809:
controlled mostly by the temporal relationship between the time expressed by the matrix verb's tense and the time denoted by the infinitive. The present tense at the moment of utterance (a simultaneous state of affairs between the matrix verb and the infinitive) is expressed by the present infinitive. The past tense (the infinitive's state of affairs is before that of the matrix verb) is expressed by the perfect infinitive. The future tense (a time posterior after that of matrix verb) is expressed by the future infinitive.
151:) – the point in time and place and the person speaking – and also in the person being addressed and the linguistic context. Thus when a sentence involves words or forms whose referents depend on these circumstances, they are liable to change when the sentence is put into indirect speech. In particular, this commonly affects:
1140:
the word that introduces the question, but a relative pronoun or adverb is occasionally used instead of one that is initially interrogative. The subjunctive tense is controlled by the
Sequence of Tenses. Its sequence depends on the tense of the matrix verb of asking, perceiving etc. by which the indirect question is introduced:
1235:
A deliberative subjunctive, always in the present tense in direct speech, is always retained in an indirect question. The tense of the direct form is unchanged unless the matrix verb had a secondary tense, when the present tense becomes imperfect. An initially secondary subjunctive, the imperfect, is
1367:
The vivid future conditional (a future perfect indicative in a protasis, a direct question with a future indicative in an apodosis; a protasis is changed to a perfect or pluperfect subjunctive, according to the rules of the sequence of tenses; an apodosis similarly is changed to an indirect question
1275:
The potential subjunctive is retained as well. Primary subjunctives are changed to the corresponding secondary subjunctives, which stay the same. The idea of possibility is often expressed by periphrases: by -urus sim, essem, fuerim, fuissem and by a subjunctive tense of possum + present infinitive:
1139:
An indirect question is expressed by changing the mood of the main verb from the indicative to the subjunctive. Some rhetoric questions change the verb to the accusative, followed by the infinitive, as if it were a real declarative statement in direct speech ). It is normally appropriate to retain
651:
require no additional introductory particle. The quoted speech is rendered with the following changes: the finite verb is transformed into the corresponding infinitive, and the nominative subject and the predicate are transformed into the accusative. The accusative object remains unchanged. Tense,
691:
require no additional introductory particle. However, the nominative subject, and the predicate, if present, are changed into the accusative case, and the finite verb, agreeing with them, is changed into the corresponding participle in the accusative case. The accusative object remains unchanged.
1676:
If the direct speech is in the pluperfect, the (otherwise-deprecated) "redoubled perfect" is accurate: "Er sagte, das Fußballspiel habe gestern nicht stattfinden können, weil ein
Gewitter den Platz überschwemmt gehabt habe." (He said, the football match could not take place yesterday, because a
1611:
If the direct speech is in the present, the present subjunctive is used. If the direct speech is the past, whether it is expressed by the perfect or by the preterite, the perfect subjunctive is used (not the imperfect subjunctive). If the direct speech is in the future, the future subjunctive is
1143:
1. The present indicative becomes the present subjunctive after a primary tense (present, future, future perfect of primary perfect), but it turns into the imperfect subjunctive after a secondary tense (a past tense: imperfect, secondary perfect, pluperfect and, occasionally, historic present):
808:
An indirect statement is expressed by changing the case of the subject noun phrase from nominative to accusative and by replacing the main verb with an infinitive (as in the
English phrase "You believe me to be a traitor" above). The voice remains unchanged, but the tense of the infinitive is
214:
Also, even when referring to a known completed speech act, the reporter may deviate freely from the words that were actually used, provided the meaning is retained. This contrasts with direct speech, where there is an expectation that the original words will be reproduced exactly.
1521:
Hans gibt an, dass er täglich Sport treibe. Er habe zuerst mit
Dauerlauf begonnen. Mittlerweile ziehe er aber den Mannschaftssport vor. Er spiele Fußball im Verein SC Oberhügelhausen und trainiere fleißig, damit man ihn bald in die erste Mannschaft aufnehme; darauf habe er gute
891:
As is shown from the first example, even a coreferent subject must be expressed in the accusative if its clause is put into the infinitive. The accusative of reflexive pronouns is used in the corresponding person and number (singular: me, te, se; plural: nos, vos, se).
1202:
However, the use of present subjunctive after a primary tense and imperfect subjunctive after a secondary tense is also often attested, especially if the future reference is obvious from the context and for a passive verb (passives lack the periphrastic conjugation
1528:
Hans states he practices sport daily. At first he began with jogging, but now he prefers team sports. He has started to play football in the club SC Oberhügelhausen and he is training hard so that they will add him to the first team soon; he has good chances for
1007:
If an imperfect or a pluperfect was initially used in direct speech, the perfect infinitive is normally used instead, as it the only one capable of denoting a state of affairs earlier than the one denoted by the matrix verb that introduces the indirect speech.
1428:
German indirect speech consists formally of dependent clauses depending on a verb of saying, holding, thinking or the like, but they may sometimes be elliptically left out and simply implied. Questions take their question-word, yes-no-questions take
705:
With the two species of indirect statements above, however, if the subject of the quoted speech is the same as its speaker, the subject is omitted and is understood in the nominative, and the predicate, if present, remains in the nominative case.
105:
often differ from those in the utterance it reports. For instance, the example above uses the third person pronoun "she" even though Jill's original utterance used the first person pronoun "I". In some languages, including
146:
appropriate to the context in which the act of reporting takes place, rather than that in which the speech act being reported took place (or is conceived as taking place). The two acts often differ in a reference point
1030:
The future perfect indicative, a tense denoting a state of affairs completed in the future and so later than another state of affairs in the future, becomes, according to at least some grammarians, the circumlocution
1343:
The unreal present conditional (an imperfect subjunctive in the protasis and the apodosis; an unreal imperfect subjunctive remains unchanged in the protasis; an unreal imperfect subjunctive becomes the infinitive
626:
In these sentences, the original tense can be used provided that it remains equally valid at the time of the reporting of the statement (Ed is still considered a bore; Benjamin is still expected to come over).
1673:
The second subjunctive is often used even when the first subjunctive form of a verb is unambiguous. Grammarians differ whether that is ever acceptable, such as when expressing a large amount of doubt.
903:), the case of the predicate adjective or noun changes from nominative to accusative. The same happens to any syntactic constituent that stood in the nominative case before it became indirect speech.
812:
Practically, six tenses of the indicative must be transformed into three available infinitival tenses. An accurate reproduction of the full temporal sense of direct speech is thus often impossible:
1477:
Hans states he practices sport daily. Michael consequently wants to know which kind of sports he prefers. Markus on the other hand is rather interested in whether he goes to a gym for doing so.
1490:" can be left out. In that case, the indirect speech is put into main-clause word order (inflected verb at second place) even though it is still a dependent clause separated by a comma:
1666:
If the imperfect subjunctive is the same as the preterite indicative, shorter statements also use the periphrastic construction of the conjunctive for the actual irrealis (
1615:
If the present subjunctive is the same as the present indicative, which can often happen other than in the third person-singular, whose the regular indicative ending is a
1210:
3. The imperfect, perfect, pluperfect and future perfect indicative are turned into the perfect or pluperfect subjunctive after primary and secondary tenses respectively:
1943:
1930:
1869:
968:, subject-to-subject raising: the noun phrase (in the accusative) is detached from the infinitive and is raised as the nominative subject of the matrix passive verb:
1315:
A dependent clause in the indicative is put into the subjunctive if it is changed to indirect speech. Almost all the rules stated above hold for indirect questions:
739:
clause is usually changed from the indicative mood into the corresponding tense in the optative mood, but the indicative verb is sometimes retained for vividness.
227:) do not change in indirect speech. The indirect speech sentence is then ambiguous since it can be a result of two different direct speech sentences. For example:
1509:
In longer segments of indirect speech, which, at least in written German, are as normal as they would be in Latin, only the first sentence or none of them has a "
1027:(Sometimes, the present infinitive is used as the representative of the imperfect indicative and so it is called, by some grammarians, the imperfect infinitive.)
642:
There are three types of indirect statements and one type of indirect question, but all are introduced with a verb of thought, belief, speaking, or questioning.
946:("He says that he will fall dead while fighting") (The participle is now in the accusative and agrees in case to the accusative agent, denoted by the pronoun
2078:
2552:
1539:
statements of indirect speech may be presented in the indicative if they are not doubted; however, it would be colloquial to do so but to leave the "
566:), which occur because the main verb ("said", "asked") is in the past tense, are not obligatory when the situation described is still valid:
210:
Indirect speech need not refer to a speech act that has actually taken place; it may concern future or hypothetical discourse; for example,
2420:
2087:
1608:
remains even the most colloquial speech be (the few exceptions still differentiate the indicative, such as "du seist" for "du seiest").
1417:Она сказала, что не любит шоколад. ("She said that she didn't like chocolate", literally, "She said that (she) doesn't like chocolate")
1631:
but has the same endings as the first subjunctive, which differentiate at least the first-person and the third-person singular in
1627:, Konjunktiv II, or traditionally as the imperfect subjunctive, is used. The present subjunctive is identical to the preterite in
1035:, in accordance to the sequence of tenses at hand, a sort of substantive consecutive clause serving as subject of the infinitive
207:. These changes depend on the grammar of the language in question – some examples can be found in the following sections.
2507:
2161:
1776:
2628:
2502:
2071:
2280:
2101:
805:). An indirect statement or question can replace the direct object of a verb that is related to thought or communication.
2774:
2166:
1670:, etc.). However, the subjunctive can be left in place unchanged, which is almost always the case for longer segments.
17:
2254:
1727:
2648:
2310:
2131:
1612:
used; both of the latter are formed by adding the auxiliaries that form the perfect or future into the subjunctive.
316:
2653:
2603:
2365:
2064:
2708:
2572:
2151:
639:, statements and questions that are reported are sometimes quoted by using indirect statements and questions.
2764:
2703:
2249:
270:
71:
1318:
The simple present particular conditional becomes the present indicative in the protasis and the apodosis:
2733:
2405:
2375:
2350:
2290:
2189:
2121:
1697:
1076:
A potential subjunctive is changed to some sort of periphrastic infinitive: a present subjunctive becomes
965:
862:
964:) is generally preferred, especially after monolectic matrix verb types. That construction is called, in
2633:
2527:
2492:
2380:
2355:
2199:
2116:
784:
21:
1001:(that is not exactly accepted by modern linguistic approaches to subject-to-subject raising phenomena).
727:
as an introductory particle. If the introductory verb is in a secondary tense, the finite verb of the
2618:
2425:
2204:
1692:
1640:
956:
After passive verbs of speaking, reporting, thinking, or perceiving, the nominative with infinitive (
896:
98:
2698:
2613:
2557:
2460:
2445:
2415:
2395:
2370:
2239:
2224:
75:
2769:
2743:
2668:
2643:
2608:
2588:
2517:
2497:
2435:
2430:
2340:
2330:
2315:
2259:
312:
204:
148:
115:
1790:
1236:
retained, regardless of the tense into which the matrix verb is changed, primary or secondary:
265:, there is no change of tense in indirect speech and so there is no ambiguity. For example, in
2723:
2678:
2663:
2623:
2562:
2532:
2512:
2305:
2234:
1632:
200:
163:
111:
94:
1726:
Loos, Eugene E.; Anderson, Susan; Day, Jr., Dwight H.; Jordan, Paul C.; Wingate, J. Douglas.
2728:
2658:
2547:
2325:
1403:
262:
155:
131:
119:
107:
63:
51:
2537:
2440:
2335:
2300:
1628:
1407:
266:
102:
311:
Some examples of changes in form in indirect speech in
English are given below. See also
1410:, indirect speech uses the same verb tense as the equivalent sentence in direct speech:
2718:
2713:
2638:
2522:
2400:
2295:
2136:
1687:
82:
2056:
2758:
2410:
2385:
2219:
1568:
The German subjunctive is mostly regular even if the indicative is irregular such as
1084:, followed by the present infinitive; an imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive becomes
790:
636:
169:
975:. Impersonal construction: the infinitival clause serves as the subject of the verb
2673:
2598:
2465:
2345:
2229:
2209:
1109:("I would/could/might be capturing the city; I could/might have captured the city (
212:
If you ask him why he's wearing that hat, he'll tell you to mind your own business.
2047:
2032:
2017:
2002:
1987:
1972:
1957:
1913:
1898:
1883:
1753:
2593:
2567:
2450:
2214:
2141:
1442:
86:
31:
997:). The whole infinitival clause is said to serve now as the object of the verb
2738:
2390:
2156:
2111:
2106:
1515:", and full-stops are put wherever they would have been put in direct speech.
1467:. Markus hingegen interessiert sich mehr dafür, ob er dazu ein Fitness-Studio
1445:
mood. That is one of the primary uses for the non-periphrastical subjunctive.
127:
2542:
2360:
2285:
2264:
2194:
2146:
2126:
1751:
Allen, Joseph Henry; Greenough, James
Bradstreet; D'Ooge, Benjamin Leonard.
1702:
1173:(the present periphrastic subjunctive is used as the future subjunctive) or
70:, the "utterance" might amount to an unvoiced thought that passes through a
47:
43:
2455:
2244:
1707:
1624:
143:
90:
1169:
2. The future indicative is turned into the periphrastic conjugation in
1307:
Quaerit quis (or: qui) hoc dubitaret/dubita(vi)sset/dubitaturus fuerit.
936:("I shall fall dead while fighting") (A participle in the nominative.)
67:
166:
the meaning of the pronoun may be conveyed solely by verb inflection).
1761:
page 584, paragraph 580: declaratory sentences in indirect discourse;
1441:
for the conjunction. Also, German indirect speech must be put into
2320:
957:
203:
or other modifications to the form of the verb, such as change of
123:
1791:"Direct and Indirect Speech With Examples & Solved Exercises"
1229:("He asked who had been doubting/would have been doubting this.")
1217:("Who was doubting/doubted/had doubted/will have doubted this?")
1944:
Allen and
Greenough's New Latin Grammar for Schools and Colleges
1931:
Allen and
Greenough's New Latin Grammar for Schools and Colleges
1870:
Allen and
Greenough's New Latin Grammar for Schools and Colleges
1814:
StarCraft: Brood War, Protoss campaign, mission 7: The
Insurgent
1223:("He asks who was doubting/had doubted/will have doubted this.")
42:
is a grammatical mechanism for reporting the content of another
2060:
1361:("He says/said that if you believed that, you would be wrong.")
27:
Speech expressing things other people have said without quoting
1911:
Woodcock, E.C., A new Latin Syntax, Bristol Classical Press,
1896:
Woodcock, E.C., A new Latin Syntax, Bristol Classical Press,
1881:
Woodcock, E.C., A new Latin Syntax, Bristol Classical Press,
1133:("He said that he would/could/might have captured the city.")
871:("The philosopher taught that no third possibility is given")
769:
763:
757:
751:
743:
734:
728:
722:
716:
710:
696:
686:
676:
670:
662:
656:
646:
1119:("He said that he would/could/might be capturing the city.")
89:. When an instance of indirect discourse reports an earlier
1391:("He asked why, if you believed that, you would be wrong.")
1021:("He said that he had been thinking/had thought something")
291:
mieć to za darmo. (literally: He said that he
81:
In many languages, indirect discourse is expressed using a
1215:
Quis hoc dubitabat/dubitavit/dubita(ve)rat/dubita(ve)rit?
1385:("He asks why, if you believe that, you will be wrong.")
1039:. In the passive, a form of the periphrastic infinitive
853:("You hope that we shall see very many things tomorrow")
1101:("He said that he would/could/might capture the city.")
1337:("He said that if you believed that, you were wrong.")
993:(and is implied also as the subject of the infinitive
885:("I heard that the emperor was killed in the Senate")
1925:
1923:
1331:("He says that if you believe that, you are wrong.")
1309:("He asks who could doubt/could have doubted this.")
989:
in the nominative serves as the subject of the verb
2691:
2581:
2485:
2478:
2273:
2182:
2175:
2094:
1293:
Quaesivit quis (qui) hoc dubitaret/dubitare posset.
1825:Essentials of Mastering English: A Concise Grammar
1764:p. 380, par. 586: questions in indirect discourse.
1389:Quaesivit cur, si id credidisses, erraturus esses.
1070:("He said that the city would have been captured")
681:(acc.) "The man says (that) this woman is pretty."
349:(change of tense when the main verb is past tense)
1379:("Why, if you believe that, will you be wrong?")
1359:Dicit/dixit te, si id crederes, erraturum fuisse.
1056:("He said that he should have thought something")
839:("I believe that the king gave laws to everyone")
562:The tense changes illustrated above (also called
317:Uses of English verb forms § Indirect speech
2553:Segmented discourse representation theory (SDRT)
1857:Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language
1651:) or even use an older form to form the umlaut (
1572:"to be". The stem of the word (infinitive minus
1127:("I would/could/might have captured the city.")
1414:Я не люблю шоколад. ("I don't like chocolate")
1287:Quaerit quis (qui) hoc dubitet/dubitare possit.
1194:Quaesivit quis (or: qui) hoc dubitaturus esset.
698:ὁ ἀνὴρ γιγνώσκει ταύτην τὴν γυναῖκα οὖσαν καλήν
1355:("If you believed that, you would be wrong.")
883:Audivi imperatorem in Senatu interfectum esse.
774:. "The man said that the woman was beautiful."
701:. "The man knows (that) this woman is pretty."
16:For indirect speech in modern philosophy, see
2072:
1383:Quaerit cur, si id credideris, erraturus sis.
1303:("Who could doubt/could have doubted this?")
8:
1549:
1540:
1519:
1510:
1494:
1485:
1449:
1436:
1430:
1263:("What do you think I ought to have done?")
1227:Quaesivit quis (or: qui) hoc dubita(vi)sset.
1551:Hans gibt an, dass er täglich Sport treibt.
1188:Quaerit quis (or: qui) hoc dubitaturus sit.
1033:fore ut + perfect of pluperfect subjunctive
847:("We shall see very many things tomorrow")
800:
794:
692:Tense, voice, and number remain unchanged.
114:of verbs can also be changed following the
93:, the embedded clause takes the form of an
2482:
2179:
2079:
2065:
2057:
1851:
1849:
1754:New Latin Grammar for schools and colleges
1177:(the imperfect periphrastic subjunctive).
183:phrases of relative time or place such as
2045:Woodcock, E.C., Bristol Classical Press,
2030:Woodcock, E.C., Bristol Classical Press,
2015:Woodcock, E.C., Bristol Classical Press,
2000:Woodcock, E.C., Bristol Classical Press,
1985:Woodcock, E.C., Bristol Classical Press,
1970:Woodcock, E.C., Bristol Classical Press,
1955:Woodcock, E.C., Bristol Classical Press,
1839:Downing, Angela & Philip Lock. 2002.
1835:
1833:
1221:Quaerit quis (or: qui) hoc dubita(ve)rit.
1099:Dixit se urbem capturum esse/capere posse
1015:("I was thinking/had thought something")
879:("The emperor was killed in the Senate")
142:In indirect speech, words generally have
1325:("If you believe that, you are wrong.")
1827:. The Hague: Mouton de Gruyter, p. 139.
1718:
1269:("He does/did not know what to write.")
1161:Quaesivit quis (or: qui) hoc dubitaret.
162:, and the corresponding verb forms (in
118:. Some languages also have a change of
1841:A University Course in English Grammar
1496:Hans gibt an, er treibe täglich Sport.
1095:("I would/can/may capture the city.")
851:Speras nos visuros esse permulta cras.
2508:Discourse representation theory (DRT)
1677:thunderstorm had flooded the field.)
1557:Hans states he practices sport daily.
1502:Hans states he practices sport daily.
1064:("The city will have been captured")
225:would, could, might, should, ought to
7:
1054:Dixit fore ut cogita(vi)sset aliquid
877:In Senatu imperator interfectus est.
869:Docuit philosophus tertium non dari.
652:voice, and number remain unchanged.
20:. For indirect speech in Latin, see
2421:Quantificational variability effect
2088:Formal semantics (natural language)
1639:. Strong verbs usually also add an
1635:, whose indicative does not end in
1604:. Other than in the indicative, an
1255:. ("He didn't know what to write.")
1163:("He asked who was doubting this.")
1155:Quaerit quis (or: qui) hoc dubitet.
1050:("I shall have thought something")
833:("The king gave laws to everyone")
1859:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1777:"Reported speech: Indirect speech"
1301:Quis hoc dubitaret/dubita(vi)sset?
1295:("He asked who could doubt this.")
1249:("He doesn't know what to write.")
1196:("He asked who would doubt this.")
985:. Personal construction: the noun
837:Credo regem dedisse omnibus leges.
280:mieć to za darmo. (I
14:
1435:("whether"), and statements take
1335:Dixit te, si id crederes, errare.
825:("He says that he loves freedom")
1267:Nescit/nesciebat quid scriberet.
1190:("He asks who will doubt this.")
1377:Cur, si id credideris, errabis?
1289:("He asks who can doubt this.")
863:"No third possibility is given"
770:
764:
758:
752:
744:
735:
729:
723:
717:
711:
697:
687:
677:
671:
663:
657:
647:
528:I asked them to leave the room.
271:third person masculine singular
2503:Combinatory categorial grammar
1459:. Darauf will Michael wissen,
1329:Dicit te, si id credas, errare
1131:Dixit se urbem capturum fuisse
1117:Dixit se urbem capturum fuisse
1019:Dixit se cogita(vi)sse aliquid
1013:Cogitabam/Cogitaveram aliquid.
672:ὁ ἀνήρ φησι ταύτην τὴν γυναῖκα
667:(nom.) "This woman is pretty."
464:the next day/the following day
416:the next day/the following day
199:There may also be a change of
1:
2281:Antecedent-contained deletion
924:("He said that he was happy")
238: OR
1843:. London: Routledge, p. 301.
1795:Direct & Indirect Speech
1732:Glossary of linguistic terms
1157:("He asks who doubts this.")
793:, indirect speech is called
58:is indirect discourse while
1068:Dixit urbem expugnatam fore
753:ὁ ἀνὴρ ἔλεγεν ὡς ἡ γυνὴ εἴη
748:. "The woman is beautiful."
18:Oratio obliqua (philosophy)
2793:
2162:Syntax–semantics interface
2006:, pp. 134-140, §§ 178-183.
1728:"What is indirect speech?"
1564:Notes on the subjunctive:
962:Nominativus cum infinitivo
823:Dicit se amare libertatem.
782:
586:(optional change of tense)
556:(use of infinitive phrase)
530:(use of infinitive phrase)
15:
2654:Question under discussion
2604:Conversational scoreboard
2381:Intersective modification
2366:Homogeneity (linguistics)
1184:("Who will doubt this?")
799:(direct speech is called
610:over to watch television.
598:over to watch television.
126:indirect speech uses the
2709:Distributional semantics
1353:Si id crederes, errares.
1283:("Who can doubt this?")
1253:Nesciebat quid scriberet
1243:("What am I to write?")
845:Videbimus permulta cras.
831:Rex dedit omnibus leges.
255: (ambiguity)
56:Jill said she was coming
2704:Computational semantics
2446:Subsective modification
2250:Propositional attitudes
269:(a male speaker, hence
130:for statements and the
72:stream of consciousness
2734:Philosophy of language
2376:Inalienable possession
2356:Free choice inferences
2351:Faultless disagreement
2122:Generalized quantifier
1991:, p.217-218, § 266-267
1698:Propositional attitude
1550:
1541:
1520:
1511:
1495:
1486:
1450:
1437:
1431:
1368:with the periphrastic
966:generative linguistics
940:Dicit se casurum esse
801:
795:
523:Please leave the room.
99:grammatical categories
97:. In indirect speech,
60:Jill said "I'm coming"
2634:Plural quantification
2528:Inquisitive semantics
2493:Alternative semantics
2021:, pp. 133-134, § 177.
1887:, pp. 19-22, §§ 29-32
1855:McArthur, Tom. 2005.
1151:("Who doubts this?")
895:For predication by a
785:Latin indirect speech
768:(present indicative)
616:, optional change of
509:(change of tense and
50:it. For example, the
22:Latin indirect speech
2619:Function application
2426:Responsive predicate
2416:Privative adjectives
2051:, pp. 234-235, § 280
2036:, pp.138-140, § 183.
1693:Free indirect speech
1247:Nescit quid scribat.
74:, as reported by an
2699:Cognitive semantics
2614:Existential closure
2558:Situation semantics
2461:Temperature paradox
2431:Rising declaratives
2396:Modal subordination
2371:Hurford disjunction
2331:Discourse relations
1823:Bache, Carl. 2000.
1734:. SIL International
1323:Si id credis, erras
1182:Quis hoc dubitabit?
1062:Urbs expugnata erit
1048:Cogitavero aliquid.
819:("I love freedom")
756:(present optative)
603:Benjamin said that
76:omniscient narrator
2775:Syntactic entities
2744:Semantics of logic
2669:Strict conditional
2644:Quantifier raising
2609:Downward entailing
2589:Autonomy of syntax
2518:Generative grammar
2498:Categorial grammar
2436:Scalar implicature
2341:Epistemic modality
2316:De dicto and de re
2048:A New Latin Syntax
2033:A New Latin Syntax
2018:A New Latin Syntax
2003:A New Latin Syntax
1988:A New Latin Syntax
1973:A New Latin Syntax
1958:A New Latin Syntax
1914:A New Latin Syntax
1899:A New Latin Syntax
1884:A New Latin Syntax
1621:second subjunctive
1348:in the apodosis):
1043:is normally used:
859:Tertium non datur.
454:I asked if he/she
313:Sequence of tenses
287:On powiedział, że
223:Some modal verbs (
164:pro-drop languages
40:indirect discourse
2752:
2751:
2724:Logic translation
2687:
2686:
2679:Universal grinder
2664:Squiggle operator
2624:Meaning postulate
2563:Supervaluationism
2533:Intensional logic
2513:Dynamic semantics
2474:
2473:
2306:Crossover effects
2255:Tense–aspect–mood
2235:Lexical semantics
1902:, p. 22, §§ 33-34
1580:) is followed by
1484:The conjunction "
1455:er täglich Sport
1281:Quis hoc dubitet?
1149:Quis hoc dubitat?
580:She said that Ed
373:the ceiling blue.
361:the ceiling blue.
343:She said that it
333:She says that it
295:get it for free.)
284:get it for free)
261:However, in many
156:personal pronouns
116:sequence of tense
95:indirect question
46:without directly
2782:
2729:Linguistics wars
2659:Semantic parsing
2548:Montague grammar
2483:
2326:Deontic modality
2180:
2167:Truth conditions
2102:Compositionality
2095:Central concepts
2081:
2074:
2067:
2058:
2052:
2043:
2037:
2028:
2022:
2013:
2007:
1998:
1992:
1983:
1977:
1968:
1962:
1953:
1947:
1940:
1934:
1927:
1918:
1909:
1903:
1894:
1888:
1879:
1873:
1866:
1860:
1853:
1844:
1837:
1828:
1821:
1815:
1812:
1806:
1805:
1803:
1802:
1787:
1781:
1780:
1773:
1767:
1749:
1743:
1742:
1740:
1739:
1723:
1668:ich würde machen
1623:, also known as
1553:
1544:
1524:
1514:
1498:
1489:
1473:
1440:
1434:
1408:Slavic languages
983:Dicitur Homerus
804:
798:
773:
772:
767:
766:
761:
760:
755:
754:
747:
746:
745:ἡ γυνή ἐστι καλή
738:
737:
732:
731:
726:
725:
720:
719:
714:
713:
700:
699:
690:
689:
680:
679:
674:
673:
666:
665:
660:
659:
650:
649:
619:
615:
609:
606:
597:
594:
583:
574:
553:
550:
541:
538:
516:
512:
506:
502:
499:I asked him how
493:
489:
488:do people manage
479:
475:
471:
465:
461:
457:
448:
444:
440:
431:
427:
423:
417:
413:
409:
400:
396:
392:
382:
378:
372:
369:
360:
357:
346:
336:
327:
263:Slavic languages
253:get it for free.
249:He said that he
244:get it for free.
236:get it for free.
64:direct discourse
2792:
2791:
2785:
2784:
2783:
2781:
2780:
2779:
2755:
2754:
2753:
2748:
2683:
2577:
2538:Lambda calculus
2470:
2441:Sloppy identity
2401:Opaque contexts
2336:Donkey anaphora
2301:Counterfactuals
2269:
2171:
2090:
2085:
2055:
2044:
2040:
2029:
2025:
2014:
2010:
1999:
1995:
1984:
1980:
1969:
1965:
1954:
1950:
1941:
1937:
1928:
1921:
1910:
1906:
1895:
1891:
1880:
1876:
1867:
1863:
1854:
1847:
1838:
1831:
1822:
1818:
1813:
1809:
1800:
1798:
1789:
1788:
1784:
1775:
1774:
1770:
1750:
1746:
1737:
1735:
1725:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1684:
1426:
1406:and many other
1400:
1370:-usus sim/essem
1261:Quid scriberem?
914:("I am happy")
817:Amo libertatem.
787:
781:
715:require either
633:
617:
613:
607:
604:
595:
592:
581:
572:
551:
548:
539:
536:
514:
511:question syntax
510:
504:
500:
491:
487:
478:time expression
477:
473:
469:
463:
459:
455:
446:
442:
438:
430:time expression
429:
425:
421:
415:
411:
407:
398:
394:
390:
380:
376:
370:
367:
358:
355:
344:
334:
325:
309:
304:
221:
140:
138:Changes in form
134:for questions.
122:. For instance
103:embedded clause
28:
25:
12:
11:
5:
2790:
2789:
2786:
2778:
2777:
2772:
2767:
2765:Semantic units
2757:
2756:
2750:
2749:
2747:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2719:Inferentialism
2716:
2714:Formal grammar
2711:
2706:
2701:
2695:
2693:
2689:
2688:
2685:
2684:
2682:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2639:Possible world
2636:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2585:
2583:
2579:
2578:
2576:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2523:Glue semantics
2520:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2489:
2487:
2486:Formal systems
2480:
2476:
2475:
2472:
2471:
2469:
2468:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2411:Polarity items
2408:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2296:Conservativity
2293:
2288:
2283:
2277:
2275:
2271:
2270:
2268:
2267:
2262:
2260:Quantification
2257:
2252:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2186:
2184:
2177:
2173:
2172:
2170:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2137:Presupposition
2134:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2098:
2096:
2092:
2091:
2086:
2084:
2083:
2076:
2069:
2061:
2054:
2053:
2038:
2023:
2008:
1993:
1978:
1976:, p.217, § 266
1963:
1948:
1935:
1919:
1904:
1889:
1874:
1861:
1845:
1829:
1816:
1807:
1782:
1768:
1766:
1765:
1762:
1744:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1711:
1710:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1688:Content clause
1683:
1680:
1679:
1678:
1674:
1671:
1664:
1613:
1609:
1562:
1561:
1560:
1559:
1534:
1533:
1532:
1531:
1507:
1506:
1505:
1504:
1482:
1481:
1480:
1479:
1451:Hans gibt an,
1425:
1422:
1421:
1420:
1419:
1418:
1399:
1396:
1395:
1394:
1393:
1392:
1386:
1365:
1364:
1363:
1362:
1341:
1340:
1339:
1338:
1332:
1313:
1312:
1311:
1310:
1298:
1297:
1296:
1290:
1273:
1272:
1271:
1270:
1258:
1257:
1256:
1250:
1233:
1232:
1231:
1230:
1224:
1200:
1199:
1198:
1197:
1191:
1167:
1166:
1165:
1164:
1158:
1137:
1136:
1135:
1134:
1125:Urbem cepissem
1122:
1121:
1120:
1104:
1103:
1102:
1074:
1073:
1072:
1071:
1059:
1058:
1057:
1025:
1024:
1023:
1022:
1005:
1004:
1003:
1002:
954:
953:
952:
951:
927:
926:
925:
918:Dixit se esse
889:
888:
887:
886:
874:
873:
872:
856:
855:
854:
842:
841:
840:
828:
827:
826:
796:ōrātiō oblīqua
783:Main article:
780:
777:
776:
775:
749:
709:Verbs such as
703:
702:
685:Verbs such as
683:
682:
668:
645:Verbs such as
632:
629:
624:
623:
622:
621:
589:
588:
587:
560:
559:
558:
557:
533:
532:
531:
520:
519:
518:
501:people managed
483:
482:
481:
435:
434:
433:
422:shall to would
406:I said that I
386:
385:
384:
352:
351:
350:
340:
308:
305:
303:
300:
299:
298:
297:
296:
259:
258:
257:
256:
220:
217:
197:
196:
181:
170:demonstratives
167:
160:I, you, he, we
139:
136:
83:content clause
26:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2788:
2787:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2762:
2760:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2696:
2694:
2690:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2586:
2584:
2580:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2490:
2488:
2484:
2481:
2477:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2406:Performatives
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2386:Logophoricity
2384:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2278:
2276:
2272:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2251:
2248:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2220:Evidentiality
2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2187:
2185:
2181:
2178:
2174:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2099:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2082:
2077:
2075:
2070:
2068:
2063:
2062:
2059:
2050:
2049:
2042:
2039:
2035:
2034:
2027:
2024:
2020:
2019:
2012:
2009:
2005:
2004:
1997:
1994:
1990:
1989:
1982:
1979:
1975:
1974:
1967:
1964:
1961:, p. 22, § 32
1960:
1959:
1952:
1949:
1946:
1945:
1939:
1936:
1933:
1932:
1926:
1924:
1920:
1917:, p. 21, § 31
1916:
1915:
1908:
1905:
1901:
1900:
1893:
1890:
1886:
1885:
1878:
1875:
1872:
1871:
1865:
1862:
1858:
1852:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1836:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1820:
1817:
1811:
1808:
1796:
1792:
1786:
1783:
1778:
1772:
1769:
1763:
1760:
1759:
1757:
1755:
1748:
1745:
1733:
1729:
1722:
1719:
1713:
1709:
1706:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1685:
1681:
1675:
1672:
1669:
1665:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1566:
1565:
1558:
1555:
1554:
1552:
1548:
1547:
1546:
1543:
1538:
1530:
1526:
1525:
1523:
1518:
1517:
1516:
1513:
1503:
1500:
1499:
1497:
1493:
1492:
1491:
1488:
1478:
1475:
1474:
1472:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1448:
1447:
1446:
1444:
1439:
1433:
1423:
1416:
1415:
1413:
1412:
1411:
1409:
1405:
1397:
1390:
1387:
1384:
1381:
1380:
1378:
1375:
1374:
1373:
1371:
1360:
1357:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1350:
1349:
1347:
1336:
1333:
1330:
1327:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1320:
1319:
1316:
1308:
1305:
1304:
1302:
1299:
1294:
1291:
1288:
1285:
1284:
1282:
1279:
1278:
1277:
1268:
1265:
1264:
1262:
1259:
1254:
1251:
1248:
1245:
1244:
1242:
1241:Quid scribam?
1239:
1238:
1237:
1228:
1225:
1222:
1219:
1218:
1216:
1213:
1212:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1195:
1192:
1189:
1186:
1185:
1183:
1180:
1179:
1178:
1176:
1172:
1162:
1159:
1156:
1153:
1152:
1150:
1147:
1146:
1145:
1141:
1132:
1129:
1128:
1126:
1123:
1118:
1115:
1114:
1112:
1108:
1107:Urbem caperem
1105:
1100:
1097:
1096:
1094:
1091:
1090:
1089:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1069:
1066:
1065:
1063:
1060:
1055:
1052:
1051:
1049:
1046:
1045:
1044:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1028:
1020:
1017:
1016:
1014:
1011:
1010:
1009:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
984:
981:
980:
978:
974:
971:
970:
969:
967:
963:
959:
949:
945:
943:
938:
937:
935:
933:
928:
923:
921:
916:
915:
913:
911:
906:
905:
904:
902:
898:
893:
884:
881:
880:
878:
875:
870:
867:
866:
864:
860:
857:
852:
849:
848:
846:
843:
838:
835:
834:
832:
829:
824:
821:
820:
818:
815:
814:
813:
810:
806:
803:
797:
792:
791:Latin grammar
786:
778:
750:
742:
741:
740:
707:
695:
694:
693:
669:
655:
654:
653:
643:
640:
638:
637:Ancient Greek
631:Ancient Greek
630:
628:
611:
608:is/was coming
601:
600:
599:
590:
585:
578:
577:
576:
569:
568:
567:
565:
555:
545:
544:
543:
534:
529:
526:
525:
524:
521:
515:demonstrative
508:
497:
496:
495:
484:
470:will to would
467:
452:
451:
450:
439:Will you come
436:
419:
404:
403:
402:
387:
374:
366:He said that
364:
363:
362:
353:
348:
347:raining hard.
341:
338:
337:raining hard.
331:
330:
329:
328:raining hard.
322:
321:
320:
318:
314:
306:
301:
294:
290:
286:
285:
283:
279:
276:
275:
274:
272:
268:
264:
254:
252:
247:
246:
245:
243:
237:
235:
230:
229:
228:
226:
218:
216:
213:
208:
206:
202:
194:
190:
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2674:Type shifter
2649:Quantization
2599:Continuation
2466:Veridicality
2346:Exhaustivity
2311:Cumulativity
2230:Indexicality
2210:Definiteness
2205:Conditionals
2132:Logical form
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1799:. Retrieved
1797:. 2019-02-05
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1758:Ginn, 1916.
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1747:
1736:. Retrieved
1731:
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564:backshifting
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554:a traitor...
547:You believe
546:
542:a traitor...
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2594:Context set
2568:Type theory
2451:Subtrigging
2215:Disjunction
2142:Proposition
1443:subjunctive
1175:-urus essem
678:εἶναι καλήν
658:αὕτη ἡ γυνή
612:(change of
503:to live in
490:to live in
468:(change of
420:(change of
375:(change of
371:had painted
339:(no change)
132:subjunctive
87:infinitival
32:linguistics
2759:Categories
2739:Pragmatics
2391:Mirativity
2157:Speech act
2112:Entailment
2107:Denotation
1801:2019-10-25
1738:2010-06-20
1714:References
1661:ich stünde
1629:weak verbs
1078:-urum esse
456:would come
408:would come
391:shall come
172:, such as
158:, such as
128:infinitive
2770:Semantics
2543:Mereology
2479:Formalism
2361:Givenness
2286:Cataphora
2274:Phenomena
2265:Vagueness
2195:Ambiguity
2147:Reference
2127:Intension
2117:Extension
1703:Quotation
1657:ich stund
1653:ich stand
1465:bevorzuge
1205:-urus sim
1171:-urus sim
1041:-tus fore
942:pugnantem
664:ἐστι καλή
596:am coming
513:, and of
219:Ambiguity
189:yesterday
144:referents
62:would be
54:sentence
44:utterance
2692:See also
2582:Concepts
2456:Telicity
2291:Coercion
2245:Negation
2240:Modality
2190:Anaphora
1708:Slifting
1682:See also
1655:, older
1649:ich zöge
1625:irrealis
1522:Chancen.
1469:aufsuche
973:Dicitur
688:γιγνώσκω
447:tomorrow
399:tomorrow
302:Examples
91:question
2200:Binding
1645:ich zog
1545:" out:
1537:Shorter
1404:Russian
1398:Russian
999:dicitur
991:dicitur
987:Homerus
977:dicitur
932:pugnans
920:felicem
675:(acc.)
661:(nom.)
584:a bore.
575:a bore.
307:English
108:English
101:in the
68:fiction
52:English
48:quoting
2629:Monads
2176:Topics
1641:umlaut
1619:, the
1461:welche
1457:treibe
1424:German
1111:poetic
995:fuisse
930:Cadam
897:copula
614:person
582:was/is
474:person
462:party
445:party
426:person
414:party
397:party
377:person
315:, and
267:Polish
110:, the
36:speech
2321:De se
2225:Focus
2183:Areas
2152:Scope
1529:that.
1113:).")
1082:posse
958:Latin
910:felix
779:Latin
618:tense
552:to be
507:city.
494:city?
381:tense
251:could
242:could
201:tense
149:origo
124:Latin
112:tense
66:. In
1586:-est
1570:sein
1542:dass
1512:dass
1487:dass
1453:dass
1438:dass
1037:fore
908:Sum
901:esse
771:καλή
765:ἐστι
759:καλή
712:λέγω
648:φημὶ
505:that
492:this
486:How
476:and
428:and
395:your
379:and
289:może
278:Mogę
205:mood
193:here
191:and
178:that
176:and
174:this
120:mood
2573:TTR
1606:-e-
1600:, -
1592:, -
1576:or
1574:-en
1402:In
1372:):
1207:).
1080:or
789:In
736:ὅτι
724:ὅτι
721:or
635:In
571:Ed
458:to
441:to
412:his
410:to
393:to
345:was
324:It
293:can
282:can
273:):
234:can
185:now
85:or
78:.
38:or
30:In
2761::
1922:^
1848:^
1832:^
1793:.
1730:.
1663:).
1659:→
1647:→
1637:-e
1617:-t
1602:en
1598:et
1596:,
1594:en
1590:-e
1588:,
1584:,
1582:-e
1578:-n
1432:ob
1088::
979:.
960::
948:se
865:)
730:ὡς
718:ὡς
605:he
573:is
549:me
540:am
472:,
460:my
443:my
424:,
389:I
368:he
335:is
326:is
319:.
240:I
232:I
187:,
34:,
2080:e
2073:t
2066:v
1804:.
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1643:(
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861:(
762:/
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593:I
537:I
517:)
480:)
466:.
449:?
432:)
418:.
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383:)
356:I
195:.
180:.
147:(
24:.
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