480:, process indicators and control elements such as valves were monitored by an operator, that walked around the unit adjusting the valves to obtain the desired temperatures, pressures, and flows. As technology evolved pneumatic controllers were invented and mounted in the field that monitored the process and controlled the valves. This reduced the amount of time process operators needed to monitor the process. Latter years, the actual controllers were moved to a central room and signals were sent into the control room to monitor the process and outputs signals were sent to the final control element such as a valve to adjust the process as needed. These controllers and indicators were mounted on a wall called a control board. The operators stood in front of this board walking back and forth monitoring the process indicators. This again reduced the number and amount of time process operators were needed to walk around the units. The most standard pneumatic signal level used during these years was 3–15 psig.
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based on size, weight, cost, reliability, accuracy, longevity, environmental robustness, and frequency response. Some sensors are literally fired in artillery shells. Others sense thermonuclear explosions until destroyed. Invariably sensor data must be recorded, transmitted or displayed. Recording rates and capacities vary enormously. Transmission can be trivial or can be clandestine, encrypted and low power in the presence of jamming. Displays can be trivially simple or can require consultation with
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Electronic
Industrial Process Instruments", in the 1970s. The transformation of instrumentation from mechanical pneumatic transmitters, controllers, and valves to electronic instruments reduced maintenance costs as electronic instruments were more dependable than mechanical instruments. This also increased efficiency and production due to their increase in accuracy. Pneumatics enjoyed some advantages, being favored in corrosive and explosive atmospheres.
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development was the transmission of all plant measurements to a permanently staffed central control room. Effectively this was the centralization of all the localized panels, with the advantages of lower manning levels and easy overview of the process. Often the controllers were behind the control room panels, and all automatic and manual control outputs were transmitted back to plant.
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displays it became possible to replace these discrete controllers with computer-based algorithms, hosted on a network of input/output racks with their own control processors. These could be distributed around plant, and communicate with the graphic display in the control room or rooms. The distributed control concept was born.
602:: after ignition, the burner's control knob must be held for a short time in order for a sensor to become hot, and permit the flow of gas to the burner. If the safety sensor becomes cold, this may indicate the flame on the burner has become extinguished, and to prevent a continuous leak of gas the flow is stopped.
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In some cases, the sensor is a very minor element of the mechanism. Digital cameras and wristwatches might technically meet the loose definition of instrumentation because they record and/or display sensed information. Under most circumstances neither would be called instrumentation, but when used to
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Each instrument company introduced their own standard instrumentation signal, causing confusion until the 4–20 mA range was used as the standard electronic instrument signal for transmitters and valves. This signal was eventually standardized as ANSI/ISA S50, "Compatibility of Analog
Signals for
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is a distributed instrumentation system. The ground part sends an electromagnetic pulse and receives an echo (at least). Aircraft carry transponders that transmit codes on reception of the pulse. The system displays an aircraft map location, an identifier and optionally altitude. The map location is
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Instrumentation engineering is loosely defined because the required tasks are very domain dependent. An expert in the biomedical instrumentation of laboratory rats has very different concerns than the expert in rocket instrumentation. Common concerns of both are the selection of appropriate sensors
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is the engineering specialization focused on the principle and operation of measuring instruments that are used in design and configuration of automated systems in areas such as electrical and pneumatic domains, and the control of quantities being measured. They typically work for industries with
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Modern automobiles have complex instrumentation. In addition to displays of engine rotational speed and vehicle linear speed, there are also displays of battery voltage and current, fluid levels, fluid temperatures, distance traveled, and feedback of various controls (turn signals, parking brake,
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In a research environment it is common for subject matter experts to have substantial instrumentation system expertise. An astronomer knows the structure of the universe and a great deal about telescopes – optics, pointing and cameras (or other sensing elements). That often includes the hard-won
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allowed easy interconnection and re-configuration of plant controls such as cascaded loops and interlocks, and easy interfacing with other production computer systems. It enabled sophisticated alarm handling, introduced automatic event logging, removed the need for physical records such as chart
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The ranges of pneumatic transmitters were defined by the need to control valves and actuators in the field. Typically, a signal ranged from 3 to 15 psi (20 to 100kPa or 0.2 to 1.0 kg/cm2) as a standard, was standardized with 6 to 30 psi occasionally being used for larger valves. Transistor
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presented the Royal
Society with a design for a "weather clock". A drawing shows meteorological sensors moving pens over paper driven by clockwork. Such devices did not become standard in meteorology for two centuries. The concept has remained virtually unchanged as evidenced by pneumatic chart
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As early as 1954, W. A. Wildhack discussed both the productive and destructive potential inherent in process control. The ability to make precise, verifiable and reproducible measurements of the natural world, at levels that were not previously observable, using scientific instrumentation, has
698:
Among the possible uses of the term is a collection of laboratory test equipment controlled by a computer through an IEEE-488 bus (also known as GPIB for
General Purpose Instrument Bus or HPIB for Hewlitt Packard Instrument Bus). Laboratory equipment is available to measure many electrical and
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However, whilst providing a central control focus, this arrangement was inflexible as each control loop had its own controller hardware, and continual operator movement within the control room was required to view different parts of the process. With coming of electronic processors and graphic
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Ralph MĂĽller (1940) stated, "That the history of physical science is largely the history of instruments and their intelligent use is well known. The broad generalizations and theories which have arisen from time to time have stood or fallen on the basis of accurate measurement, and in several
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Process control of large industrial plants has evolved through many stages. Initially, control would be from panels local to the process plant. However, this required a large manpower resource to attend to these dispersed panels, and there was no overall view of the process. The next logical
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but across the sciences. In chemistry, the introduction of new instrumentation in the 1940s was "nothing less than a scientific and technological revolution" in which classical wet-and-dry methods of structural organic chemistry were discarded, and new areas of research opened up.
566:. Such a system consists of sensors (motion detection, switches to detect door openings), simple algorithms to detect intrusion, local control (arm/disarm) and remote monitoring of the system so that the police can be summoned. Communication is an inherent part of the design.
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From classical to modern chemistry : the instrumental revolution; from a conference on the history of chemical instrumentation: "From the Test-tube to the
Autoanalyzer: the Development of Chemical Instrumentation in the Twentieth Century", London, in August
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Early aircraft had a few sensors. "Steam gauges" converted air pressures into needle deflections that could be interpreted as altitude and airspeed. A magnetic compass provided a sense of direction. The displays to the pilot were as critical as the measurements.
797:, reliability, safety, optimization and stability. To control the parameters in a process or in a particular system, devices such as microprocessors, microcontrollers or PLCs are used, but their ultimate aim is to control the parameters of a system.
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Elements of industrial instrumentation have long histories. Scales for comparing weights and simple pointers to indicate position are ancient technologies. Some of the earliest measurements were of time. One of the oldest
512:
A DCS control room where plant information and controls are displayed on computer graphics screens. The operators are seated and can view and control any part of the process from their screens, whilst retaining a plant
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knowledge of the operational procedures that provide the best results. For example, an astronomer is often knowledgeable of techniques to minimize temperature gradients that cause air turbulence within the telescope.
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headlights, transmission position). Cautions may be displayed for special problems (fuel low, check engine, tire pressure low, door ajar, seat belt unfastened). Problems are recorded so they can be reported to
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Electric ovens use a temperature sensor and will turn on heating elements when the temperature is too low. More advanced ovens will actuate fans in response to temperature sensors, to distribute heat or to
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instances new instruments have had to be devised for the purpose. There is little evidence to show that the mind of modern man is superior to that of the ancients. His tools are incomparably better."
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recorders, where a pressurized bellows displaces a pen. Integrating sensors, displays, recorders, and controls was uncommon until the industrial revolution, limited by both need and practicality.
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627:. Navigation systems can provide voice commands to reach a destination. Automotive instrumentation must be cheap and reliable over long periods in harsh environments. There may be independent
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recorders, allowed the control racks to be networked and thereby located locally to plant to reduce cabling runs, and provided high level overviews of plant status and production levels.
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for the process. They may design or specify installation, wiring and signal conditioning. They may be responsible for commissioning, calibration, testing and maintenance of the system.
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electronics enabled wiring to replace pipes, initially with a range of 20 to 100mA at up to 90V for loop powered devices, reducing to 4 to 20mA at 12 to 24V in more modern systems. A
888:"provided a different texture of the world". This instrumentation revolution fundamentally changes human abilities to monitor and respond, as is illustrated in the examples of
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Early systems used direct process connections to local control panels for control and indication, which from the early 1930s saw the introduction of pneumatic
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Instrumentation technologists, technicians and mechanics specialize in troubleshooting, repairing and maintaining instruments and instrumentation systems.
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Instrumentation engineers are responsible for integrating the sensors with the recorders, transmitters, displays or control systems, and producing the
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A pre-DCS/SCADA era central control room. Whilst the controls are centralised in one place, they are still discrete and not integrated into one system.
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United States
National Museum, Bulletin 228. Contributions from The Museum of History and Technology: Paper 23. Available from Project Gutenberg.
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675:, autopilots, and aircraft stabilization systems. Redundant sensors are used for reliability. A subset of the information may be transferred to a
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and other devices. Such devices could control a desired output variable, and provide either remote monitoring or automated control capabilities.
365:, buried around 1500 BCE. Improvements were incorporated in the clocks. By 270 BCE they had the rudiments of an automatic control system device.
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chemical quantities. Such a collection of equipment might be used to automate the testing of drinking water for pollutants.
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based on sensed antenna direction and sensed time delay. The other information is embedded in the transponder transmission.
181:. Instruments can be found in laboratories, refineries, factories and vehicles, as well as in everyday household use (e.g.,
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598:. These may feature a sensor bulb sited within the main chamber of the oven. In addition, there may be a safety cut-off
496:, widely used before electronics became reliable and cheaper and safe to use in hazardous areas (Siemens Telepneu Example)
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Lynn, L.H. (1998). "The commercialization of the transistor radio in Japan: The functioning of an innovation community".
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measure the elapsed time of a race and to document the winner at the finish line, both would be called instrumentation.
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A refrigerator maintains a constant temperature by actuating the cooling system when the temperature becomes too high.
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A modern aircraft has a far more sophisticated suite of sensors and displays, which are embedded into
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affects throttle position. A wide variety of services can be provided via communication links on the
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Wildhack, W. A. (22 October 1954). "Instrumentation—Revolution in
Industry, Science, and Warfare".
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refills the water tank until a float closes the valve. The float is acting as a water level sensor.
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Example of a single industrial control loop, showing continuously modulated control of process flow
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Baird, D. (1993). "Analytical chemistry and the 'big' scientific instrumentation revolution".
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The evolution of analogue control loop signalling from the pneumatic era to the electronic era
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to aid mishap investigations. Modern pilot displays now include computer displays including
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1225:. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry in assoc. with the Science Museum. pp. 29–56.
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Hentschel, Klaus (2003). "The
Instrumental Revolution in Chemistry (Review Essay)".
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Instrumentation is used to measure many parameters (physical values), including:
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is a device that produces an output signal, often in the form of a 4–20
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experts. Control system design varies from trivial to a separate specialty.
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Instruments attached to a control system provided signals used to operate
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749: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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A very simple example of an instrumentation system is a mechanical
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The history of instrumentation can be divided into several phases.
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Instrumentation can refer to devices as simple as direct-reading
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The
Introduction of Self-Registering Meteorological Instruments
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s identification of a "fourth big scientific revolution" after
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is the development of scientific instrumentation, not only in
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Non-electronic gas ovens will regulate the temperature with a
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Davis Baird has argued that the major change associated with
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Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology
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braking systems use sensors to control the brakes, while
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Measuring instruments which monitor and control a process
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Katz, Eric; Light, Andrew; Thompson, William (2002).
166:. The term has its origins in the art and science of
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Instrumentation for Process Measurement and Control
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Instrumentation for Process Measurement and Control
843:– Data signalling, often overlaid on a current loop
631:systems that contain sensors, logic and actuators.
67:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
562:Another example of an instrumentation system is a
1149:Controlling technology : contemporary issues
715:will be developed by an instrumentation engineer.
340:A local instrumentation panel on a steam turbine
146:, used for indicating, measuring, and recording
1152:(2nd ed.). Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.
647:(with exotic instrumentation) have been shown.
177:, or as complex as multi-sensor components of
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569:Kitchen appliances use sensors for control.
154:instruments, involving the related areas of
1089:(3 ed.). CRC Press. pp. 254–255.
1060:IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management
925:Instrumentation in petrochemical industries
823:Typical industrial transmitter signal types
576:An automatic ice machine makes ice until a
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1201:Download the pdf to read the full article.
793:plants, with the goal of improving system
413:signal, although many other options using
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765:Learn how and when to remove this message
127:Learn how and when to remove this message
1114:(3 ed.). CRC Press. pp. 8–10.
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920:Instrumentation and control engineering
484:Large integrated computer-based systems
1252:Chemical sciences in twentieth century
1255:(1st ed.). Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
433:was commercialized by the mid-1950s.
7:
930:Institute of Measurement and Control
747:adding citations to reliable sources
65:adding citations to reliable sources
935:International Society of Automation
594:controlling the flow of gas to the
1017:"Building automation history page"
960:Piping and instrumentation diagram
829:Pneumatic loop (20-100KPa/3-15PSI)
810:Piping and instrumentation diagram
713:piping and instrumentation diagram
663:systems. The aircraft may contain
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492:Pneumatic "three term" pneumatic
1491:Failure of electronic components
1249:Reinhardt, Carsten, ed. (2001).
1220:. In Morris, Peter J. T. (ed.).
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32:Instrumentation (disambiguation)
734:needs additional citations for
52:needs additional citations for
711:The instrumentation part of a
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966:Programmable logic controller
525:The introduction of DCSs and
357:was found in the tomb of the
199:List of measuring instruments
1486:List of emerging electronics
1298:10.1126/science.120.3121.15A
1110:Anderson, Norman A. (1998).
1085:Anderson, Norman A. (1998).
1042:Multhauf, Robert P. (1961),
860:Impact of modern development
703:Instrumentation engineering
168:scientific instrument-making
778:Instrumentation engineering
665:inertial navigation systems
18:Instrumentation engineering
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892:monitoring and the use of
694:Laboratory instrumentation
669:global positioning systems
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179:industrial control systems
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1197:10.1080/00033799300200221
915:Industrial control system
687:Air traffic control radar
587:allow the time to be set.
464:Automatic process control
142:is a collective term for
1324:Foundations of Chemistry
600:flame supervision device
395:3-term (PID) controllers
1729:Electromagnetic warfare
1336:10.1023/A:1023691917565
950:Medical instrumentation
1699:Automotive electronics
1648:Robotic vacuum cleaner
1608:Information technology
1413:Electronic engineering
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1506:Molecular electronics
1501:Low-power electronics
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144:measuring instruments
1827:Terahertz technology
1808:Open-source hardware
1764:Consumer electronics
1734:Electronics industry
1496:Flexible electronics
1403:Analogue electronics
894:UV spectrophotometry
743:improve this article
625:diagnostic equipment
564:home security system
301:Chemical properties
298:Chemical composition
61:improve this article
30:For other uses, see
1858:Control engineering
1803:Nuclear electronics
1628:Networking hardware
1531:Quantum electronics
1516:Organic electronics
1438:Printed electronics
1408:Digital electronics
1290:1954Sci...120A..15W
847:Foundation Fieldbus
785:processes, such as
148:physical quantities
1781:Marine electronics
1754:Integrated circuit
1673:Video game console
1471:2020s in computing
1453:Thermal management
1216:Baird, D. (2002).
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1185:Annals of Science
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1330:(2): 179–183.
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1268:
1262:978-3527302710
1261:
1238:
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1191:(3): 267–290.
1172:
1159:978-1573929837
1158:
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1120:
1102:
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1066:(3): 220–229.
1050:
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1023:on 8 July 2011
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991:"Early Clocks"
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637:cruise control
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557:mercury switch
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494:PID controller
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393:and automatic
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348:Pre-industrial
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1284:(3121): 15A.
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803:human factors
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791:manufacturing
788:
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738:
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732:This section
730:
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673:weather radar
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583:Pop-up bread
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207:Control valve
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81:
78: –
77:
73:
72:Find sources:
66:
62:
56:
55:
50:This article
48:
44:
39:
38:
33:
19:
1687:Applications
1668:Water heater
1643:Refrigerator
1623:Mobile phone
1526:Piezotronics
1417:
1327:
1323:
1281:
1277:
1271:
1251:
1221:
1200:
1188:
1184:
1163:. Retrieved
1148:
1141:
1130:
1111:
1105:
1086:
1080:
1063:
1059:
1053:
1043:
1037:
1025:. Retrieved
1021:the original
1011:
999:. Retrieved
997:. 2009-08-12
994:
985:
886:
877:World War II
870:Floris Cohen
867:
863:
837:– Electrical
818:
814:
807:
799:
795:productivity
777:
776:
761:
752:
741:Please help
736:verification
733:
697:
685:
658:
654:
621:
578:limit switch
568:
561:
546:
537:
524:
520:
516:
475:
458:
435:
399:
391:transmitters
388:
367:
355:water clocks
351:
343:
220:differential
210:
175:thermometers
172:
143:
139:
138:
123:
114:
104:
97:
90:
83:
71:
59:Please help
54:verification
51:
1794:electronics
1598:Home cinema
1536:Spintronics
1476:Atomtronics
1389:Electronics
945:Measurement
900:to monitor
831:– Pneumatic
755:August 2024
534:Application
409:electrical
403:transmitter
363:Amenhotep I
305:Toxic gases
294:Resistivity
289:Capacitance
234:Temperature
187:thermostats
152:measurement
117:August 2024
1852:Categories
1798:Multimedia
1788:technology
1663:Television
1593:Home robot
1583:Dishwasher
1545:Electronic
978:References
618:Automotive
596:gas burner
592:thermostat
580:is thrown.
549:thermostat
446:regulators
431:transistor
326:See also:
284:Inductance
160:automation
87:newspapers
1786:Microwave
1658:Telephone
1547:equipment
1521:Photonics
1344:102255170
955:Metrology
881:chemistry
783:automated
633:Anti-skid
609:A common
543:Household
513:overview.
438:solenoids
419:frequency
314:Vibration
269:Frequency
259:Viscosity
218:, either
156:metrology
1836:Wireless
1792:Military
1724:e-health
1704:Avionics
1573:Notebook
1569:Computer
1462:Advanced
1396:Branches
1306:17816144
908:See also
853:Profibus
787:chemical
661:avionics
651:Aircraft
643:system.
585:toasters
427:ethernet
423:pressure
368:In 1663
361:pharaoh
311:Position
249:humidity
245:Moisture
216:Pressure
1868:Sensors
1588:Freezer
1286:Bibcode
1278:Science
1165:9 March
1027:1 March
1001:1 March
415:voltage
411:current
322:History
279:Voltage
274:Current
254:Density
101:scholar
1719:e-book
1653:Tablet
1613:Cooker
1578:Camera
1464:topics
1342:
1304:
1259:
1229:
1156:
1118:
1093:
641:OnStar
629:airbag
611:toilet
454:relays
442:valves
317:Weight
239:Levels
224:static
162:, and
103:
96:
89:
82:
74:
1832:Wired
1813:Radar
1638:Radio
1340:S2CID
873:'
606:cool.
527:SCADA
425:, or
108:JSTOR
94:books
1834:and
1815:and
1302:PMID
1257:ISBN
1227:ISBN
1223:2000
1167:2016
1154:ISBN
1116:ISBN
1091:ISBN
1029:2012
1003:2012
995:NIST
896:and
841:HART
330:and
229:Flow
185:and
80:news
1332:doi
1294:doi
1282:120
1193:doi
1068:doi
890:DDT
789:or
745:by
247:or
222:or
63:by
1854::
1338:.
1326:.
1314:^
1300:.
1292:.
1280:.
1241:^
1208:^
1199:.
1189:50
1187:.
1175:^
1064:45
1062:.
993:.
904:.
683:.
671:,
667:,
452:,
448:,
444:,
440:,
421:,
417:,
407:mA
397:.
189:)
170:.
158:,
1571:/
1381:e
1374:t
1367:v
1346:.
1334::
1328:5
1308:.
1296::
1288::
1265:.
1235:.
1195::
1169:.
1124:.
1099:.
1074:.
1070::
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1005:.
768:)
762:(
757:)
753:(
739:.
130:)
124:(
119:)
115:(
105:·
98:·
91:·
84:·
57:.
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
