement Planning. University of Texas Press, Austin, 1990.
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Pictured is the weaving of grass into rope to be used in the formation of a bridge
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known as the "stairway of fountains", reserving the first water source for the
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1240:"The Last Incan Suspension Bridge Is Made Entirely of Grass and Woven by Hand"
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Water engineer Ken Wright and his archaeological team found the emperor’s
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current and a new bridge is built in its place. This tradition links the
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Devices, and technologies invented or used in the Inca civilisation
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mountains is what allowed them to take advantage of this process.
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Wright, Kenneth R. “Machu Picchu: Prehistoric Public Works.”
1429:"The Inca Rope Bridge That's Woven Across a River Each Year"
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was constructed. This date was determined and based on the
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An example of an Inca rope bridge, litograph of 1845 by
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which is about 1.35 km north for Tipon's terraces.
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are a feature of the complicated drainage system; the
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Not only were goods transported throughout the vast
1623:Bauer, Brian. The Development of the Inca State.
1037:Wright, Kenneth; Valencia, Alfedo; Lorah, William.
927:
Encyclopedia of Prehistory: Volume 7: South America
638:"Each June in Huinchiri, Peru, four
1017:Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian
755:province, can be much larger. As mentioned in the
1060:"How did the Inca control erosion and grow crops"
682:The Great Inka Road: Engineering an Empire
1209:"How did the Incas travel around their empire?"
676:"A small portion of a 60-foot replica built by
385:How they were built and why they were effective
1489:"Q'eswachaka, the Last Inka Suspension Bridge"
266:, 3 irrigation canals diverted water from Rio
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727:An example of the Inca trail from
1039:"Ancient Machu Picchu Drainage Engineering"
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925:Peregrine, Peter; Ember, Melvin (2002).
863:. New York: Springer. pp. 188–197.
843:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(1997)123:10(838)
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776:. The most obvious way in which the
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1180:Garcilaso de la Vega (1609). "22".
772:, there were several uses for the
686:Smithsonian’s National Museum
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1803:History of electrical engineering
1601:American Public Works Association
1427:Meier, Allison (March 31, 2016).
1617:Journal of Hydraulic Engineering
1587:University of Colorado at Denver
1382:from the original on 2021-12-18.
1238:Obscura, Atlas (June 10, 2013).
831:Journal of Hydraulic Engineering
407:All food grown or killed by the
64:
1487:Plata, Allie (August 4, 2017).
1397:"SECRETS OF LOST EMPIRES: INCA"
1183:Comentarios reales de los Incas
1106:"Inca Food and the Inca People"
591:had to be rebuilt every year.
1676:History of technology cultures
1077:Franco, Michael (2011-01-12).
999:10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.09.014
361:Terrace function and structure
1:
1823:History of nuclear technology
1798:History of computing hardware
1776:History of technology domains
1281:Wilford, John (May 8, 2007).
1013:"Engineering the Inka empire"
557:were an integral part of the
1808:History of materials science
1583:“Inka Hydraulic Engineering”
1555:"Inca Trail to Machu Picchu"
1283:"How the Inca Leapt Canyons"
935:10.1007/978-1-4615-0521-1_14
768:As mentioned in the section
257:. Inca's infrastructure and
1064:Engineering the Inca empire
696:John Wilford shares in the
680:weavers is on view in
627:An example of a rope bridge
561:. "Five centuries ago, the
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1559:Peru Treks & Adventure
1159:World History Encyclopedia
861:Ancient Water Technologies
306:An example of Machu Picchu
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1771:
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1527:"Inca Roads and Chasquis"
888:"How Old is Machu Picchu"
501:Inca Garcilaso de la Vega
348:complete with a separate
1788:History of communication
1783:History of biotechnology
667:carrying their produce.”
672:Eleuterio Ccallo Tapia
575:Inca suspension bridges
507:as part of the annual "
503:described the use of a
1859:History of engineering
1813:History of measurement
1683:Prehistoric technology
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428:Inca diet was largely
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1758:Industrial Revolution
1665:History of technology
949:"Terrace cultivation"
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526:The vast size of the
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296:hydraulic engineering
231:Hydraulic engineering
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1864:Technology by period
1828:History of transport
1793:History of computing
1627:Press, Austin, 1992.
1589:. 19 September 2006.
1459:"Q'ESWACHAKA BRIDGE"
929:. pp. 150–193.
859:Mays, Larry (2009).
1818:History of medicine
1625:University of Texas
1606:, 17 November 2003
1403:. February 11, 1997
1154:"Inca Civilization"
619:Modern rope bridges
1378:. August 4, 2011.
1287:The New York Times
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171:Neo-Inca State
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1577:Bibliography
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1558:
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1530:
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1492:
1467:. Retrieved
1462:
1436:. Retrieved
1432:
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1340:
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1286:
1247:. Retrieved
1243:
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1212:
1188:. Retrieved
1182:
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1163:. Retrieved
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282:Machu Picchu
259:water supply
240:
219:
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137:Inca history
93:Architecture
74:Inca society
46:
35:
1743:Renaissance
1564:December 3,
1536:December 3,
1498:December 3,
1469:December 3,
1463:Smithsonian
1438:December 3,
1407:December 3,
1347:December 3,
1292:December 3,
1249:December 1,
1218:December 1,
1213:Fact Gadget
897:December 3,
749:Inca Empire
644:Inca Empire
528:Inca empire
225:Inca Empire
151:Inca Empire
113:Engineering
88:Agriculture
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36:Qishwachaka
1843:Categories
958:2017-01-16
816:References
774:Inca roads
745:Inca roads
509:Inti Raymi
430:vegetarian
424:Vegetables
255:irrigation
235:See also:
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247:fountains
176:Civil War
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801:Chasquis
793:Chasquis
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693:today.
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243:canals
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446:jerky
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737:Peru
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