Inca road system - Knowledge

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structure that provided labor for road maintenance. The use of the Inca roads became partial and was adapted to the new political and economic targets of the Colony and later of the Viceroyalty where the economic structure was based on the extraction of minerals and commercial production. This implied a dramatic change in the use of the territory. The former integration of longitudinal and transversal territories was reduced to a connection of the Andean valleys and the Altiplano with the coast to allow for the export of products, especially gold and silver, which started flowing to the coast and from there to Spain. A key factor in the dismantling of the network at the subcontinental level was the opening of new routes to connect the emerging production centers (estates and mines) with the coastal ports. In this context, only those routes that covered the new needs were used, abandoning the rest, particularly those that connected to the forts built during the advance of the Inca Empire or those that linked the agricultural spaces with the administrative centres. Nevertheless, the ritual roads that allowed access to the sanctuaries continued to be used under the religious syncretism that has been characterizing the Andean historical moments since the conquest.

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extension of the road system into the new dominated territories. The Qhapaq Ñan thus became a permanent symbol of the ideological presence of the Inca dominion in the newly conquered place. The road system facilitated the movement of imperial troops and preparations for new conquests as well as the quelling of uprisings and rebellions. However it was also allowed for sharing with the newly incorporated populations the surplus goods that the Inca produced and stored annually for the purpose of redistribution. The army moved frequently, mostly in support of military actions but also to support civil works. The forts or pukaras were located mainly in the border areas, as a spatial indicator of the process of progressing and annexing new territories to the Empire. In fact, a greater number of pukaras are found towards the north of the Tawantinsuyu, as witnesses to the work of incorporating the northern territories, which were known to be rich in pastures. To the south there are abundant remains, around Mendoza in Argentina and along the Maipo river in Chile, where the presence of forts marks the line of the road at the southernmost point of the Empire.

855:, or deities, in the universe of Andean beliefs that are still held today; they have a spiritual connotation linked to the future of Nature and human existence. The Incas held many rituals, including the sacrifice of children, goods, and llamas, at the mountain tops as part of this belief. However, not all mountains held the same religious connotation nor on all of them sanctuaries were built. The only way to reach the summits of the mountains for worship was by connecting the road system to high altitude paths in order to reach the sacred places. They were ritual roads that culminated in the peaks, at the point of contact between the earthly and the sacred space. Some of them reached high altitudes above sea level, such as mount Chañi, which had a road that started at the base and went to the summit at an elevation of 5,949 metres (19,518 ft). 4369: 1361: 1226:, to pound the rocks in a way that the contours of the upper rock matched those of the rock below so that the seams fit perfectly without mortar. For simple log bridges, the construction was done by placing a series of logs over projecting canes. Stone bridges could span shorter lengths and needed shallower rivers to be built . Some slabs were placed over the abutments and intermediate stone pillars when necessary. A very special stone bridge was recently discovered in Bolivia consisting of a relatively small opening to allow the stream to flow and a quite imposing stone embankment filling the valley sides in order to allow the road to pass on top of it. 1166:) were mounds of stones of different sizes, formed through gradual accumulation by the travelers, who deposited stones as an offering to preserve their travel from setbacks and allow for its successful conclusion. The apachetas were located on the side of the roads in transitional spaces such as passes or "points of interest" for travellers. This practice was condemned for its pagan character during the Colony and the Viceroyalty, when priests were ordered to dismantle them and plant crosses instead. Nevertheless, the tradition of making apachetas was not discontinued and crosses or altars of different sizes were accompanied by mounds of stone. 588: 825:: this system formed the basis for trade throughout the Inca Empire. As different sections of the Empire had different resources, the roads were used to distribute goods to other parts of the Empire that were in need of them. Roads reinforced the strength of the Inca Empire, as they allowed for the empire's multitude of resources to be distributed through a set system to ensure all parts of the Empire were satisfied. Nevertheless, scholars have noted that there was a possible barter of goods along the roads between caravanners and villagers: a sort of "secondary exchange" and "daily swapping". 70: 843: 785: 1210: 1143: 730: 812:

the steep mountain roads, increasing carrying capacity without risking additional lives. Llamas have soft, padded hoofs, which give them good traction and a negligible impact on the road surface. Llamas of the Q'ara race (short-haired variety), which are used also in contemporary caravans, can carry about 30 kilograms (66 lb) for a distance of 20 kilometres (12 mi) per day, when necessary they can carry up to 45 kilograms (99 lb) for short trips. They forage on natural vegetation.

1230: 197: 1375: 892: 1332: 2679: 58: 1083:(13 ft) even in agricultural areas where the land had high value. Some portions reached a width of 16 metres (52 ft). Near urban and administrative centers there is evidence of two or three roads constructed in parallel. The maximum recorded width on the north coastal road is 35 metres (115 ft), while the average width in the south coastal road is 8.5 metres (28 ft). 1015: 485: 1273: 776:

destroyed by wars (conquest, uprising, independence or between nations), the change in the economic model which involved abandoning large areas of territory, and finally the construction of modern infrastructure, during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, which led to the superposition of new communication channels in the outline of pre-Hispanic roads.

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exchange of people, goods and information. The outcome was a great road network of subcontinental dimensions, which, from Cusco, was directed in the four cardinal directions that marked the territorial division of Tawantinsuyu, which allowed the Inca and his officers to have knowledge of everything that circulated on the roads, however far away they were.

1312:. These latter were rectangular buildings of considerable size, which the Conquistadors called barns for their length. They were used for ceremonies and for accommodation of diverse nature: members of the Inca or local elites, mitimaes or other travelers. Tambos were so frequent that many Andean regional place names include the word tambo in them. 1096:

more deserted areas also used stone rows and wooden poles driven into the sand as route markers. Stone rows were built with stones of similar sizes and shapes, placed next to each other and located on one or both edges of the road, arranged in a sort of curb. In some cases it has been observed that the sides of these stones were edged.

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establishment of control zones in an intermediate location with respect to the populations and productive lands of the valleys, the requirement of specific goods, and storage needs, which were favored in the high plains of the Altiplano, characterized by low temperatures and dry climates. As an example, the administrative center of

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military advance was based mostly on diplomatic deals before the annexation of the new regions and the consolidation of the dominion, considering war as a last resort. The foundation of cities and administrative centers connected by the road system ensured state control of the new incorporated ethnic groups.

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itself was far off the beaten path, and served as a royal estate populated by the ruling Inca and several hundred servants. It required regular infusions of goods and services from Cusco and other parts of the Empire. This is evidenced by the fact that there are no large government storage facilities

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The tambos were the most numerous and perhaps more important buildings in the operation of the road network. They were constructions of varied architecture and size whose function was mainly the lodging of the travellers and the storage of products for their supply. For this reason, they were located

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There were multiple types of bridges used throughout the road system and they were sometimes built in pairs. Some bridges were made of parallel logs tied together with ropes and covered with earth and vegetal fibers supported by stone abutments, while others were built of stone slabs resting on piled

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allowed to build walls on both sides of the road, to isolate it from agricultural land so that the walkers and caravans traveled without affecting the crops. In the flatlands and in the deserts, these walls most probably prevented sand from covering the road. In the absence of walls, the roads in the

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After the independence from Spain the American republics, throughout the 19th century, did not provide significant changes to the territory. In the case of Peru, the territorial structure established by the Colony was maintained while the link between the production of the mountains and the coast was

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Roads and bridges were essential to the political cohesion of the Inca state and to the redistribution of goods within it. All resources in the Empire were the property of the ruling elite. Commercial exchanges between manufacturers or producers and buyers were not practiced, as the management of all

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According to Hyslop the use of the Inca road system was reserved to authorities. He states: «soldiers, porters, and llama caravans were prime users, as were the nobility and other individuals on official duty… Other subjects were allowed to walk along the roads only with permission…» Nevertheless, he

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The Incas used the road system for a variety of reasons, from transportation for people who were traveling through the Empire to military and religious purposes. The road system allowed for a fast movement of persons from one part of the Empire to the other: both armies and workers used the roads to

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The width of the roadway varied between 1 and 4 metres (3.3 and 13.1 ft), although some could be much wider, such as the 25 metres (82 ft) road leading to Huánuco Pampa. The Cusco to Quito portion of the Road system, which was the most trafficked one, had a width always exceeding 4 metres

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The Incas built their road system by expanding and reinforcing several pre-existing smaller networks of roads, adapting and improving previous infrastructures, setting up a system of formal roads and providing a maintenance system that would protect the roads and facilitate the displacements and the

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These roads provided easy, reliable and quick routes for the Empire's administrative and military communications, personnel movement, and logistical support. After conquering a territory or convincing the local lord to become an ally, the Inca would employ a military-political strategy including the

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in large flocks. They are lightweight animals and cannot carry much but are incredibly nimble. To transport large numbers of goods across the empire, it was more efficient for the Incas to use herds of llamas and to have two or three herdsmen. Herdsmen would drive the animals carrying their loads up

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was mostly discontinued. The Conquistadors used the Inca roads to approach the capital city of Cusco, but they used horses and ox carts, which were not usable on such a road, and soon most of the roads were abandoned. Only about 25 percent of this network is still visible today, the rest having been

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Garcilaso de la Vega underlines the presence of infrastructure on the Inca road system where all across the Empire lodging posts for state officials and chasqui messengers were ubiquitous, well-spaced and well provisioned. Food, clothes, and weapons were also stored and kept ready for the Inca army

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To access the famous Apurímac rope bridge it was necessary for the road to reach the narrowest section of the gorge: to this end, the road was cut along a natural fault into the steep rock of the valley and a tunnel was carved to facilitate the way. The tunnel had a series of side openings allowing

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Some places such as rock shelters or cliffs show rock paintings next to the roads, which can be interpreted as a reinforcement of the signalization. The generally zoomorphic painted representations correspond to stylized camelids, in the typical Inca design and color. Figures directly carved on the

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The construction of modern roads and railways was adapted to this logic. It gave priority to the communication with the coasts and was complemented by transversal axes of penetration into the inter-Andean valleys for the channeling of production towards the coastal axis and its seaports. At the end

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More than twenty transversal routes ran over the western mountains, while others traversed the eastern cordillera in the mountains and lowlands, connecting the two main routes and populated areas, administrative centres, agricultural and mining zones, as well as ceremonial centres and sacred spaces

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Retaining walls were made with stones, adobes or mud and were built on the hillsides. These walls contained leveling fillings to form the platform of the road or to support the soil that could otherwise slide down the slope, as is generally seen in the transversal roads that lead to the coast from

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During the first years of the Colony, the Qhapaq Ñan suffered a stage of abandonment and destruction caused by the abrupt decrease of the number of natives due to illness and war which reduced the population from more than 12 million people to about 1.1 million in 50 years and destroyed the social

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in the central highlands of Peru and the Tiwanaku culture. This latter had developed around Lake Titicaca, in the current territories of Peru and Bolivia, between the 6th and 12th centuries CE, and had set up a complex and advanced civilization. Many new sections of the road were built or upgraded

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I believe that, since the memory of people, it has not been read of such a greatness as this road, made through deep valleys and high peaks, snow covered mountains, marshes of water, live rock and beside furious rivers; in some parts it was flat and paved, on the slopes well made, by the mountains

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Part of the network continued to be used, as well as some of its equipment, such as the tambos, which were transformed into stores and shops, adjusting to the tradition of Spain, where peasant production was taken to them for selling. The tambos entered a new stage as meeting spaces for different

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The route towards the North was the most important in the Inca Empire, as shown by its constructive characteristics: a width ranging between 3 and 16 m and the size of the archaeological vestiges that mark the way both in its vicinity and in its area of influence. It is not coincidental that this

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The exact extent of the road network is not known: travelers and scholars proposed various lengths, spanning from 23,000 kilometres (14,000 mi) to 40,000 kilometres (25,000 mi) to 60,000 kilometres (37,000 mi). Two main routes were defined: the eastern one, inland, runs high in the

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Canziani Amico, José (2009). El Imperio Inca. La integración macroregional andina y el apogeo de la planificación territorial - Ciudad y Territorio en los Andes. Contribuciones a la historia del urbanismo prehispánico. – Lima - Centro de Investigación de la Arquitectura y la Ciudad - Pontificia

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interval, although irregularities were identified in their distances, probably linked to various factors such as the presence of water sources, the existence of land with agricultural produce or the presence of pre-Inca centers. The tambos were most probably administered by the local populations

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The construction of bridges was accomplished by the help of many workers. It implied first of all the constructions of abutments, normally made of stone both rough and dressed. The masonry could even be extremely well fitted, with no evidence of any mortar being used to keep the stones in place.

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In the mountains and the high forests, precisely arranged paving stones or cobbles were used for paving, placing them with their flat face towards the top, trying to produce a uniform surface. Nevertheless, not all the roads were paved; in the Andean puna and in the coastal deserts the road was

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The twentieth century organization of roads along the Andes gave priority to the Pan-American highway along the coast, following roughly the traces of the coastal Inca road. This highway was then connected to west–east routes into the valleys while the north–south Inca road up the mountains was

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In damp areas embankments were built to produce causeways, in rocky terrain it was necessary to dig the path in the rock or to drive it through an artificial terrace with retaining walls Some important causeways such as on the coast of Lake Titicaca were built to take into account the periodic

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Drainage by ditches or culverts was more frequent in the mountains and jungle due to the constant rainfall. Along other road sections, the drainage of rain water was carried out through an articulated system based on longitudinal channels and shorter drains, transverse to the axis of the road.

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to Pachacamac and the other regions of Chinchaysuyu. Their strategy involved modifying or constructing a road structure that would ensure the connection of the incorporated territory with Cusco and with other administrative centers, allowing the displacement of troops and officials. The Incas'

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areas, for displacement, seeking to avoid contact with the populations settled in the valleys, and project, at the same time, a straight route of rapid communication. Other researchers pointed out additional factors that conditioned the location of Inca settlements and roads, such as the

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in Ecuador. This was regarded by the Incas as "the" Qhapaq Ñan, main road or royal road, starting from Cusco and arriving in Quito. From Quito northwards, the Inca presence is perceived in defensive settlements that mark the advance of the Empire by the Ecuadorian provinces of

987:, so the maritime ports of Peru took on special relevance and intense activity requiring an adequate accessibility from the production spaces. Some parts of the Inca roads were still in use in the south of the Altiplano giving access to the main centers for the production of 910:

began the transformation and expansion of what decades later would become the Tawantinsuyu. The historical stage of the Empire begun around 1438 when, having settled the disputes with local populations around Cusco, the Incas started the conquest of the coastal valleys from

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also provided access across narrow valleys. A bridge across the Apurímac River, west of Cusco, spanned a distance of 45 metres (148 ft). Rope bridges had to be replaced about every two years: to this end, the communities around the river crossing were commanded into a

710:, in the extreme Peruvian south. These roads are transversal routes that guaranteed the complementarity of natural resources, since they cross very varied ecological floors, in the varied altitude of the descent from the heights of the cordillera to the coastal spaces. 1050:: a sort of tax work, provided to the state by the conquered people, by which the Inca Empire produced the required goods and performed the necessary services, which included the upkeep of roads and their relevant infrastructures (bridges, tambos, warehouses, etc.). 1104:

Although it is not strictly a construction element used to delimit the edges of the road, there are cases in which furrows delimit the road on both sides. Examples of these furrows have been found in the coastal area located south of the Chala district in Arequipa.

509:. The Inca Road system connected the northern territories with the capital city Cusco and the southern territories. About 5,000 kilometres (3,100 mi), out of the more than 7,000 kilometres (4,300 mi) that the Andean mountains spans, were covered by it. 741:

According to Hyslop the roads were the basis for the expansion of the Inca Empire: the most important settlements were located on the main roads, following a provision prefigured by the existence of older roads. The Incas had a predilection for the use of the

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cleared, by the rocks excavated, by the rivers with walls, in the snows with steps and resting places; everywhere it was clean, swept, clear of debris, full of dwellings, warehouses for valuable goods, temples of the Sun, relay stations that were on this road.

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move and the tambos to rest and be fed. It also allowed for the fast movement of information and valuable small goods which traveled through the chasquis. The Incas gave priority to the straightness of the roads, whenever possible, to shorten the distances.

567:, sponsored by the Peruvian government and basing also on previous research and surveys, suggest with a high degree of probability that another branch of the road system existed on the east side of the Andean ridge, connecting the administrative centre of 362:

meaning "royal road" in Quechua) was the most extensive and advanced transportation system in pre-Columbian South America. It was about 40,000 kilometres (25,000 mi) long. The construction of the roads required a large expenditure of time and effort.

948:. The admiration of the chroniclers was not enough to convince the Spanish ruler of the need to maintain and consolidate the road system rather than abandoning and destroying it. The reduction of the local population to newly built settlements (known as 1319:, or relay stations for the Inca messenger chasqui, were frequent. In these places the chasquis waited for the messages they had to take to other locations. The fast flow of information was important for an Empire that was in constant expansion. The 1505:

Martínez Martínez, Guadalupe (2010). Qhapaq Ñan: el camino inca y las transformaciones territoriales en los Andes Peruanos - Arqueología y Sociedad, Nº 21, 2010 – www.revistasinvestigacion.unmsm.edu.pe/index.php/Arqueo/article/download/12277/10985

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The high altitude shrines were directly related to the cult of Nature and specifically to the mountains, typical of the Inca society, which the Incas formalized by the construction of religious structures on the mountain peaks. Mountains are the

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noted that these authorities were chosen among the noble relatives of the Inca, residents of Cusco. There were three main officials: the manager of the royal roads, the manager of bridges, the manager of chasquis. There were also several

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Bar Esquivel, Alfredo (2013). Afectaciones históricas a la red vial inca y la necesidad del estudio documentario de carreteras para la investigación y el registro de caminos prehispánicos – Cuadernos del Qhapaq Ñan - Año 1, N° 1, 2013 /

2125:«aunque por muchos lugares está ya desbaratado y deshecho, da muestra de la grande cosa que fue». Pedro Cieza de León, "Crónica del Perú. Primera parte" Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú – Academia Nacional de la Historia 1995 1218:

stones. One of the difficulties of creating wooden bridges was obtaining logs. Sometimes, the laborers who were making the bridges had to bring the lumber from very far away. Wooden bridges would be replaced about every eight years.

683:. From there the roads were unfolding to advance towards the southernmost boundaries of the Tawantinsuyu. One branch headed towards the current Mendoza region of Argentina, while the other penetrated the ancient territories of the 1196:

In order to overcome the limitations imposed by the roughness of the relief and the adverse environmental conditions, the Inca engineers designed different solutions. On rocky outcrops the road became narrower, adapting to the

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A 2021 study found that its effects have lingered for over 500 years, with wages, nutrition and school levels higher in communities living within 20 kilometers of the Inca Road, compared to similar communities farther away.

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includes 497 collcas, which totaled as much as 37,100 cubic metres (1,310,000 cu ft) and could support a population of between twelve and fifteen thousand people. Cotapachi (nowadays in the Bolivian region of

371:, and water drainage systems. It was based on two north–south roads: one along the coast and the second and most important inland and up the mountains, both with numerous branches. It can be directly compared with the 1445:

Out of about 200 known pukaras 100 of them are found in Northern Ecuador and 30 of them in Northern Chile and Argentina. See Anderson, Amber M., "War and Conquest: Inca strategies and struggles in Northern Ecuador",

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usually made using packed earth, sand, or simply covering grassland with soil or sand. There is also evidence of paving with vegetable fibers such as in the road of Pampa Afuera in Casma (Áncash department, Peru).

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to the centers of Spanish power. Another important factor was the inadequacy of the road for horses and mules introduced by the conquerors, that became the new pack animals, substituting for the lightweight llamas.

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Rocks of varying size at the road side can represent the shapes of the mountains or important glaciers of the region, as an expression of the sacralization of geography; they can be made up of one or more rocks.

966:(farming terraces), which in turn reduced the fertile soil due to erosion form rain. The pre-Hispanic agricultural technologies were abandoned or displaced towards marginal spaces, relegated by the colonizers. 2600: 866:

along and near the roads, especially around the capital city, Cusco. These shrines were either natural or modified features of the landscape, as well as buildings, where the Inca would visit for worship.

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The Tawantinsuyu, which integrated the current territories of Peru, continued towards the north through present-day Ecuador, reaching the northernmost limits of the Andean mountain range in the region of

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The network was composed of formal roads carefully planned, engineered, built, marked and maintained; paved where necessary, with stairways to gain elevation, bridges and accessory constructions such as

1258:(Stipa ichu) a fiber typical of the Altiplano, which were tied together to form cords and ropes which constituted the bridge floor cables, the two handrails and the necessary connections between them. 1123:

Retaining walls were used along the mountain slopes, and are similar to those used to support the terraces. When crossing wetlands, roads were often supported by buttress walls or built on causeways.

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in Chilean lands, who had already developed basic road networks. From there, crossing the driest desert in the world, the Atacama Desert, the Qollasuyu route reached the Maipo river, currently in the

4349: 1139:, generally placed on both sides of the road. They were columns of well piled stones with a surmounting stone and often strategically placed on rises in order to be spotted from long distances. 375:, although the Inca road system was built one thousand years later. The road system allowed for the transfer of information, goods, soldiers and persons, without the use of wheels, within the 2632: 1634:

Mattos, Ramiro (2015). El Qhapaq Ñan del Tawantinsuyu: reflexiones sobre su significado político y social en el presente andino - Revista de Antropología del Museo de Entre Ríos 12-20 (2015)

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Qhapaq=rich, powerful, opulent, wealthy, privileged; ñan=road, way, path, route. Source "Diccionario quechua - español - quechua" Gobierno Regional Cusco - Cusco – Second edition, 2005

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Stones and walls served to mark the width of the road and signal it. On the coast and in the mountains, the availability of construction materials such as stone and mud for preparing

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Martins, Denise; Weber Elizabeth (2004). O Urbanismo Incaico: As llactas e a construçâo do Tahuantinsuyo - Disciplinarum Scientia. Ciências Humanas - Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul

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Even the new agriculture, derived from Spain, consisting mainly of cereals, changed the appearance of the territory, which was sometimes transformed, cutting and joining several

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Transportation was done on foot as in pre-Columbian Americas, the use of wheels for transportation was not known. The Inca had two main uses of transportation on the roads: the

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Raffino, Rodolfo et al. Rumichaca: el puente inca en la cordillera de los Chichas (Tarija, Bolivia) – in "Arqueologia argentina en los incios de un nevo siglo" pags 215 to 223

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Much of the system was the result of the Incas claiming exclusive right over numerous traditional routes, some of which had been constructed centuries earlier, mostly by the

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in the current Peru–Ecuador border, follows the coastal plains, but does not include the coastal deserts, where it hugs the foothills. This western road outlines the current

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Bauer, Brian; Stanish, Charles (2003). Las islas del Sol y de la Luna: ritual y peregrinaje en los antiguos Andes – Cusco – Centro Bartolomé de las Casas, (Antropología, 3)

2719: 721:, where conditions are more difficult for the conservation of archaeological evidences. The true physical extension of the Inca Empire for this region is not very clear. 1254:

for the construction of the new bridge, while the old bridge was cut and let fall into the river. This type of bridge was built with ropes of vegetable fibers, such as

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Hyslop, John (1984). The Inca Road System (Studies in Archaeology) - New York: Institute of Andean Research - Academic Press INC – Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers

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Jenkins, David (2001). "Network Analysis of Inka Roads, Administrative Centers, and Storage Facilities" (Volume 48 ed.). Duke University Press. pp. 655–87.

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Del Busto Duthurburu, José Antonio (2000). Una cronología aproximada del Tahuantinsuyo - Biblioteca Digital Andina - Lima, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú

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The labor was organized by officials who were in charge of the development, control and operation of roads and bridges, as well as communications. The chronicler

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Garrido, Francisco (2016). Rethinking imperial infrastructure: A bottom-up perspective on the Inca Road - Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 43 (2016) 94–109

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The reign of the Incas originated during the Late Intermediate period (between 1000 CE and 1450 CE), when this group dominated only the region of Cusco. Inca

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Garcilaso Inca de la Vega – "Primera parte de los comentarios reales de los incas, escrita por Garcilaso Inca de la Vega y publicada en 1609, en Lisboa" ---

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lands, in the southernmost reaches of the Empire, corresponding currently with Argentine and Chilean territories. On the Chilean side, the road reached the

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at the site. A 1997 study concluded that the site's agricultural potential would not have been sufficient to support residents, even on a seasonal basis.

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Gareis, Iris 1997). La enfermedad de los dioses: las epidemias del siglo XVI en el virreinato de Perú – Société Suisse des Américanistes - Bullettin 61

552:, a large and undulating surface, which extends above 4,000 metres (13,000 ft); the second one, the western route, that starts from the region of 4437: 4314: 2641: 4442: 4427: 4407: 3318: 2767: 1589:

Krzanowski Andrzej. Observaciones acerca de la construcción y el trazado de algunos tramos del camino inca en los Andes peruanos - Kraków, Poland -

4452: 2223: 1038:: on steep slopes they built stone steps, while in desert areas near the coast they built low walls to keep the sand from drifting over the road. 903:

substantially by the Incas: the one through Chile's Atacama desert and the one along the western margin of Lake Titicaca serve as two examples.

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Guamán Poma de Ayala, Felipe "Nueva Corónica y Buen Gobierno", 1614 - G. Y. Franklin Pease edition - Lima: Fondo de Cultura Económica – 1993

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or Inca Empire throughout a territory covering almost 2,000,000 km (770,000 sq mi) and inhabited by about 12 million people.

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Vitry, Christian (2007). "Roads for Rituals and Sacred Mountains. A study of the Inka Road Systems in High Altitude Shrines in the North".

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Stern, Steve (1986). Los pueblos indígenas del Perú y el desafío de la conquista española. Huamanga hasta 1640 - Alianza editorial - Madrid

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Vitry, Christian (2007). "Roads for Rituals and Sacred Mountains. A study of the Inca Road Systems in High Altitude Shrines in the North".

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The roads of the Antisuyu are the least known and a lesser number of vestiges were registered. They penetrated into the territories of the

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in different parts of the vast Inca territory. Some of these roads reach altitudes of over 5,000 metres (16,000 ft) above sea level.

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variation of the lake level due to alternating rainy and dry seasons. They had stone bridges to allow the free flow of water below them.

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The roads were bordered, at intervals, with buildings to allow the most effective usage: at short distance there were relay stations for

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recognizes that «there was also an undetermined amount of private traffic … about which little is known». Some local structures (called

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with frequent turns and retaining walls, but on particularly steep slopes flights of stairs or ramps were built or carved in the rock.

954:, a sort of concentration camps) was among the causes of the abandonment of the Inca roads and the building of new ones to connect the 4417: 4412: 4334: 3313: 2952: 4273: 3342: 2511: 2417: 2379: 2346: 2325: 2302: 2018: 1966: 1917: 1736: 1614: 1541: 1070:

Hyslop noted that there was no road construction standard, because the roads were set in such varied environments and landscapes.

402:, for re-distribution of goods were found along the roads. Towards the boundaries of the Inca Empire and in newly conquered areas 4164: 4094: 3783: 2470: 983:

of the eighteenth century, large estates were developed for the supply of raw materials to international markets, together with

3794: 3476: 3291: 2902: 587: 330: 2051:

Nielsen, Alex (2000). Andean Caravans: An Ethnoarchaeology Ph.D. Dissertation in Anthropology - University of Arizona - Tucson

1875:

Jenkins, David (2001). "Network Analysis of Inka Roads, Administrative Centers, and Storage Facilities" (Volume 48 ed.).

4256: 4099: 2947: 2436: 950: 4235: 3511: 2709: 1843:

Lavado, Pablo; Franco, Ana Paula (2017). Long-term effects of the Inca Road System on development - Universidad del Pacífico

4267: 4261: 4245: 3486: 2990: 2744: 2595: 4339: 4231: 3301: 1659: 1276:

An "oroya" or basket to cross rivers. watercolor on paper portrayed in the Lima "MALI" museum, Anonymous - public domain

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Some important places of worship were directly connected by the main Inca roads. Such is the case of the sanctuary of

253: 4160: 2714: 627:

path goes through and organizes the most important administrative centers of the Tawantinsuyu outside Cusco, such as

607:

states that "Cozco in the language of the Incas means navel that is the Earth's navel". The four regions were named

425:

have been working to protect the network in collaboration with the governments and communities of the six countries (

842: 784: 4044: 3887: 2895: 1822: 1606: 1340: 453: 323: 1209: 2804: 2134:

Glave, L. M (1989). Caminos indígenas en la sociedad colonial. Siglos XVI-XVII – Instituto de Apoyo Agrario, Lima

1797: 604: 3396: 3867: 3471: 3273: 3248: 2962: 772: 698:

Contisuyu roads allowed to connect Cusco to coastal territories, in what corresponds to the current regions of

603:(provinces) into which the Tawantinsuyu was divided. Cusco was the center of Peru: the Inca-Spanish chronicler 156: 3616: 1304:

since many of them are associated with settlements with additional constructions for different uses, such as

4168: 3943: 3113: 2726: 2662: 2317: 390: 1800:(2004).Presentación. Proyecto Qhapaq Ñan Informe de Campaña 2002-2003. Instituto Nacional de Cultura, Lima, 1142: 729: 69: 3586: 2688: 2576: 475: 296: 1308:(rectangular enclosures bordered by a wall, probably used as accommodation for walkers), and collcas and 4089: 3938: 3571: 3325: 3296: 3095: 3070: 3035: 2657: 2210:

Squier, Ephrahim George (1877). Peru, incidents of travel and exploration of the land of Incas, New York

2199: 1876: 3223: 2405: 2220: 675:

The route of Qollasuyu leaves Cusco and points towards the South, splitting into two branches to skirt

2176:

Brown, Jeff L. (2016). Highways to the Empire: the Inca road system" - Civil Engineering, January 2016

4373: 4240: 4104: 4069: 3678: 3566: 3281: 3263: 3163: 2601:

Article: "Reinventing the Inca roads: Representations and construction of memory in Peru (2001–2011)"

1366: 822: 669: 557: 267: 1783: 1448:

https://www.academia.edu/11358577/War_and_Conquest_Inca_strategies_and_struggles_in_Northern_Ecuador

1213:

A typical example of an Inca suspension (catenary) bridge on the Apurimac River near Huinchiri, Peru

821:

goods came under the control of the central authority. The redistribution of goods was known as the

291: 4206: 3968: 3198: 3000: 2980: 2814: 2704: 2649: 2574:

Jenkins, David. "A Network Analysis of Inka Roads, Administrative Centers and Storage Facilities."

1003: 858:

In addition to high altitude shrines, there were also many holy shrines or religious sites, called

132: 116: 4225: 2448:

Lifestyles of the Rich and Famous: Luxury and Daily Life in the Households of Machu Picchu's Elite

2254: 1590: 1229: 946:

although in many places it is already broken down and undone, it shows the great thing that it was

672:

in Colombia, which in the 16th century was in process of being incorporated into the Inca Empire.

4329: 4319: 4049: 3958: 3737: 3481: 3426: 3401: 3065: 3060: 3030: 3025: 2795: 2537: 2490: 2482: 2461: 2185:

Lynch, Thomas F. (1996). Inka roads in the Atacama: effects of later use by mounted travelers -

917: 768:) exist alongside the road which may allow to infer that also private trade traffic was present. 498: 1990: 1022: 679:(one on the east and one the west coast) that join again to cross the territory of the Bolivian 4354: 4284: 4250: 3973: 3963: 3673: 3641: 3551: 3521: 3451: 3416: 3386: 3382: 3183: 3158: 3090: 3080: 2918: 2507: 2432: 2413: 2375: 2342: 2321: 2298: 2186: 2014: 1986: 1962: 1913: 1770:

Ministerio de Cultura del Perú (2016). Guía de Identificación y Registro del Qhapaq Ñan – Lima

1732: 1610: 1537: 1403: 1398: 804:) and lightweight valuables throughout the empire and llamas caravans for transporting goods. 718: 665: 223: 218: 100: 32: 2294: 2284: 1958: 1948: 1728: 1722: 4054: 3994: 3861: 3825: 3732: 3636: 3436: 3253: 3228: 3045: 3040: 2736: 2474: 1408: 1380: 1323:

were normally quite small and there is little archaeological evidence and research on them.

1300: 1246: 929: 921: 752: 591:

Cusco, Peru - plaque indicating the 4 directions of the 4 regions (suyus) of the Inca Empire

568: 286: 276: 2887: 970:

ways of life that irremediably ended up integrating new social and territorial structures.

196: 4177: 3856: 3815: 3800: 3763: 3727: 3621: 3516: 3431: 3406: 3367: 3352: 3173: 3010: 2776: 2371: 2227: 1568:

Thompson, Donald E.; John V. Murra (July 1966). "The Inca Bridges in the Huanuco Region".

1374: 661: 494: 243: 2799: 628: 409:

Part of the road network was built by cultures that precede the Inca Empire, notably the

2219:

Fellman, Bruce (2002). Rediscovering Machu Picchu - Yale Alumni Magazine- December 2002

1670: 1237:

To cross rivers flat banks, floating reeds tied together were used, forming of a row of

891: 4210: 4194: 4108: 4074: 3918: 3893: 3850: 3840: 3830: 3820: 3778: 3561: 3372: 3362: 3055: 3015: 3005: 2145:"How the Inca Empire Engineered a Road Across Some of the World's Most Extreme Terrain" 1331: 1222:

Incas, having no iron, used a method of stone working which used simple tools, such as

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https://historiaperuana.pe/periodo-colonial/virreinato/la-poblacion-en-el-virreinato/

1531: 1046:

The manpower required for both construction and maintenance was obtained through the

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the light to come in. There is no evidence of other tunnels along the Inca roads.

452:

In modern times some remnant of the roads see heavy use from tourism, such as the

695:

metropolitan region. From there no vestiges of the Inca advance have been found.

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Life Styles of the Rich and Famous: Luxury and Daily Life in the Households of

57: 4181: 4019: 3999: 3626: 3441: 3233: 2995: 1356: 1014: 871: 757: 636: 525: 4202: 4198: 4173: 3923: 3258: 3148: 2787: 2678: 1817: 1272: 1198: 907: 743: 680: 652: 648: 640: 521: 446: 213: 3707: 3377: 2089:

Rostworowski María (2015). Los Incas - Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos

484: 1131:

At given distances the direction of the road was marked with stone piles (

1034:

The Incas developed techniques to overcome the difficult territory of the

4189: 4039: 3601: 3581: 3576: 3466: 3446: 2836: 1047: 963: 733:

A view of the Inca road climbing a hillside at the Mosollaqta lake, Peru

703: 699: 692: 684: 656: 533: 426: 414: 17: 2244:

Lucy C. Salazar; Richard L. Burger. "The Inca: From Village to Empire".

1243:

boats placed side to side and covered with a board of totora and earth.

1150:

in the southern part of the Inca road system in the current province of

944:

Cieza de Leon in 1553 noted the abandonment of the road and stated that

4185: 3722: 3651: 3606: 3347: 3243: 3218: 3203: 3123: 3118: 3075: 3050: 3020: 2864: 2856: 2840: 2828: 2605: 2486: 1684:

Ministerio de Cultura de Peru (2011). Qhapaq Ñan, el Camino Inca - Lima

438: 430: 384: 145: 4128: 4118: 4014: 3989: 3501: 3496: 3421: 3357: 3238: 3188: 3178: 3153: 2860: 2850: 2759: 2396: 2200:

http://www.academia.edu/6953894/Suspension_Bridges_of_the_Inca_Empire

1262: 988: 928:

around 1463; later he extended the conquests to the jungle region of

797: 575:

provinces and having a length of about 470 kilometres (290 mi).

418: 403: 399: 2596:

Geographic database of the Inca road system from a French university

2478: 2429:

SeriesIndian Traditions : The chasqui : an Inca tradition

3768: 3712: 3703: 3591: 3168: 2872: 2868: 2832: 1330: 1271: 1228: 1208: 1163: 1151: 1141: 1092: 1035: 1021: 1013: 984: 925: 912: 890: 859: 841: 801: 783: 728: 707: 632: 596: 586: 529: 517: 483: 442: 395: 228: 2239: 1784:

http://museogarcilaso.pe/mediaelement/pdf/3-ComentariosReales.pdf

874:

through which the coastal road passed, just south of present day

2844: 875: 623:

towards the West and the lower valleys along the Pacific coast.

619:

towards the East and the lower valleys of the Amazon region and

434: 2891: 2614: 2286:

Kingdom of the Sun God: a history of the Andes and their people

1950:

Kingdom of the Sun God: a history of the Andes and their people

1591:

http://www.farkha.nazwa.pl/contributions/pcnwa/cnwa/CNWA2.4.pdf

2590: 2198:

Bauer, Brian (----). Suspension Bridges of the Inca Empire" -

1436:

Although very similar to llamas, alpacas are not pack animals.

1269:, which could span distances of over 50 metres (160 ft). 771:

The use of the Inca roads, in the colonial period, after the

398:

pack animals. Administrative centers with warehouses, called

4350:

Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas

2555:

Andean World: Indigenous History: Culture and Consciousness

2606:

UNESCO World Heritage Centre – Main Inca Road – Qhapaq Ñan

995:, which were in high demand in the international markets. 595:

During the Inca Empire, the roads officially stemmed from

788:

The Inca road bordering the Titicaca lake seen from the

388:, the running messengers; at a one-day walking interval 2542:

The Incas and their Ancestors: The archaeology of Peru.

2459:(July 1966). "The Inca Bridges in the Huanuco Region". 1233:

A sketch of the rumichaka in the Tarija region, Bolivia

1658:"Colapso Demografico en la población de la colonia" - 4345:

Painting in the Americas before European colonization

979:

consolidated under a logic of extraction and export.

497:

in Colombia; by the South, it penetrated down to the

2356:

Fellman, Bruce (2002). "Rediscovering Mach Picchu".

1890:

Fellman, Bruce (2002). "Rediscovering Mach Picchu".

417:

culture in Bolivia. Different organizations such as

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Bulletin of the Chilean Museum of Pre-Columbian Art

2063:

Bulletin of the Chilean Museum of Pre-Columbian Art

2004: 2002: 2000: 1998: 1870: 1868: 1525: 1523: 1521: 1519: 1517: 1515: 1513: 1511: 171: 163: 151: 141: 131: 123: 114: 96: 84: 79: 43: 2189:14/15 1996 - University of Tarapacá – Arica Chile 846:The Inca coastal road at the Pachacamac Sanctuary 1261:Ravines were sometimes crossed by large hanging 800:(runners) for relaying information (through the 394:allowed support to the road users and flocks of 1671:Voxeu.org: "Long-term effects of the Inca Road" 512:As indicated by Hyslop, "The main route of the 467: 4325:Ceramics of Indigenous peoples of the Americas 4310:Category: Archaeological sites in the Americas 1818:"Mark Cartwright "The Inca Road System", 2014" 1563: 1561: 1559: 1557: 1555: 1553: 1010:Architecture and engineering of the Inca roads 2903: 2626: 2412:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 2247:Yale Peabody Museum Social Studies Curriculum 1812: 1810: 1808: 1806: 599:into the 4 cardinal directions towards the 4 331: 8: 2446:Salazar, Lucy C.; Richard L. Burger (2004). 2085: 2083: 2081: 1793: 1791: 1778: 1776: 1727:. New York: Time-Life Books. 1992. pp. 999:mostly reduced to local pedestrian transit. 563:Recent investigations carried out under the 449:) through which the Great Inca Road passes. 1501: 1499: 1497: 1495: 1493: 1491: 1489: 1487: 920:succeeded to Pachakutiq, and conquered the 544:, has a length of 5,658 km." (3,516 miles) 4293: 2910: 2896: 2888: 2633: 2619: 2611: 2591:Trailer: "Qhapaq Ñan, Voices of the Andes" 2047: 2045: 1933: 1931: 1929: 1903: 1901: 1862:Universidad Católica del Perú, pp. 411-483 1485: 1483: 1481: 1479: 1477: 1475: 1473: 1471: 1469: 1467: 373:road network built during the Roman Empire 338: 324: 184: 4315:Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas 1708: 1706: 1704: 1702: 1700: 1698: 1696: 1694: 1692: 1690: 1680: 1678: 1654: 1652: 1642: 1640: 560:in its South American pacific extension. 2919:Pre-Columbian civilizations and cultures 1630: 1628: 1626: 1585: 1583: 1335:Enroute to Machu Picchu on an Inca road. 38:Transportation system of the Inca empire 1766: 1764: 1762: 1760: 1758: 1756: 1754: 1752: 1750: 1748: 1463: 1420: 266: 203: 187: 2773:The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier 2697:The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier 2506:. Spain: Lexus Editores. p. 301. 1980: 1978: 647:, in current territories of Peru; and 40: 2768:Jesuit Block and Estancias of Córdoba 413:in the northern central Peru and the 170: 162: 150: 140: 130: 122: 113: 7: 456:, which is well known by trekkers. 88:40,000 km (25,000 mi) 3343:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Venezuela 2406:Rostworowski de Diez Canseco, Maria 2314:Provincial Power in the Inka Empire 2011:Provincial Power in the Inka Empire 4335:Indigenous cuisine of the Americas 3314:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Colombia 717:or Amazonian Andes leading to the 25: 4423:World Heritage Sites in Argentina 3326:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Ecuador 3297:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Bolivia 2642:World Heritage Sites in Argentina 2394:"Main Andean Road – Qhapaq Nan". 2034:"Main Andean Road – Qhapaq Nan". 1002:In 2014 the road system became a 924:reaching the far north region of 4438:World Heritage Sites in Colombia 4367: 3319:Archaeological sites in Colombia 3292:Cultures of Pre-Cabraline Brazil 2701:Jesuit Missions of the Guaranis 2677: 2504:Historia del Peru, Tahuantinsuyu 2471:Society for American Archaeology 1910:Historia del Peru, Tahuantinsuyu 1570:Society for American Archaeology 1373: 1359: 1295:marching through the territory. 516:(mountains) that passes through 195: 68: 56: 4443:World Heritage Sites in Ecuador 4428:World Heritage Sites in Bolivia 4408:Road transport in South America 3302:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Chile 4453:Pre-Columbian trails and roads 1724:Incas: lords of gold and glory 974:Post-colonial and modern times 488:Road system of the Inca Empire 127:Qhapaq Ñan, Andean Road System 62:Extent of the Inca road system 1: 4433:World Heritage Sites in Chile 4246:Spanish Conquest of Guatemala 3307:Archaeological sites in Chile 2745:Ischigualasto Provincial Park 2367:Inca: Lords of Gold and Glory 2335:D'Altroy, Terence N. (2002). 2009:D'Altroy, Terence N. (1992). 1530:D'Altroy, Terence N. (2002). 932:and, in the south, to Chile. 4448:World Heritage Sites in Peru 4403:Archaeological sites in Peru 4340:Mesoamerican writing systems 3336:Archaeological sites in Peru 2544:Thames and Hudson, New York. 2312:D'Altroy, Terence N (1992). 2221:"Rediscovering Machu Picchu" 1536:. Blackwell Publishers Inc. 1042:Construction and maintenance 4236:Spanish Conquest of Yucatán 2810:Los Glaciares National Park 2710:Nuestra Señora de Santa Ana 2427:Rugeles, Ernesto F (1979). 2408:; Harry B. Iceland (1999). 2013:. Smithsonian Institution. 1055:Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala 1018:Manager of the Inca bridges 101:Pre-Columbian South America 4469: 4262:Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada 4165:Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kʼawiil 2580:, 48:655–685 (Fall, 2001). 1823:World History Encyclopedia 1607:Cambridge University Press 1341:Inca Trail to Machu Picchu 1338: 1327:Inca Trail to Machu Picchu 1062:or builders of landmarks. 1026:Manager of the royal roads 1004:UNESCO World Heritage Site 862:, that were a part of the 454:Inca Trail to Machu Picchu 117:UNESCO World Heritage Site 26: 4418:History of road transport 4413:Medieval roads and tracks 4363: 4305: 4296: 3660: 3487:Llanos de Moxos (Bolivia) 2823: 2805:Los Alerces National Park 2674: 2551:Academic Press, New York. 2410:History of the Inca realm 1912:. Spain: Lexus Editores. 1798:Lumbreras, Luis Guillermo 1603:History of the Inca realm 1087:Side walls and stone rows 605:Inca Garcilaso de la Vega 479:El Señorío del Inca. 1553 406:(fortresses) were found. 179: 137:Cultural: ii, iii, iv, vi 110: 106: 92: 67: 55: 48: 4374:Civilizations portal 3331:Cultural periods of Peru 2715:Nuestra Señora de Loreto 2502:Vergara, Teresa (2000). 2341:. Blackwell Publishers. 1908:Vergara, Teresa (2000). 1066:Architectural components 773:Spanish conquest of Peru 639:, Pumpu, Huánuco Pampa, 74:Section of the Inca road 4268:Hernán Pérez de Quesada 3114:Mesoamerican chronology 2663:Talampaya National Park 2565:The Inca Trail Handbook 2318:Smithsonian Institution 2971:Archaeological periods 2370:. New York, New York: 1605:. Cambridge, England: 1450:, accessed 27 May 2017 1336: 1277: 1234: 1214: 1175:stone are also found. 1170:Paintings and mock-ups 1155: 1135:in Spanish) a sort of 1027: 1019: 895: 847: 793: 734: 592: 489: 482: 4274:List of Conquistadors 4161:Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal 3572:Quebrada de Humahuaca 2991:Caddoan Mississippian 2658:Quebrada de Humahuaca 2455:Thompson, Donald E.; 2283:Cameron, Ian (1990). 1947:Cameron, Ian (1990). 1877:Duke University Press 1334: 1275: 1232: 1212: 1145: 1025: 1017: 894: 845: 787: 732: 590: 487: 4241:Francisco de Montejo 4169:Jasaw Chan Kʼawiil I 3282:Andean civilizations 3209:Shaft tomb tradition 2727:Iguazú National Park 2720:Santa María la Mayor 2547:Hyslop, John, 1984. 2358:Yale Alumni Magazine 1892:Yale Alumni Magazine 1609:. 1999. p. 60. 1367:Civilizations portal 1315:At the roadside the 1074:Roadway and pavement 823:vertical archipelago 807:Llamas were used as 725:Purposes of the road 558:Pan-American Highway 4207:Manco Inca Yupanqui 3512:Manteño-Huancavilca 2981:Ancestral Puebloans 615:towards the South, 611:towards the North, 565:Proyecto Qhapaq Ñan 540:and Chicona to the 476:Pedro Cieza de León 4330:Columbian exchange 4320:Portal:Mesoamerica 3472:La Tolita (Tumaco) 3287:Indigenous peoples 3026:Hopewell tradition 2953:Indigenous peoples 2796:Cueva de las Manos 2557:by Kenneth Adrien. 2462:American Antiquity 2226:2016-05-06 at the 2149:Smithsonianmag.com 1337: 1278: 1235: 1215: 1156: 1028: 1020: 918:Topa Inca Yupanqui 896: 848: 794: 792:of Chucuito, Peru. 735: 593: 490: 124:Official name 4385: 4384: 4381: 4380: 4355:Pre-Columbian art 4291: 4290: 4285:Francisco Pizarro 4251:Pedro de Alvarado 3567:Pucará de Tilcara 2885: 2884: 2549:Inka Road System. 2450:. Dumbarton Oaks. 1404:Inca architecture 1399:Incan agriculture 1247:Inca rope bridges 719:Amazon rainforest 670:Nariño Department 348: 347: 297:Invasion of Chile 183: 182: 80:Route information 33:Inca Roads (song) 16:(Redirected from 4460: 4372: 4371: 4370: 4294: 4280:Spanish Conquest 4257:Spanish Conquest 4232:Spanish Conquest 4221:Spanish Conquest 3663: 3662: 2912: 2905: 2898: 2889: 2815:Valdés Peninsula 2750:Inca road system 2705:San Ignacio Miní 2682: 2681: 2668:Inca road system 2635: 2628: 2621: 2612: 2561:Footprints Cusco 2538:Moseley, Michael 2526: 2517: 2498: 2451: 2442: 2423: 2401: 2390: 2385: 2361: 2352: 2331: 2308: 2269: 2268: 2266: 2265: 2259: 2253:. Archived from 2252: 2236: 2230: 2217: 2211: 2208: 2202: 2196: 2190: 2183: 2177: 2174: 2168: 2165: 2159: 2158: 2156: 2155: 2141: 2135: 2132: 2126: 2123: 2117: 2114: 2108: 2105: 2099: 2096: 2090: 2087: 2076: 2073: 2067: 2066: 2058: 2052: 2049: 2040: 2039: 2031: 2025: 2024: 2006: 1993: 1982: 1973: 1972: 1944: 1938: 1935: 1924: 1923: 1905: 1896: 1895: 1887: 1881: 1880: 1872: 1863: 1859: 1853: 1850: 1844: 1841: 1835: 1834: 1832: 1830: 1814: 1801: 1795: 1786: 1780: 1771: 1768: 1743: 1742: 1719: 1713: 1710: 1685: 1682: 1673: 1668: 1662: 1656: 1647: 1644: 1635: 1632: 1621: 1620: 1599: 1593: 1587: 1578: 1577: 1565: 1548: 1547: 1527: 1506: 1503: 1451: 1443: 1437: 1434: 1428: 1425: 1409:Inca rope bridge 1383: 1381:Transport portal 1378: 1377: 1369: 1364: 1363: 1362: 1162:(South American 668:and the current 480: 356:Inka road system 352:Inca road system 340: 333: 326: 312:Spanish conquest 287:History of Cusco 277:Kingdom of Cusco 199: 185: 172:Buffer zone 72: 60: 44:Inca road system 41: 21: 4468: 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2059: 2055: 2050: 2043: 2038:. 10 July 2009. 2033: 2032: 2028: 2021: 2008: 2007: 1996: 1983: 1976: 1969: 1946: 1945: 1941: 1936: 1927: 1920: 1907: 1906: 1899: 1889: 1888: 1884: 1874: 1873: 1866: 1860: 1856: 1851: 1847: 1842: 1838: 1828: 1826: 1816: 1815: 1804: 1796: 1789: 1781: 1774: 1769: 1746: 1739: 1721: 1720: 1716: 1711: 1688: 1683: 1676: 1669: 1665: 1657: 1650: 1645: 1638: 1633: 1624: 1617: 1601: 1600: 1596: 1588: 1581: 1567: 1566: 1551: 1544: 1529: 1528: 1509: 1504: 1465: 1460: 1455: 1454: 1444: 1440: 1435: 1431: 1426: 1422: 1417: 1379: 1372: 1365: 1360: 1358: 1355: 1343: 1329: 1292: 1283: 1207: 1194: 1185: 1172: 1129: 1120: 1114:the mountains. 1111: 1109:Retaining walls 1102: 1089: 1076: 1068: 1044: 1012: 976: 938: 889: 887:Inca Empire era 884: 840: 831: 818: 782: 727: 585: 583:The four routes 481: 478: 474: 466: 369:retaining walls 344: 292:Chimor–Inca War 119: 75: 63: 39: 36: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4466: 4464: 4456: 4455: 4450: 4445: 4440: 4435: 4430: 4425: 4420: 4415: 4410: 4405: 4400: 4390: 4389: 4383: 4382: 4379: 4378: 4364: 4361: 4360: 4358: 4357: 4352: 4347: 4342: 4337: 4332: 4327: 4322: 4317: 4312: 4306: 4303: 4302: 4297: 4289: 4288: 4277: 4254: 4229: 4218: 4214: 4213: 4192: 4171: 4158: 4141: 4140:Notable Rulers 4137: 4136: 4131: 4126: 4121: 4116: 4112: 4111: 4109:Neo-Inca State 4102: 4097: 4092: 4087: 4083: 4082: 4077: 4072: 4067: 4062: 4058: 4057: 4052: 4047: 4042: 4037: 4033: 4032: 4027: 4022: 4017: 4012: 4008: 4007: 4002: 3997: 3992: 3987: 3983: 3982: 3971: 3966: 3961: 3956: 3952: 3951: 3946: 3941: 3936: 3931: 3927: 3926: 3921: 3916: 3911: 3906: 3902: 3901: 3896: 3891: 3880: 3875: 3871: 3870: 3865: 3854: 3843: 3838: 3834: 3833: 3828: 3823: 3818: 3813: 3809: 3808: 3803: 3798: 3787: 3776: 3772: 3771: 3766: 3761: 3750: 3745: 3741: 3740: 3735: 3730: 3725: 3720: 3716: 3715: 3710: 3701: 3696: 3691: 3687: 3686: 3681: 3676: 3671: 3666: 3661: 3658: 3657: 3655: 3654: 3649: 3644: 3639: 3634: 3629: 3624: 3619: 3614: 3609: 3604: 3599: 3594: 3589: 3584: 3579: 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3022: 3019: 3017: 3014: 3012: 3009: 3007: 3004: 3002: 2999: 2997: 2994: 2992: 2989: 2987: 2984: 2982: 2979: 2977: 2974: 2972: 2969: 2968: 2966: 2964: 2963:North America 2960: 2954: 2951: 2949: 2946: 2944: 2941: 2939: 2936: 2934: 2933:Paleo-Indians 2931: 2930: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2913: 2908: 2906: 2901: 2899: 2894: 2893: 2890: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2852: 2848: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2825: 2822: 2816: 2813: 2811: 2808: 2806: 2803: 2801: 2797: 2794: 2793: 2791: 2789: 2785: 2778: 2774: 2771: 2769: 2766: 2765: 2763: 2761: 2757: 2751: 2748: 2746: 2743: 2742: 2740: 2738: 2734: 2728: 2725: 2721: 2718: 2716: 2713: 2711: 2708: 2706: 2703: 2702: 2700: 2698: 2695: 2694: 2692: 2690: 2686: 2680: 2669: 2666: 2664: 2661: 2659: 2656: 2655: 2653: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2636: 2631: 2629: 2624: 2622: 2617: 2616: 2613: 2607: 2604: 2602: 2599: 2597: 2594: 2592: 2589: 2588: 2584: 2579: 2578: 2573: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2559: 2556: 2553: 2550: 2546: 2543: 2539: 2536: 2535: 2531: 2524: 2519: 2515: 2513:9972-625-35-4 2509: 2505: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2463: 2458: 2457:John V. Murra 2453: 2449: 2444: 2440: 2434: 2430: 2425: 2421: 2419:0-521-63759-7 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2398: 2392: 2387: 2383: 2381:0-8094-9870-7 2377: 2373: 2369: 2368: 2363: 2359: 2354: 2350: 2348:0-631-17677-2 2344: 2340: 2339: 2333: 2329: 2327:1-56098-115-6 2323: 2319: 2315: 2310: 2306: 2304:0-8160-2581-9 2300: 2296: 2292: 2291:Facts on File 2288: 2287: 2281: 2280: 2275: 2260:on 2008-12-19 2256: 2249: 2248: 2241: 2235: 2232: 2229: 2225: 2222: 2216: 2213: 2207: 2204: 2201: 2195: 2192: 2188: 2182: 2179: 2173: 2170: 2164: 2161: 2150: 2146: 2140: 2137: 2131: 2128: 2122: 2119: 2113: 2110: 2104: 2101: 2095: 2092: 2086: 2084: 2082: 2078: 2072: 2069: 2064: 2057: 2054: 2048: 2046: 2042: 2037: 2030: 2027: 2022: 2020:1-56098-115-6 2016: 2012: 2005: 2003: 2001: 1999: 1995: 1992: 1988: 1981: 1979: 1975: 1970: 1968:0-8160-2581-9 1964: 1960: 1956: 1955:Facts on File 1952: 1951: 1943: 1940: 1934: 1932: 1930: 1926: 1921: 1919:9972-625-35-4 1915: 1911: 1904: 1902: 1898: 1893: 1886: 1883: 1878: 1871: 1869: 1865: 1858: 1855: 1849: 1846: 1840: 1837: 1825: 1824: 1819: 1813: 1811: 1809: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1794: 1792: 1788: 1785: 1779: 1777: 1773: 1767: 1765: 1763: 1761: 1759: 1757: 1755: 1753: 1751: 1749: 1745: 1740: 1738:0-8094-9870-7 1734: 1730: 1726: 1725: 1718: 1715: 1709: 1707: 1705: 1703: 1701: 1699: 1697: 1695: 1693: 1691: 1687: 1681: 1679: 1675: 1672: 1667: 1664: 1661: 1655: 1653: 1649: 1643: 1641: 1637: 1631: 1629: 1627: 1623: 1618: 1616:0-521-63759-7 1612: 1608: 1604: 1598: 1595: 1592: 1586: 1584: 1580: 1575: 1571: 1564: 1562: 1560: 1558: 1556: 1554: 1550: 1545: 1543:0-631-17677-2 1539: 1535: 1534: 1526: 1524: 1522: 1520: 1518: 1516: 1514: 1512: 1508: 1502: 1500: 1498: 1496: 1494: 1492: 1490: 1488: 1486: 1484: 1482: 1480: 1478: 1476: 1474: 1472: 1470: 1468: 1464: 1457: 1449: 1442: 1439: 1433: 1430: 1424: 1421: 1414: 1410: 1407: 1405: 1402: 1400: 1397: 1395: 1392: 1390: 1387: 1386: 1382: 1376: 1371: 1368: 1357: 1352: 1350: 1347: 1342: 1333: 1326: 1324: 1322: 1318: 1313: 1311: 1307: 1302: 1301:day's journey 1296: 1289: 1287: 1280: 1274: 1270: 1268: 1264: 1259: 1257: 1253: 1248: 1244: 1242: 1241: 1231: 1227: 1225: 1219: 1211: 1204: 1202: 1200: 1191: 1189: 1182: 1180: 1176: 1169: 1167: 1165: 1161: 1153: 1149: 1144: 1140: 1138: 1134: 1126: 1124: 1117: 1115: 1108: 1106: 1099: 1097: 1094: 1086: 1084: 1080: 1073: 1071: 1065: 1063: 1061: 1056: 1051: 1049: 1041: 1039: 1037: 1032: 1024: 1016: 1009: 1007: 1005: 1000: 996: 994: 990: 986: 980: 973: 971: 967: 965: 960: 957: 953: 952: 947: 942: 935: 933: 931: 927: 923: 919: 914: 909: 904: 901: 893: 886: 881: 879: 877: 873: 868: 865: 861: 856: 854: 844: 837: 835: 828: 826: 824: 815: 813: 810: 805: 803: 799: 791: 786: 779: 777: 774: 769: 767: 761: 759: 754: 753:Huánuco Pampa 749: 745: 739: 731: 724: 722: 720: 716: 711: 709: 705: 701: 696: 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 677:Lake Titicaca 673: 671: 667: 663: 658: 654: 650: 646: 642: 638: 634: 630: 624: 622: 618: 614: 610: 606: 602: 598: 589: 582: 580: 576: 574: 570: 569:Huánuco Pampa 566: 561: 559: 555: 551: 545: 543: 542:Mendoza River 539: 535: 531: 527: 523: 519: 515: 510: 508: 504: 500: 496: 486: 477: 471: 463: 461: 457: 455: 450: 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 428: 424: 420: 416: 412: 407: 405: 401: 397: 393: 392: 387: 386: 380: 378: 374: 370: 364: 361: 358:and known as 357: 353: 341: 336: 334: 329: 327: 322: 321: 319: 318: 313: 310: 308: 305: 303: 300: 298: 295: 293: 290: 288: 285: 283: 280: 278: 275: 274: 273: 272: 269: 265: 260: 257: 255: 252: 250: 247: 245: 242: 240: 237: 235: 232: 230: 227: 225: 222: 220: 217: 215: 212: 211: 210: 209: 206: 202: 198: 194: 193: 190: 186: 178: 175:663,069.68 ha 174: 166: 158: 154: 147: 144: 136: 134: 126: 118: 109: 105: 102: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 78: 71: 66: 59: 54: 51: 47: 42: 34: 30: 19: 4365: 4298: 4148:Moctezuma II 4105:Inca history 4030:Andean Music 3978: 3974:Architecture 3969:Architecture 3964:Architecture 3959:Architecture 3955:Architecture 3949:Gender Roles 3694:Tenochtitlan 3617:Timoto–Cuica 3612:Tierradentro 3397:Casma–Sechin 3129:Chalcatzingo 2855:Shared with 2849:Shared with 2827:Shared with 2800:Río Pinturas 2749: 2667: 2577:Ethnohistory 2575: 2564: 2560: 2554: 2548: 2541: 2522: 2503: 2466: 2460: 2447: 2428: 2409: 2395: 2366: 2357: 2337: 2313: 2289:. 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3790:Religion 3779:Religion 3775:Religion 3764:Numerals 3758:Numerals 3719:Language 3699:Multiple 3637:Valdivia 3622:Tiwanaku 3582:Saladoid 3577:Quimbaya 3467:Kuhikugu 3447:Diaguita 3437:Chorrera 3254:Veraguas 3249:Veracruz 3229:Tlatilco 3041:Mogollon 2948:Cultures 2926:Americas 2837:Colombia 2374:. 1992. 2224:Archived 1353:See also 1148:apacheta 1118:Drainage 829:Military 704:Moquegua 700:Arequipa 693:Santiago 685:Diaguita 666:Imbabura 657:Riobamba 617:Antisuyu 534:Chucuito 473:— 427:Colombia 415:Tiwanaku 385:chasquis 254:Religion 133:Criteria 27:For the 4186:Tundama 4115:Peoples 4100:History 4095:History 4090:History 4086:History 4080:Cuisine 4075:Cuisine 4070:Cuisine 4065:Cuisine 4061:Cuisine 3919:Warfare 3914:Warfare 3909:Warfare 3905:Warfare 3899:Society 3894:Economy 3883:Society 3878:Society 3874:Society 3744:Writing 3738:Quechua 3723:Nahuatl 3690:Capital 3627:Toyopán 3607:Tairona 3517:Mapuche 3432:Chiripa 3407:Chancay 3378:Cañaris 3353:Amotape 3348:El Abra 3264:Zapotec 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1735: 1613: 1540: 1281:Tunnel 1267:oroyas 1240:totora 1164:cairns 1093:adobes 989:alpaca 802:quipus 662:Carchi 554:Tumbes 514:sierra 464:Extent 419:UNESCO 391:tambos 85:Length 4134:Incas 4025:Music 4020:Music 4015:Music 4011:Music 3944:Women 3939:Women 3934:Women 3930:Women 3888:Trade 3769:Quipu 3713:Cusco 3704:Hunza 3669:Aztec 3602:Taíno 3597:Sican 3592:Shuar 3542:Nazca 3532:Mollo 3527:Moche 3507:Luzia 3422:Chimú 3194:Pipil 3169:Izapa 3144:Coclé 3086:Thule 2976:Adena 2873:Japan 2869:India 2833:Chile 2491:S2CID 2483:JSTOR 2469:(1). 2465:. 5. 2258:(PDF) 2251:(PDF) 1729:94–97 1572:. 5. 1415:Notes 1299:at a 1265:, or 1152:Salta 1036:Andes 985:guano 926:Quito 922:Chimu 913:Nasca 860:wak’a 816:Trade 746:, or 708:Tacna 633:Xauxa 601:suyus 597:Cusco 538:Paria 530:Cusco 518:Quito 443:Chile 396:llama 259:Roads 229:Ayllu 4398:Inca 3924:Army 3706:and 3684:Inca 3674:Maya 3652:Zenú 3647:Wari 3492:Lima 2845:Peru 2737:Cuyo 2563:and 2508:ISBN 2433:ISBN 2414:ISBN 2376:ISBN 2343:ISBN 2322:ISBN 2299:ISBN 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