Instructional design - Knowledge (XXG)

703:– The ADDIE model was initially developed by Florida State University to explain "the processes involved in the formulation of an instructional systems development (ISD) program for military interservice training that will adequately train individuals to do a particular job, and which can also be applied to any interservice curriculum development activity." The model originally contained several steps under its five original phases (Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement, and Control), whose completion was expected before movement to the next phase could occur. Over the years, the steps were revised and eventually the model itself became more dynamic and interactive than its original hierarchical rendition, until its most popular version appeared in the mid-80s, as we understand it today. 637:

required different learning strategies. Understanding and designing instruction based on a learning style defined by the individual brought about new theories and approaches to teaching. Gagné 's understanding and theories of human learning added significantly to understanding the stages in cognitive processing and instructions. For example, Gagné argued that instructional designers must understand the characteristics and functions of short-term and long-term memory to facilitate meaningful learning. This idea encouraged instructional designers to include cognitive needs as a top-down instructional approach.

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architecture, transportation planning, product development, message design, user experience design, etc. In fact, some proponents of design prototyping assert that a sophisticated understanding of a problem is incomplete without creating and evaluating some type of prototype, regardless of the analysis rigor that may have been applied up front. In other words, up-front analysis is rarely sufficient to allow one to confidently select an instructional model. For this reason many traditional methods of instructional design are beginning to be seen as incomplete, naive, and even counter-productive.

726:– The second phase is the Design phase. In this phase, instructional designers begin to create their project. Information gathered from the analysis phase, in conjunction with the theories and models of instructional design, is meant to explain how the learning will be acquired. For example, the design phase begins with writing a learning objective. Tasks are then identified and broken down to be more manageable for the designer. The final step determines the kind of activities required for the audience in order to meet the goals identified in the Analyze phase. 621:

models and ideas. These models have laid the groundwork for more present-day instructional design models from theorists like Dick, Carey, and Carey (The Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model), Jerold Kemp's Instructional Design Model, and David Merrill (Merrill's First Principle of Instruction). Each of these models are based on a core set of learning phases that include (1) activation of prior experience, (2) demonstration of skills, (3) application of skills, and (4) integration or these skills into real world activities.

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problems to answer/solve, and variability which uses a variety of resources and methods of teaching. Within each of these categories, John Keller has provided further sub-divisions of types of stimuli to grab attention. Grabbing attention is the most important part of the model because it initiates the motivation for the learners. Once learners are interested in a topic, they are willing to invest their time, pay attention, and find out more.

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content, learning and instruction. According to Dick and Carey, "Components such as the instructor, learners, materials, instructional activities, delivery system, and learning and performance environments interact with each other and work together to bring about the desired student learning outcomes". The components of the Systems Approach Model, also known as the Dick and Carey Model, are as follows:

7064: 6276: 138: 8056: 744:– The final phase, Evaluate, ensures the materials achieved the desired goals. The evaluation phase consists of two parts: formative and summative assessment. The ADDIE model is an iterative process of instructional design, which means that at each stage the designer can assess the project's elements and revise them if necessary. This process incorporates 794: 1309: 1257: 8034: 1018:

learning design provides students with a method for estimating their probability of success. This can be achieved in the form of a syllabus and grading policy, rubrics, or a time estimate to complete tasks. Additionally, confidence is built when positive reinforcement for personal achievements is given through timely, relevant feedback.

720:– The first phase of content development is Analysis. Analysis refers to the gathering of information about one's audience, the tasks to be completed, how the learners will view the content, and the project's overall goals. The instructional designer then classifies the information to make the content more applicable and successful. 244:(Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operation) is one example of how computers began to be integrated into instruction. Many of the first uses of computers in the classroom were for "drill and skill" exercises. There was a growing interest in how cognitive psychology could be applied to instructional design. 108:. While the impact of each of these fields is difficult to quantify, it is argued that the language and the "look and feel" of the early forms of instructional design and their progeny were derived from this engineering discipline. Specifically, they were linked to the training development model used by the 1017:

The confidence aspect of the ARCS model focuses on establishing positive expectations for achieving success among learners. The confidence level of learners is often correlated with motivation and the amount of effort put forth in reaching a performance objective. For this reason, it's important that

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Informal learning became an area of growing importance in instructional design, particularly in the workplace. A 2014 study showed that formal training makes up only 4 percent of the 505 hours per year an average employee spends learning. It also found that the learning output of informal learning is

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and hypermedia being recognized as good tools for learning. As technology advanced and constructivist theory gained popularity, technology's use in the classroom began to evolve from mostly drill and skill exercises to more interactive activities that required more complex thinking on the part of the

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Branson, R. K., Rayner, G. T., Cox, J. L., Furman, J. P., King, F. J., Hannum, W. H. (1975). Interservice procedures for instructional systems development. (5 vols.) (TRADOC Pam 350-30 NAVEDTRA 106A). Ft. Monroe, VA: U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command, August 1975. (NTIS No. ADA 019 486 through

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Hardré proposes an alternate model for designers called the Motivating Opportunities Model or MOM. Hardré's model incorporates cognitive, needs, and affective theories as well as social elements of learning to address learner motivation. MOM has seven key components spelling the acronym 'SUCCESS' –

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Finally, learners must obtain some type of satisfaction or reward from a learning experience. This satisfaction can be from a sense of achievement, praise from a higher-up, or mere entertainment. Feedback and reinforcement are important elements and when learners appreciate the results, they will be

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The ARCS Model of Motivational Design was created by John Keller while he was researching ways to supplement the learning process with motivation. The model is based on Tolman's and Lewin's expectancy-value theory, which presumes that people are motivated to learn if there is value in the knowledge

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Robert Gagné's work is widely used and cited in the design of instruction, as exemplified by more than 130 citations in prominent journals in the field during the period from 1985 through 1990. Synthesizing ideas from behaviorism and cognitivism, he provided a clear template, which is easy to follow

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The attention mentioned in this theory refers to the interest displayed by learners in taking in the concepts/ideas being taught. This component is split into three categories: perceptual arousal which uses surprise or uncertain situations, inquiry arousal which offers challenging questions and/or

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However, some consider rapid prototyping to be a somewhat simplistic type of model. As this argument goes, at the heart of Instructional Design is the analysis phase. After you thoroughly conduct the analysis—you can then choose a model based on your findings. That is the area where most people get

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The concept of learning design arrived in the literature of technology for education in the late 1990s and early 2000s with the idea that "designers and instructors need to choose for themselves the best mixture of behaviourist and constructivist learning experiences for their online courses". But

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introduced "criterion-referenced measures" in 1962. In contrast to norm-referenced tests in which an individual's performance is compared to group performance, a criterion-referenced test is designed to test an individual's behavior in relation to an objective standard. It can be used to assess the

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Joeckel, G., Jeon, T., Gardner, J. (2010). Instructional Challenges In Higher Education: Online Courses Delivered Through A Learning Management System By Subject Matter Experts. In Song, H. (Ed.) Distance Learning Technology, Current Instruction, and the Future of Education: Applications of Today,

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Intrinsic: defined as the doing of an activity for its inherent satisfactions rather than for some separable consequence. When intrinsically motivated a person is moved to act for the fun or challenge entailed rather than because of external rewards. Intrinsic motivation reflects the desire to do

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Prior to Robert Gagné, learning was often thought of as a single, uniform process. There was little or no distinction made between "learning to load a rifle and learning to solve a complex mathematical problem". Gagné offered an alternative view which developed the idea that different learners

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on instructional design became more prominent in the 1990s as a counterpoint to the more traditional cognitive learning theory. Constructivists believe that learning experiences should be "authentic" and produce real-world learning environments that allow learners to construct their own knowledge.

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During the 1970s, the number of instructional design models greatly increased and prospered in different sectors in military, academia, and industry. Many instructional design theorists began to adopt an information-processing-based approach to the design of instruction. David Merrill for instance

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Gagné's work has had a significant influence on American education, and military and industrial training. Gagné was one of the early developers of the concept of instructional systems design which suggests the components of a lesson can be analyzed and should be designed to operate together as an

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Gagné's main focus for instructional design was how instruction and learning could be systematically connected to the design of instruction. He emphasized the design principles and procedures that need to take place for effective teaching and learning. His initial ideas, along with the ideas of

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In 2008, the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) changed the definition of Educational Technology to "the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using, and managing appropriate technological processes and resources".

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Peter (1968) & Mary (1972) Esseff both received their doctorates in Educational Technology from the Catholic University of America under the mentorship of Gabriel Ofiesh, a founding father of the Military Model mentioned above. Esseff and Esseff synthesized existing theories to develop their

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Dick and Carey made a significant contribution to the instructional design field by championing a systems view of instruction, in contrast to defining instruction as the sum of isolated parts. The model addresses instruction as an entire system, focusing on the interrelationship between context,

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Proponents suggest that through an iterative process the verification of the design documents saves time and money by catching problems while they are still easy to fix. This approach is not novel to the design of instruction, but appears in many design-related domains including software design,

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learner. Rapid prototyping was first seen during the 1990s. In this process, an instructional design project is prototyped quickly and then vetted through a series of try and revise cycles. This is a big departure from traditional methods of instructional design that took far longer to complete.

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His definition of curriculum has been the basis of many important initiatives in schools and other educational environments. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Gagné had expressed and established an interest in applying theory to practice with particular interest in applications for teaching,

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Robert Gagné's work has been the foundation of instructional design since the beginning of the 1960s when he conducted research and developed training materials for the military. Among the first to coin the term "instructional design", Gagné developed some of the earliest instructional design

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and experiences, both digital and physical, in a consistent and reliable fashion toward an efficient, effective, appealing, engaging and inspiring acquisition of knowledge. The process consists broadly of determining the state and needs of the learner, defining the end goal of instruction, and

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Relevance, according to Keller, must be established by using language and examples that the learners are familiar with. The three major strategies Keller presents are goal-oriented, motive matching, and familiarity. Like the Attention category, Keller divided the three major strategies into

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Although Keller's ARCS model currently dominates instructional design with respect to learner motivation, in 2006 Hardré and Miller proposed a need for a new design model that includes current research in human motivation, a comprehensive treatment of motivation, integrates various fields of

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Some educators believe that Gagné's taxonomy of learning outcomes and events of instruction oversimplify the learning process by over-prescribing. However, using them as part of a complete instructional package can assist many educators in becoming more organized and staying focused on the

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when a considerable amount of training materials for the military were developed based on the principles of instruction, learning, and human behavior. Tests for assessing a learner's abilities were used to screen candidates for the training programs. After the success of military training,

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has devoted his career to researching and understanding motivation in instructional systems. These decades of work constitute a major contribution to the instructional design field. First, by applying motivation theories systematically to design theory. Second, in developing a unique

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has influenced thinking in the field. This can be attributed to the way it emerged during a period when the behaviorist paradigm was dominating American psychology. There are also those who cite that, aside from behaviorist psychology, the origin of the concept could be traced back to

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Attention and relevance according to John Keller's ARCS motivational theory are essential to learning. The first 2 of 4 key components for motivating learners, attention, and relevance can be considered the backbone of the ARCS theory, the latter components relying upon the former.

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Extrinsic: reflects the desire to do something because of external rewards such as awards, money and praise. People who are extrinsically motivated may not enjoy certain activities. They may only wish to engage in certain activities because they wish to receive some external

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Analyze Learners and Contexts: Identify general characteristics of the target audience, including prior skills, prior experience, and basic demographics; identify characteristics directly related to the skill to be taught; and perform analysis of the performance and learning

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Gagné (1966) defines curriculum as a sequence of content units arranged in such a way that the learning of each unit may be accomplished as a single act, provided the capabilities described by specified prior units (in the sequence) have already been mastered by the learner.

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The writer who only writes poems to be submitted to poetry contests, a person who dislikes sales but accepts a sales position because he/she desires to earn an above average salary, and a person selecting a major in college based on salary and prestige, rather than personal

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Along with the motivational components (Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction) the ARCS model provides a process that can address motivational problems. This process has 4 phases (Analysis, Design, Development, and Evaluation) with 10 steps within the phases:

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the concept of learning design is probably as old as the concept of teaching. Learning design might be defined as "the description of the teaching-learning process that takes place in a unit of learning (e.g., a course, a lesson or any other designed learning event)".

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Gaining attention: To ensure reception of coming instruction, the teacher gives the learners a stimulus. Before the learners can start to process any new information, the instructor must gain the attention of the learners. This might entail using abrupt changes in the

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motivated to learn. Satisfaction is based upon motivation, which can be intrinsic or extrinsic. To keep learners satisfied, instruction should be designed to allow them to use their newly learned skills as soon as possible in as authentic a setting as possible.

210:", which remain foundations of instructional design practices. Gagne's work in learning hierarchies and hierarchical analysis led to an important notion in instruction – to ensure that learners acquire prerequisite skills before attempting superordinate ones. 206:(see below for more information) described three domains of learning outcomes (cognitive, affective, psychomotor), five learning outcomes (Verbal Information, Intellectual Skills, Cognitive Strategy, Attitude, Motor Skills), and nine events of instruction in " 231:

Although interest in instructional design continued to be strong in business and the military, there was little evolution of ID in schools or higher education. However, educators and researchers began to consider how the personal computer could be used in a

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Duffy, T. M., & Cunningham, D. J. (1996). Constructivism: Implications for the design and delivery of instruction. In D. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and Technology (pp. 170-198). New York: Simon & Schuster

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integrated plan for instruction. In "Educational Technology and the Learning Process" (Educational Researcher, 1974), Gagné defined instruction as "the set of planned external events which influence the process of learning and thus promote learning".

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The instructional design model, Guaranteed Learning, was formerly known as the Instructional Development Learning System (IDLS). The model was originally published in 1970 by Peter J. Esseff, PhD and Mary Sullivan Esseff, PhD in their book entitled

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creating some "intervention" to assist in the transition. The outcome of this instruction may be directly observable and scientifically measured or completely hidden and assumed. There are many instructional design models, but many are based on the

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approach to systematic design, "Guaranteed Learning" aka "Instructional Development Learning System" (IDLS). In 2015, the Drs. Esseffs created an eLearning course to enable participants to take the GL course online under the direction of Esseff.

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According to Gagné, learning occurs in a series of nine learning events, each of which is a condition for learning which must be accomplished before moving to the next in order. Similarly, instructional events should mirror the learning events:

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Online training increased rapidly to the point where entire curriculums were given through web-based training. Simulations are valuable but expensive, with the highest level being used primarily by the military and medical community.

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In 1967, after analyzing the failure of training material, Michael Scriven suggested the need for formative assessment – e.g., to try out instructional materials with learners (and revise accordingly) before declaring them finalized.

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Duffy, T. M., & Jonassen, D. H. (1992). Constructivism: New implications for instructional technology. In T. Duffy & D. Jonassen (Eds.), Constructivism and the technology of instruction (pp. 1-16). Hillsdale, NJ:

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subcategories, which provide examples of how to make a lesson plan relevant to the learner. Learners will throw concepts to the wayside if their attention cannot be grabbed and sustained and if relevance is not conveyed.

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Personalized learning paths enhanced by artificial intelligence. Microlearning and gamification are widely adopted to deliver learning in the flow of work. Real-time data capture enables ongoing design and remediation.

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outlined a hierarchy of instructional methods, organized intuitively by their concreteness. The framework first migrated to the industrial sector to train workers before it finally found its way to the education field.

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Motivation is defined as an internal drive that activates behavior and gives it direction. The term motivation theory is concerned with the process that describes why and how human behavior is activated and directed.

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training and learning. Increasing the effectiveness and efficiency of practice was of particular concern. His ongoing attention to practice while developing theory continues to influence education and training.

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Write Performance Objectives: Objectives consists of a description of the behavior, the condition and criteria. The component of an objective that describes the criteria will be used to judge the learner's

738:– After the content is developed, it is then Implemented. This stage allows the instructional designer to test all materials to determine if they are functional and appropriate for the intended audience. 160:" suggested that effective instructional materials, called programmed instructional materials, should include small steps, frequent questions, and immediate feedback; and should allow self-pacing. 884:

Other useful instructional design models include: the Smith/Ragan Model, the Morrison/Ross/Kemp Model and the OAR Model of instructional design in higher education, as well as, Wiggins' theory of

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contain tests or evaluations created for the content being implemented. This final phase is vital for the instructional design team because it provides data used to alter and enhance the design.

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Kelley, T., & Littman, J. (2005). The ten faces of innovation: IDEO's strategies for beating the devil's advocate & driving creativity throughout your organization. New York: Doubleday.

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Anglin, G. J., & Towers, R. L. (1992). Reference citations in selected instructional design and technology journals, 1985-1990. Educational Technology Research and Development, 40, 40-46.

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presented (i.e. it fulfills personal needs) and if there is an optimistic expectation for success. The model consists of four main areas: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction.

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Connecting all phases of the model are external and reciprocal revision opportunities. As in the internal Evaluation phase, revisions should and can be made throughout the entire process.

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Another well-known instructional design model is the Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model. The model was originally published in 1978 by Walter Dick and Lou Carey in their book entitled

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Informing learners of objectives: The teacher tells the learner what they will be able to do because of the instruction. The teacher communicates the desired outcome to the group.

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Hokanson, B., & Miller, C. (2009). Role-based design: A contemporary framework for innovation and creativity in instructional design. Educational Technology, 49(2), 21–28.

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equal to that of formal training. As a result of this and other research, more emphasis was placed on creating knowledge bases and other supports for self-directed learning.

732:– The third phase, Development, involves the creation of the activities that will be implemented. It is in this stage that the blueprints of the design phase are assembled. 1936: 6379: 2225: 510:

Robert Gagné classified the types of learning outcomes by asking how learning might be demonstrated. His domains and outcomes of learning correspond to standard verbs.

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was also seen as an important outcome of learning that needed to be considered during the design process. The World Wide Web emerged as an online learning tool with

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Writing short stories because you enjoy writing them, reading a book because you are curious about the topic, and playing chess because you enjoy effortful thinking

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Conole G., and Fill K., "A learning design toolkit to create pedagogically effective learning activities". Journal of Interactive Media in Education, 2005 (08).

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On-demand training moved to people's personal devices; social media allowed for collaborative learning. Smartphones allowed for real-time interactive feedback.

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Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) research started in the 1950s, became popular in the 1980s a few years after computers became available to general public.

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Develop Assessment Instruments: Purpose of entry behavior testing, purpose of pretesting, purpose of post-testing, purpose of practice items/practice problems

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The internet offered opportunities to train many people long distances. Desktop simulation gave advent to levels of Interactive Multimedia Instruction (IMI).

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Hardré, Patricia; Miller, Raymond B. (2006). "Toward a current, comprehensive, integrative, and flexible model of motivation for instructional design".

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Also see: Managing Learning in High Performance Organizations, by Ruth Stiehl and Barbara Bessey, from The Learning Organization, Corvallis, Oregon.

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Growth of audio-visual instruction movement in school was slow, but audiovisual device were used extensively in military services and industry.

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for designing instructional events. Instructional designers who follow Gagné's theory will likely have tightly focused, efficient instruction.

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Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation of Instruction: Designers try to identify areas of the instructional materials that need improvement.

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Hardré, Patricia (2009). "The motivating opportunities model for Performance SUCCESS: Design, Development, and Instructional Implications".

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Britain S., "A Review of Learning Design: Concept, Specifications and Tools" A report for the JISC E-learning Pedagogy Programme, May 2004.

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Conduct Instructional Analysis: Identify what a learner must recall and identify what learner must be able to do to perform particular task

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developed Component Display Theory (CDT), which concentrates on the means of presenting instructional materials (presentation techniques).

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Identify Instructional Goal(s): A goal statement describes a skill, knowledge or attitude (SKA) that a learner will be expected to acquire

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Online learning became common. Technology advances permitted sophisticated simulations with authentic and realistic learning experiences.

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Providing learning guidance: The teacher helps the students in understanding (semantic encoding) by providing organization and relevance.

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Includes collecting the current skill level, attitudes towards the course, attitudes towards the teacher, attitudes towards the school.

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something because it is enjoyable. If we are intrinsically motivated, we would not be worried about external rewards such as praise.

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Carr-Chellman A. and Duchastel P., "The ideal online course," British Journal of Educational Technology, 31(3), 229–241, July 2000.

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with education gained momentum with the introduction of Learning Design and Technology (LDT) majors. Universities such as

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have established undergraduate and graduate degrees in technology-centered methods of designing and delivering education.

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Gagné, R. M., & Driscoll, M. P. (1988). Essentials of learning for instruction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

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The effect of visual instruction was limited because of teacher resistance to change, quality of the file and cost etc.

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Association for Educational Communications and Technology (2008). Definition. In A. Januszewski and M. Molenda (Eds.),

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Morrison, G. R., Ross, S. M., & Kemp, J. E. (2001). Designing effective instruction, 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley.

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Braine, B., (2010). "Historical Evolution of Instructional Design & Technology". Retrieved on April 11, 2012 from

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Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2012). Trends and issues in instructional design and technology. Boston: Pearson.

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Develop Instructional Strategy: Pre-instructional activities, content presentation, Learner participation, assessment

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learners' entry level behavior, and to what extent learners have developed mastery through an instructional program.

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Merrill, D.M., Jones, M.K., & Chongqing, L. (December 1990). Instructional Transaction Theory. Retrieved from

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with three domains of learning: cognitive (what one knows or thinks), psychomotor (what one does, physically) and

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Materials are viewed as supplementary curriculum materials. District-wide media center is the modern equivalent.

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Assessing performance: The teacher requires more learner performance, and gives feedback, to reinforce learning.

168:. The article describes how to write objectives including desired behavior, learning condition, and assessment. 7911: 7749: 7682: 7652: 7562: 7512: 7472: 7376: 7323: 6828: 6823: 6718: 6710: 6554: 6444: 6374: 5874: 5463: 5409: 5120: 4877: 4789: 4551: 4238: 4168: 4029: 3885: 3796: 3670: 3204: 904: 2512:"Informal learning is more important than formal learning – moving forward with 70:20:10 - 70:20:10 Institute" 2402: 1462:– Overview of Instructional Design – The education of the heart: rediscovering the spiritual roots of learning 257:

This emphasis on the learner was a significant departure away from traditional forms of instructional design.

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Dick, W., & Carey, L. (1996). The systematic design of instruction. 4th ed. New York, NY: Harper Collins

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Mayer, Richard E (1992). "Cognition and instruction: Their historic meeting within educational psychology".

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Smith, P. L. & Ragan, T. J. (2004). Instructional design (3rd Ed.). Danvers, MA: John Wiley & Sons.

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Koper R., "Current Research in Learning Design," Educational Technology & Society, 9 (1), 13–22, 2006.

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This view point was first ignored, but eventually helped to expand the focus of the audiovisual movement.

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Learning theories also play an important role in the design of instructional materials. Theories such as

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The role of systems engineering in the early development of instructional design was demonstrated during

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snagged—they simply do not do a thorough-enough analysis. (Part of Article By Chris Bressi on LinkedIn)

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Includes reviewing the description of the course, the instructor, and way of delivery the information.

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The technical realisations around the implementation of the concept like TELOS, RELOAD LD-Author, etc.

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Training films, Overhead projector, Slide projector, Audio equipment, Simulators and training devices

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Enhancing retention and transfer: The teacher provides varied practice to generalize the capability.

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Suggested to consider all aspects of a communication process (influenced by communication theories).

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Gagné, R. M. (1985). The conditions of learning (4th ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

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Stimulating recall of prior learning: The teacher asks for recall of existing relevant knowledge.

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History of instructional media. Uploaded to YouTube by crozitis on Jan 17, 2010. Retrieved from

1390: 69: 8095: 8090: 7959: 7855: 7807: 7729: 7497: 6878: 6843: 6798: 6793: 6702: 6569: 6479: 6369: 6207: 6019: 6001: 5879: 5849: 5822: 5812: 5802: 5797: 5766: 5698: 5688: 5673: 5633: 5441: 5424: 5255: 5225: 5030: 4983: 4839: 4829: 4650: 4645: 4640: 4610: 4449: 4434: 4389: 4379: 4364: 4359: 4292: 4228: 4223: 4126: 3961: 3858: 3836: 3786: 3744: 3734: 3648: 3526: 3466: 3381: 3342: 3063: 3017: 2735: 2623: 2565: 2276: 2265:"What is educational technology, anyway? A commentary on the new AECT definition of the field" 2233: 1984: 1865: 1862:

Handbook of Improving Performance in the Workplace, Instructional Design and Training Delivery

1840: 1601: 1477: 1438: 1374: 1030: 911: 767: 4270: 3403: 1589: – Specialization of design focused on the experience users have of a product or service 6279: 6195: 6136: 5899: 5894: 5864: 5751: 5746: 5708: 5613: 5588: 5493: 5230: 5195: 5170: 4883: 4857: 4819: 4625: 4561: 4509: 4414: 4404: 4384: 4260: 4178: 4131: 4101: 4076: 4044: 4004: 3944: 3875: 3714: 3414: 3373: 3317: 2043:

A History of Instructional Design and Technology: Part II: A History of Instructional Design

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With this model, components are executed iteratively and in parallel, rather than linearly.

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psychology and provides designers the flexibility to be applied to a myriad of situations.

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Create simulations or performance activities (Case Studies, Role Plays, and Demonstrations)

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Trentin G. (2001). Designing Online Courses. In C.D. Maddux & D. LaMont Johnson (Eds)

2153: 2131: 2106: 2049: 2022: 1940: 1760: 1592: 1432: 361:

School museum as supplementary material (First school museum opened in St. Louis in 1905)

161: 3178:"Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Motivation with Examples of Each Types of Motivation" 2684: 1753: 490: 203: 2264: 601:

Providing feedback: The teacher gives informative feedback on the learners' performance.

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Eliciting performance: The teacher asks the learners to respond, demonstrating learning.

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as a system and developed various analysis, design, and evaluation procedures. In 1946,

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Gagné, R.M. (n.d.). Biographies. Retrieved April 18, 2012, from Answers.com Web site:

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Psychological Principles in System Development-1962. Retrieved on April 15, 2012 from

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Dowling, L. J. (2001). Robert Gagné and the Conditions of Learning. Walden University.

2608: 2429:"MEd in Learning, Design, and Technology - University of Georgia College of Education" 1837:

Instructional Design: International Perspectives. Theory, research, and models. Vol. 1

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Identifying positives of the current instructional material, as well as any problems.

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http://www.instructionaldesigncentral.com/htm/IDC_instructionaldesignmodels.htm#kemp

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The implementation of the concept made by learning design specifications like PALO,

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The effect of CAI was rather small and the use of computer was far from innovative.

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Most of the current instructional design models are variations of the ADDIE model.

116: 3419: 1565: – Branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of human learning 766:

An adaptation of the ADDIE model, which is used sometimes, is a practice known as

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Integrates, enhances, and sustains tactics from the list that fit the situation.

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John M. Keller: A Significant Contributor to the Field of Educational Psychology

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Situational, Utilization, Competence, Content, Emotional, Social, and Systemic.

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IDLS—Pro Trainer 1: How to Design, Develop, and Validate Instructional Materials

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Revise Instruction: To identify poor test items and to identify poor instruction

694: 558:

Attitudes - are demonstrated by preferring options: choose, prefer, elect, favor

55: 3409: 2933:

Piskurich, G.M. (2006). Rapid Instructional Design: Learning ID fast and right.

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This should help identify the motivational problem that needs to be addressed.

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Perhaps the most common model used for creating instructional materials is the

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The Web in Higher Education: Assessing the Impact and Fulfilling the Potential

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is considered one of the founders of ISD due to the great influence his work,

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This allows the creation of assessment tools that align with the objectives.

91:

As a field, instructional design is historically and traditionally rooted in

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Presenting the stimulus: The teacher gives emphasis to distinctive features.

264: 180: 137: 92: 5982: 3086: 3057: 5977: 3377: 1983:. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. p. 375. 1559: – Animations produced for the specific purpose of fostering learning 528:

Intellectual skills - problem solve by generating solutions or procedures

49:), is the practice of systematically designing, developing and delivering 5483: 4424: 3471: 3338:

The education of the heart: rediscovering the spiritual roots of learning

1952:

Thalheimer, Will. People remember 10%, 20%...Oh Really? October 8, 2006.

1577: – Collection of electronic evidence assembled and managed by a user 1371:– Taxonomies of the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains – 1950s 1222:

Select materials, modify to fit the situation and develop new materials.

1214:

Integrate the tactic that was chosen from the list into the instruction.

1198:

Brainstorming possible tactics that could fill in the motivational gaps.

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Instructional Design Models and Theories, Retrieved April 9th 2012 from

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ESF, Inc. – Train-the-Trainer – ESF ProTrainer Materials – 813.814.1192

2071: 1571: – Use of technology in education to improve learning and teaching 793: 568:

Motor skills - enable physical performance: execute, perform, carry out

3321: 2193: 2003:

Bloom's Taxonomy. Retrieved from Knowledge (XXG) on April 18, 2012 at

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Cognitive strategies - are used for learning: adopt, create, originate

187:

one has). These taxonomies still influence the design of instruction.

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Elaboration Theory (Charles Reigeluth), Retrieved April 9, 2012 from

1835:

Tennyson, Robert; Dijkstra, S.; Schott, Frank; Seel, Norbert (1997).

1619: – Cognitive science principles of effective multimedia learning 1286:

by removing items or incorporating them into the text of the article.

543:

Higher order rule: generate, develop, solve (using two or more rules)

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Obtain reactions from the learner and determine satisfaction level.

859:

The components of the Guaranteed Learning Model are the following:

661:

As summarized by Britain, learning design may be associated with:

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Military and industry at this time had strong demand for training.

288:

Academic degrees focused on integrating technology, internet, and

164:

popularized the use of learning objectives with his 1962 article "

136: 2833:"Answers - the Most Trusted Place for Answering Life's Questions" 2351:"Master's in Learning Design and Technology | Purdue Online" 1498:– Instructional Systems and Design via Distance Education – 1980s 537:

Defined Concept: classify, categorize, type, sort (by definition)

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Design and Development Research: Methods, Strategies, and Issues

1625: – Process for design and development of learning resources 1480:– Elaboration Theory, "Green Books" I, II, and III – 1990s–2010s 7903: 7705: 7453: 7080: 6700: 6308: 6297: 5999: 5362: 5324: 5009: 4712: 4157: 3484: 3428: 2232:, pp. 47-66, The Haworth Press Inc., New York, London, Oxford, 2797:

it Time to Exchange Skinner's Teaching Machine for Dewey's.htm

1955:"Will at Work Learning: People remember 10%, 20%...Oh Really?" 1413:– Instructional Media and the new technologies of instruction 1393:– Nine Events of Instruction (Gagné and Merrill Video Seminar) 1302: 1250: 907:

help shape and define the outcome of instructional materials.

434:

Instructional television was not adopted to a greater extent.

3146: 2454: 5320: 3232:

Development and Use of the ARCS Model of Motivational Design

2324: 1839:. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. p. 42. 519:

Verbal information - is stated: state, recite, tell, declare

3096:. ESF-ProTrainer.com (2007-11-06). Retrieved on 2011-10-07. 1773:

Dick, Walter; Carey, Lou; Carey, James O. (17 March 2014).

1640: – Methods used to teach across curricular disciplines 386:

Radio broadcasting, Sound recordings, Sound motion pictures

2544:

Perry, J. D. (2001). Learning and cognition. . Available:

1680:

Merrill, M. D.; Drake, L.; Lacy, M. J.; Pratt, J. (1996).

1504:– Radical Behaviorism, Programed Instruction - 1950s-1970s 1377:– How People Learn: Bridging Research and Practice – 1990s 630: 3424: 1979:

Briggs, Leslie; Gustafson, Kent; Tillman, Murray (1991).

1610: – distance education using mobile device technology 973:

problem-solving process he calls the ARCS Motivation....

1441:- "Dimensions of Learning", Formative Assessment - 2000s 531:

Discrimination: discriminate, distinguish, differentiate

27:

Process for design and development of learning resources

2929: 2927: 1627:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

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Cyril Anderson's Learning and Performance Support Blog

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Educational Technology: A definition with commentary.

625:

other early instructional designers were outlined in

58:

with the five phases: analysis, design, development,

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Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback

1597:

Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback

525:

Intellectual skills - apply the rules and principles

522:

Intellectual skills - label or classify the concepts

7983: 7910: 7816: 7793: 7712: 7586: 7460: 7433: 7385: 7347: 7089: 7007: 6967: 6709: 6623: 6598: 6317: 5945: 5775: 5722: 5544: 5397: 5369: 4946: 4905: 4848: 4738: 3990: 3909: 3825: 3733: 3615: 3495: 3010:Dick, Walter; Carey, Lou; Carey, James O. (2005) . 2789: 2787: 2785: 2783: 2781: 2779: 2777: 2025:. Instructionaldesign.org. Retrieved on 2011-10-07. 1934:

The history of instructional design and technology.

1429:– Created a cognitive learning design model - 1980s 3016:(6th ed.). Allyn & Bacon. pp. 1–12. 1486:- instructional design theory and research methods 627:Psychological Principles in Systematic Development 3056:Esseff, Peter J.; Esseff, Mary Sullivan (1998) . 1981:Instructional Design: Principles and Applications 1722:"Essay: In Search of the Secret Handshakes of ID" 1453:– Component Display Theory / Knowledge Objects / 3059:Instructional Development Learning System (IDLS) 3005: 3003: 3001: 2945:The evolution of American educational technology 2685:"Psychological Principles in System Development" 1909: 1907: 1905: 1903: 1901: 872:Validate the interactive instructional materials 866:Develop criterion tests and performance measures 706:The five phases are listed and explained below: 534:Concrete Concept: identify, name, specify, label 166:Preparing Objectives for Programmed Instruction" 3276:" (PDF). Educational Technology. May–June 2010. 1899: 1897: 1895: 1893: 1891: 1889: 1887: 1885: 1883: 1881: 540:Rule: demonstrate, show, solve (using one rule) 158:The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching 3303: 3301: 2826: 2824: 2822: 2052:". ETR&D, Vol. 49, No. 2, 2001, pp. 57–67. 319:, California State University, Fullerton, and 5336: 3440: 8: 8009:South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands 2972:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2480:"Instructional Design and Technical Writing" 2147:History and timeline of instructional design 2095: 2093: 2037: 2035: 2033: 2031: 1330:. There might be a discussion about this on 2269:Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology 2100:A hypertext history of instructional design 1864:. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer. p. 62. 1860:Silber, Kenneth; Foshay, Wellesley (2010). 1729:The Journal of Applied Instructional Design 869:Develop interactive instructional materials 7900: 7702: 7450: 7077: 6697: 6305: 6294: 6225: 6220: 6191: 6186: 6150: 6145: 6132: 6127: 6093: 6088: 6075: 6070: 6041: 6036: 6010: 5996: 5359: 5343: 5329: 5321: 5006: 4735: 4709: 4154: 3492: 3481: 3447: 3433: 3425: 3265:Francom, Greg; Reeves, Thomas C. (2010). " 3062:(8th ed.). ESF Press. pp. 1–12. 2958:Stolovitch, H.D., & Keeps, E. (1999). 2142: 2140: 2119: 2117: 2115: 2060: 2058: 1634: – Form of ordering graphics in media 826:Develop and Select Instructional Materials 3366:Richey, Rita C.; Klein, James D. (2014). 2908:. Imsglobal.org. Retrieved on 2011-10-07. 2795:http://www.internettime.com/itimegroup/Is 2263:Hlynka, Denis; Jacobsen, Michele (2009). 1927: 1925: 1923: 1921: 1919: 1350:Learn how and when to remove this message 4964:Good Design Award (Museum of Modern Art) 3415:Edutech wiki: Instructional design model 3234:. Libraries Unlimited. pp. 225–245. 2960:Handbook of human performance technology 2916: 2914: 2757:"Elaboration Theory (Charlie Reigeluth)" 1595: – in education and data management 1186:Step 5: List objectives and assessments 1046: 372:Visual media films, Slides, Photographer 334: 2793:Wiburg, K. M. (2003). . Retrieved from 2602:Haines, D. (1996). Gagné. . Available: 1672: 1510:– Learning as a social activity – 1930s 835:Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation 3261: 2965: 2740:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 2733: 2628:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 2621: 2570:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 2563: 2403:"Learning Design and Technology (LDT)" 2253:New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 2194:"Xterior - Windschermen, Windschermen" 389:Radio Audiovisual Instruction movement 4969:Good Design Award (Chicago Athenaeum) 3406:– An overview of Instructional Design 3335:Osguthorpe, Russell T. (1996-09-01). 3259: 3257: 3255: 3253: 3251: 3249: 3247: 3245: 3243: 3241: 3147:"Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations" 2506: 2504: 2474: 2472: 1652: – Educational planning approach 1541: – Educational evaluation method 1468:– Constructionism, LOGO – 1970s-1980s 1247:Influential researchers and theorists 797:Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model 392:Education in large was not affected. 7: 3157:from the original on January 9, 2015 3039:"Dick and Carey Instructional Model" 3013:The Systematic Design of Instruction 1777:(8 ed.). Pearson. pp. 3–4. 1775:The Systematic Design of Instruction 1646: – Teaching improvement process 1492:– Constructivist simulations – 1990s 1423:– problem-solving strategies – 1990s 1218:Step 9: Select and develop materials 788:The Systematic Design of Instruction 701:Brief History of ADDIE's Development 8055: 3184:from the original on April 14, 2012 3151:Contemporary Educational Psychology 1604: – Critical theory of learning 1162:Step 2: Obtain audience information 631:ARCS Model of Motivation and Design 4913:American Institute of Graphic Arts 3420:ATD: What Is Instructional Design? 1210:Step 8: Integrate with instruction 1178:Step 4: Analyze existing materials 936:Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 431:Growth of Instructional television 25: 4923:Design and Industries Association 3310:Performance Improvement Quarterly 3288:Performance Improvement Quarterly 1790:Journal of Educational Psychology 1682:"Reclaiming instructional design" 1202:Step 7: Select and design tactics 1154:Step 1: Obtain course information 43:instructional systems development 8054: 8045: 8044: 8032: 7568:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 7062: 7053: 7052: 6610:Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic 6380:Democratic Republic of the Congo 6274: 3355:from the original on 2017-02-07. 3207:. John M. Keller. Archived from 3076:from the original on 2008-11-19. 3045:from the original on 2015-11-24. 2465:from the original on 2017-04-01. 2299:"Learning Design and Technology" 2287:from the original on 2017-09-04. 2067:"History of Instructional Media" 1742:from the original on 2022-10-09. 1623:Instructional design coordinator 1553: – Learner centric pedagogy 1307: 1255: 1097:List objectives and assessments 2845:from the original on 2012-11-22 2763:from the original on 2012-04-26 2723:from the original on 2012-11-24 2691:from the original on 2012-04-26 2409:from the original on 2016-08-19 2383:from the original on 2016-08-17 2357:from the original on 2016-08-03 2331:from the original on 2016-07-23 2204:from the original on 2016-10-24 2125:History of instructional design 2079:from the original on 2017-02-15 1474:– Cognitive development – 1960s 1455:First Principles of Instruction 1417:– Educational Technology – 1989 7725:Federated States of Micronesia 7020:British Indian Ocean Territory 4918:Chartered Society of Designers 3037:Ed Forest (23 November 2015). 2377:"Journalism and Media Studies" 2134:". Retrieved on April 11, 2012 1659: – Educational framework 1194:Step 6: List potential tactics 665:The concept of learning design 294:Bowling Green State University 145:(published in 1956) defined a 1: 4989:Prince Philip Designers Prize 3632:Architectural lighting design 2016:Instructional Design Theories 1657:Universal Design for Learning 1447:- Multimedia Learning - 2000s 1135:Select and develop materials 298:Pennsylvania State University 78:, has had on the discipline. 7693:United States Virgin Islands 4795:Electronic design automation 4778:Virtual home design software 3750:Automotive suspension design 2486:. 2014-05-05. Archived from 1226:Step 10: Evaluate and revise 1073:Obtain audience information 471:Mobile Devices, Social Media 336:Instructional Media History 331:Instructional Design history 171:In 1956, a committee led by 120:psychologists began to view 39:instructional systems design 7455:Education in North America 3654:Environmental impact design 3341:. Covenant Communications. 3180:. Blue Fox Communications. 2899:IMS Learning Design webpage 2198:www.xterior-windschermen.nl 1526:online learning communities 1124:Integrate with instruction 1089:Analyze existing materials 1039:Motivational Design Process 375:Visual Instruction Movement 149:in terms of six objectives. 8122: 7905:Education in South America 4933:International Forum Design 4303:Engineering design process 2156:. Retrieved April 11, 2012 2109:. Retrieved April 11, 2012 1802:10.1037/0022-0663.84.4.405 1638:Interdisciplinary teaching 1522:open educational resources 1401:Model Centered Instruction 1399:- developed the Theory of 1116:Select and design tactics 1065:Obtain course information 494: 488: 321:Carnegie Mellon University 306:San Diego State University 290:human–computer interaction 208:The Conditions of Learning 75:The Conditions of Learning 8026: 7668:Saint Pierre and Miquelon 7048: 6304: 6293: 6269: 6223: 6189: 6148: 6130: 6091: 6073: 6039: 6015:Early childhood education 6008: 5995: 5358: 5268: 5016: 5005: 4734: 4708: 4164: 4153: 4055:Integrated circuit design 3977:Stage/set lighting design 3866:Hardware interface design 3782:Hardware interface design 3491: 3480: 3462: 1545:Confidence-based learning 1102: 1059: 183:(what one feels, or what 175:published an influential 7876:Northern Mariana Islands 7688:Turks and Caicos Islands 6769:East Timor (Timor-Leste) 6365:Central African Republic 4890:Industrial design rights 4878:Fashion design copyright 4790:Design quality indicator 4239:Creative problem-solving 4030:Electrical system design 3886:Sonic interaction design 3797:Photographic lens design 3671:Healthy community design 3124:Practices of Tomorrow. ( 1763:, Educational Technology 1695:(5): 5–7. Archived from 1234:Motivating opportunities 1170:Step 3: Analyze audience 141:The original version of 41:and originally known as 7841:Cocos (Keeling) Islands 7030:Cocos (Keeling) Islands 5086:New product development 5051:Enterprise architecture 4979:IF Product Design Award 4938:Design Research Society 4490:Reliability engineering 2041:Reiser, R. A. (2001). " 1650:Understanding by Design 1547: – Learning system 1363:Alphabetic by last name 1108:List potential tactics 261:Performance improvement 51:instructional materials 8086:Educational technology 7618:British Virgin Islands 7132:Bosnia and Herzegovina 4542:Top-down and bottom-up 3891:User experience design 3792:Packaging and labeling 3765:Electric guitar design 3703:Landscape architecture 1720:Wagner, Ellen (2011). 1689:Educational Technology 1569:Educational technology 1563:Educational psychology 1539:Educational assessment 1516:- influential work on 1460:Osguthorpe, Russell T. 1035: 863:Design a task analysis 798: 714: 497:Conditions of Learning 150: 18:Instructional designer 7819:and other territories 7558:Saint Kitts and Nevis 6525:São Tomé and Príncipe 6385:Republic of the Congo 5071:Innovation management 4954:European Design Award 4720:Intellectual property 4537:Theory of constraints 4500:Responsibility-driven 4340:For manufacturability 4244:Creativity techniques 4082:Nuclear weapon design 3896:User interface design 3760:Corrugated box design 3681:Interior architecture 3378:10.4324/9780203826034 2943:Saettler, P. (1990). 1557:Educational animation 1551:Design-based learning 1403:; a theory rooted in 1034:Summary of ARCS Model 1033: 796: 750:summative assessments 712: 612:instructional goals. 495:Further information: 317:University of Georgia 254:constructivist theory 140: 97:behavioral psychology 8101:Communication design 7707:Education in Oceania 7083:Education in Europe 6944:United Arab Emirates 6311:Education in Africa 5534:Instructional design 5116:Unintelligent design 5096:Philosophy of design 4810:Design specification 4763:Comprehensive layout 4335:For behaviour change 4308:Probabilistic design 4070:Power network design 3607:Visual merchandising 3564:Instructional design 3542:Postage stamp design 3404:Instructional Design 3230:Ely, Donald (1983). 1754:Instructional Design 1581:Instructional theory 1575:Electronic portfolio 1405:Cognitive Psychology 1320:confusing or unclear 1146:Evaluate and revise 746:formative assessment 456:Internet, Simulation 414:Communication medium 234:learning environment 31:Instructional design 7573:Trinidad and Tobago 7468:Antigua and Barbuda 7348:States with limited 6971:limited recognition 6600:States with limited 6299:Education by region 6025:Secondary education 5937:Teaching philosophy 5840:Pedagogical pattern 5783:21st century skills 5762:Religious education 5405:Aims and objectives 5036:Creative industries 4959:German Design Award 4868:Design infringement 4753:Architectural model 4092:Organization design 4087:Nucleic acid design 4035:Experimental design 3588:Traffic sign design 2459:metals.hcii.cmu.edu 1617:E-learning (theory) 1328:clarify the article 1048: 931:Motivation concepts 922:Motivational design 843:Guaranteed Learning 670:IMS Learning Design 337: 106:systems engineering 8081:Applied psychology 8039:Schools portal 7508:Dominican Republic 6703:Education in Asia 6030:Tertiary education 5968:Learning resources 5459:Education sciences 5101:Process simulation 5076:Intelligent design 4400:Intelligence-based 4395:Integrated topside 4325:Framework-oriented 4010:Behavioural design 3881:Information design 3559:Information design 3272:2018-05-11 at the 3145:R. Ryan; E. Deci. 3131:2012-05-03 at the 3092:2008-11-19 at the 2904:2006-08-23 at the 2670:2012-06-20 at the 2516:70:20:10 Institute 2228:2014-05-05 at the 2152:2012-04-25 at the 2130:2013-02-28 at the 2105:2012-04-18 at the 2048:2012-09-15 at the 2021:2011-10-04 at the 1939:2012-12-03 at the 1931:Clark, B. (2009). 1759:2016-12-20 at the 1587:Interaction design 1478:Reigeluth, Charles 1439:Marzano, Robert J. 1375:Bransford, John D. 1284:clean up the lists 1047: 1036: 799: 715: 563:Psychomotor Domain 425:1950s to mid-1960s 383:Mid 1920s to 1930s 335: 151: 99:, though recently 8068: 8067: 8022: 8021: 8018: 8017: 7990:other territories 7899: 7898: 7891:Wallis and Futuna 7836:Clipperton Island 7794:Associated states 7701: 7700: 7590:other territories 7449: 7448: 7076: 7075: 7013:other territories 6696: 6695: 6627:other territories 6400:Equatorial Guinea 6289: 6288: 6264: 6263: 6260: 6259: 6255: 6254: 6251: 6250: 6246: 6245: 6183: 6182: 6178: 6177: 6174: 6173: 6169: 6168: 6124: 6123: 6119: 6118: 6115: 6114: 6110: 6109: 6067: 6066: 6062: 6061: 6020:Primary education 5991: 5990: 5880:Dialogic learning 5850:Teacher retention 5803:Critical thinking 5798:Class arrangement 5767:Special education 5442:Standardized test 5425:Course evaluation 5318: 5317: 5264: 5263: 5031:Conceptual design 5001: 5000: 4997: 4996: 4984:James Dyson Award 4840:Website wireframe 4830:Technical drawing 4704: 4703: 4552:Transgenerational 4293:Ecological design 4169:Activity-centered 4149: 4148: 4145: 4144: 4127:Spacecraft design 3921:Public art design 3859:Video game design 3837:Experience design 3807:Production design 3787:Motorcycle design 3745:Automotive design 3649:Ecological design 3527:Film title design 3322:10.1002/piq.20043 2405:. 5 August 2011. 1602:Learning sciences 1496:Simonson, Michael 1451:Merrill, M. David 1445:Mayer, Richard E. 1397:Gibbons, Andrew S 1360: 1359: 1352: 1301: 1300: 1151: 1150: 1081:Analyze audience 768:rapid prototyping 762:Rapid prototyping 482: 481: 411:Post World War II 252:The influence of 156:'s 1954 article " 37:), also known as 16:(Redirected from 8113: 8058: 8057: 8048: 8047: 8037: 8036: 8035: 8010: 7998:Falkland Islands 7912:Sovereign states 7901: 7881:Pitcairn Islands 7851:French Polynesia 7831:Christmas Island 7760:Papua New Guinea 7740:Marshall Islands 7713:Sovereign states 7703: 7658:Saint Barthélemy 7588:Dependencies and 7461:Sovereign states 7451: 7386:Dependencies and 7090:Sovereign states 7078: 7066: 7056: 7055: 7025:Christmas Island 6711:Sovereign states 6698: 6688: 6687:(United Kingdom) 6683:Tristan da Cunha 6679:Ascension Island 6671: 6658: 6649: 6625:Dependencies and 6318:Sovereign states 6306: 6295: 6278: 6226: 6221: 6196:Higher education 6192: 6187: 6151: 6146: 6137:Secondary school 6133: 6128: 6094: 6089: 6076: 6071: 6042: 6037: 6011: 5997: 5925:Student-centered 5910:Phenomenon-based 5900:Peer instruction 5865:Blended learning 5788:Bloom's taxonomy 5752:Gifted education 5747:Education reform 5579:Computer science 5360: 5345: 5338: 5331: 5322: 5310: 5303: 5296: 5289: 5282: 5275: 5007: 4884:Geschmacksmuster 4858:Community design 4736: 4710: 4470:Process-centered 4266:Design–bid–build 4234:Cradle-to-cradle 4214:Concept-oriented 4155: 4132:Strategic design 4102:Processor design 4077:Mechanism design 4045:Geometric design 4005:Algorithm design 3945:Jewellery design 3876:Immersive design 3770:Furniture design 3715:Landscape design 3493: 3482: 3449: 3442: 3435: 3426: 3392: 3391: 3363: 3357: 3356: 3332: 3326: 3325: 3305: 3296: 3295: 3283: 3277: 3263: 3236: 3235: 3227: 3221: 3220: 3218: 3216: 3200: 3194: 3193: 3191: 3189: 3173: 3167: 3166: 3164: 3162: 3142: 3136: 3121: 3115: 3112: 3106: 3103: 3097: 3084: 3078: 3077: 3053: 3047: 3046: 3034: 3028: 3027: 3007: 2996: 2993: 2987: 2984: 2978: 2977: 2971: 2963: 2955: 2949: 2948: 2940: 2934: 2931: 2922: 2918: 2909: 2896: 2890: 2887: 2881: 2878: 2872: 2869: 2863: 2860: 2854: 2853: 2851: 2850: 2828: 2817: 2811: 2798: 2791: 2772: 2771: 2769: 2768: 2752: 2746: 2745: 2739: 2731: 2729: 2728: 2722: 2715: 2706: 2700: 2699: 2697: 2696: 2680: 2674: 2661: 2652: 2649: 2643: 2640: 2634: 2633: 2627: 2619: 2617: 2616: 2607:. Archived from 2600: 2594: 2591: 2585: 2582: 2576: 2575: 2569: 2561: 2559: 2558: 2549:. Archived from 2542: 2536: 2533: 2527: 2526: 2524: 2523: 2508: 2499: 2498: 2496: 2495: 2476: 2467: 2466: 2451: 2445: 2443: 2441: 2440: 2431:. Archived from 2425: 2419: 2417: 2415: 2414: 2399: 2393: 2391: 2389: 2388: 2373: 2367: 2365: 2363: 2362: 2347: 2341: 2339: 2337: 2336: 2321: 2315: 2313: 2311: 2310: 2301:. Archived from 2295: 2289: 2288: 2260: 2254: 2247: 2241: 2219: 2213: 2212: 2210: 2209: 2189: 2183: 2182: 2180: 2179: 2170:. Archived from 2163: 2157: 2144: 2135: 2121: 2110: 2097: 2088: 2087: 2085: 2084: 2062: 2053: 2039: 2026: 2013: 2007: 2005:Bloom's Taxonomy 2001: 1995: 1994: 1976: 1970: 1969: 1967: 1966: 1957:. Archived from 1950: 1944: 1929: 1914: 1911: 1876: 1875: 1857: 1851: 1850: 1832: 1826: 1822: 1816: 1812: 1806: 1805: 1785: 1779: 1778: 1770: 1764: 1750: 1744: 1743: 1741: 1726: 1717: 1711: 1710: 1708: 1707: 1701: 1686: 1677: 1628: 1613: 1598: 1433:Mager, Robert F. 1391:Gagné, Robert M. 1355: 1348: 1344: 1341: 1335: 1311: 1310: 1303: 1296: 1293: 1287: 1259: 1258: 1251: 1049: 553:Affective Domain 514:Cognitive Domain 338: 147:cognitive domain 143:Bloom's taxonomy 21: 8121: 8120: 8116: 8115: 8114: 8112: 8111: 8110: 8071: 8070: 8069: 8064: 8033: 8031: 8014: 8008: 7991: 7989: 7979: 7906: 7895: 7818: 7812: 7795: 7789: 7770:Solomon Islands 7708: 7697: 7591: 7589: 7582: 7456: 7445: 7429: 7387: 7381: 7367:Northern Cyprus 7349: 7343: 7264:North Macedonia 7085: 7072: 7044: 7012: 7003: 6984:Northern Cyprus 6970: 6963: 6705: 6692: 6691: 6686: 6669: 6656: 6647: 6628: 6626: 6619: 6603: 6601: 6594: 6313: 6300: 6285: 6284: 6265: 6256: 6247: 6239: 6232: 6210: 6198: 6179: 6170: 6162: 6157: 6139: 6120: 6111: 6103: 6098: 6082: 6063: 6055: 6048: 6004: 5987: 5941: 5860:Active learning 5855:Teaching method 5830:Learning theory 5771: 5737:Autodidacticism 5732:Adult education 5718: 5659:Performing arts 5540: 5447:Teacher quality 5437:Standards-based 5393: 5365: 5354: 5349: 5319: 5314: 5308: 5301: 5294: 5287: 5280: 5273: 5260: 5061:Futures studies 5012: 4993: 4942: 4901: 4850: 4844: 4730: 4729: 4700: 4606:Value sensitive 4596:User innovation 4475:Public interest 4440:Object-oriented 4160: 4141: 4122:Software design 4112:Research design 4065:Physical design 4020:Database design 3994: 3992: 3986: 3962:Property design 3957:Game art design 3911: 3905: 3828: 3821: 3736: 3729: 3686:Interior design 3637:Building design 3618: 3611: 3498: 3487: 3476: 3458: 3453: 3400: 3395: 3388: 3365: 3364: 3360: 3349: 3334: 3333: 3329: 3307: 3306: 3299: 3285: 3284: 3280: 3274:Wayback Machine 3264: 3239: 3229: 3228: 3224: 3214: 3212: 3211:on May 30, 2012 3205:"arcsmodel.com" 3202: 3201: 3197: 3187: 3185: 3175: 3174: 3170: 3160: 3158: 3144: 3143: 3139: 3133:Wayback Machine 3126:link to article 3122: 3118: 3113: 3109: 3104: 3100: 3094:Wayback Machine 3085: 3081: 3070: 3055: 3054: 3050: 3036: 3035: 3031: 3024: 3009: 3008: 2999: 2994: 2990: 2985: 2981: 2964: 2957: 2956: 2952: 2942: 2941: 2937: 2932: 2925: 2919: 2912: 2906:Wayback Machine 2897: 2893: 2888: 2884: 2879: 2875: 2870: 2866: 2861: 2857: 2848: 2846: 2831: 2829: 2820: 2812: 2801: 2792: 2775: 2766: 2764: 2755: 2753: 2749: 2732: 2726: 2724: 2720: 2713: 2711:"Archived copy" 2709: 2707: 2703: 2694: 2692: 2683: 2681: 2677: 2672:Wayback Machine 2662: 2655: 2650: 2646: 2641: 2637: 2620: 2614: 2612: 2605:"Archived copy" 2603: 2601: 2597: 2592: 2588: 2583: 2579: 2562: 2556: 2554: 2547:"Archived copy" 2545: 2543: 2539: 2534: 2530: 2521: 2519: 2510: 2509: 2502: 2493: 2491: 2478: 2477: 2470: 2453: 2452: 2448: 2438: 2436: 2427: 2426: 2422: 2412: 2410: 2401: 2400: 2396: 2386: 2384: 2375: 2374: 2370: 2360: 2358: 2349: 2348: 2344: 2334: 2332: 2323: 2322: 2318: 2308: 2306: 2297: 2296: 2292: 2262: 2261: 2257: 2248: 2244: 2230:Wayback Machine 2220: 2216: 2207: 2205: 2191: 2190: 2186: 2177: 2175: 2166: 2164: 2160: 2154:Wayback Machine 2145: 2138: 2132:Wayback Machine 2122: 2113: 2107:Wayback Machine 2098: 2091: 2082: 2080: 2065: 2063: 2056: 2050:Wayback Machine 2040: 2029: 2023:Wayback Machine 2014: 2010: 2002: 1998: 1991: 1978: 1977: 1973: 1964: 1962: 1953: 1951: 1947: 1941:Wayback Machine 1930: 1917: 1912: 1879: 1872: 1859: 1858: 1854: 1847: 1834: 1833: 1829: 1823: 1819: 1813: 1809: 1787: 1786: 1782: 1772: 1771: 1767: 1761:Wayback Machine 1751: 1747: 1739: 1724: 1719: 1718: 1714: 1705: 1703: 1699: 1684: 1679: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1665: 1626: 1611: 1596: 1593:Learning object 1534: 1524:, and informal 1514:Wiley, David A. 1466:Papert, Seymour 1427:Kemp, Jerold E. 1421:Jonassen, David 1411:Heinich, Robert 1369:Bloom, Benjamin 1356: 1345: 1339: 1336: 1325: 1312: 1308: 1297: 1291: 1288: 1281: 1260: 1256: 1249: 1236: 1041: 1024: 1015: 1006: 997: 992: 979: 933: 924: 901:social learning 886:backward design 882: 845: 784: 764: 691: 686: 655: 653:Learning design 618: 575: 508: 499: 493: 487: 347:Characteristics 333: 286: 274: 250: 229: 220: 193: 162:Robert F. Mager 135: 89: 84: 70:Robert M. Gagné 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8119: 8117: 8109: 8108: 8103: 8098: 8093: 8088: 8083: 8073: 8072: 8066: 8065: 8063: 8062: 8052: 8042: 8027: 8024: 8023: 8020: 8019: 8016: 8015: 8013: 8012: 8005: 8000: 7994: 7992: 7984: 7981: 7980: 7978: 7977: 7972: 7967: 7962: 7957: 7952: 7947: 7942: 7937: 7932: 7927: 7922: 7916: 7914: 7908: 7907: 7904: 7897: 7896: 7894: 7893: 7888: 7883: 7878: 7873: 7871:Norfolk Island 7868: 7863: 7858: 7853: 7848: 7843: 7838: 7833: 7828: 7826:American Samoa 7822: 7820: 7814: 7813: 7811: 7810: 7805: 7799: 7797: 7796:of New Zealand 7791: 7790: 7788: 7787: 7782: 7777: 7772: 7767: 7762: 7757: 7752: 7747: 7742: 7737: 7732: 7727: 7722: 7716: 7714: 7710: 7709: 7706: 7699: 7698: 7696: 7695: 7690: 7685: 7680: 7678:Sint Eustatius 7675: 7670: 7665: 7660: 7655: 7650: 7645: 7640: 7635: 7630: 7625: 7623:Cayman Islands 7620: 7615: 7610: 7605: 7600: 7594: 7592: 7587: 7584: 7583: 7581: 7580: 7575: 7570: 7565: 7560: 7555: 7550: 7545: 7540: 7535: 7530: 7525: 7520: 7515: 7510: 7505: 7500: 7495: 7490: 7485: 7480: 7475: 7470: 7464: 7462: 7458: 7457: 7454: 7447: 7446: 7444: 7443: 7441:European Union 7437: 7435: 7434:Other entities 7431: 7430: 7428: 7427: 7422: 7417: 7412: 7407: 7402: 7397: 7391: 7389: 7388:other entities 7383: 7382: 7380: 7379: 7374: 7369: 7364: 7359: 7353: 7351: 7345: 7344: 7342: 7341: 7339:United Kingdom 7336: 7331: 7326: 7321: 7316: 7311: 7306: 7301: 7296: 7291: 7286: 7281: 7276: 7271: 7266: 7261: 7256: 7251: 7246: 7241: 7236: 7231: 7226: 7221: 7216: 7211: 7206: 7204: 7199: 7194: 7189: 7184: 7179: 7174: 7169: 7164: 7159: 7154: 7152:Czech Republic 7149: 7144: 7139: 7134: 7129: 7124: 7119: 7114: 7109: 7104: 7099: 7093: 7091: 7087: 7086: 7081: 7074: 7073: 7071: 7070: 7060: 7049: 7046: 7045: 7043: 7042: 7037: 7032: 7027: 7022: 7016: 7014: 7005: 7004: 7002: 7001: 6996: 6991: 6986: 6981: 6975: 6973: 6965: 6964: 6962: 6961: 6956: 6951: 6946: 6941: 6936: 6931: 6926: 6921: 6916: 6911: 6906: 6901: 6896: 6891: 6886: 6881: 6876: 6871: 6866: 6861: 6856: 6851: 6846: 6841: 6836: 6831: 6826: 6821: 6816: 6811: 6806: 6801: 6796: 6791: 6786: 6781: 6776: 6771: 6766: 6761: 6756: 6751: 6746: 6741: 6736: 6731: 6726: 6721: 6715: 6713: 6707: 6706: 6701: 6694: 6693: 6690: 6689: 6672: 6659: 6650: 6636:Canary Islands 6632: 6631: 6629: 6624: 6621: 6620: 6618: 6617: 6612: 6606: 6604: 6599: 6596: 6595: 6593: 6592: 6587: 6582: 6577: 6572: 6567: 6562: 6557: 6552: 6547: 6542: 6537: 6532: 6527: 6522: 6517: 6512: 6507: 6502: 6497: 6492: 6487: 6482: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6462: 6457: 6452: 6447: 6442: 6437: 6432: 6427: 6422: 6417: 6412: 6407: 6402: 6397: 6392: 6387: 6382: 6377: 6372: 6367: 6362: 6357: 6352: 6347: 6342: 6337: 6332: 6327: 6321: 6319: 6315: 6314: 6309: 6302: 6301: 6298: 6291: 6290: 6287: 6286: 6283: 6282: 6271: 6270: 6267: 6266: 6262: 6261: 6258: 6257: 6253: 6252: 6249: 6248: 6244: 6242: 6241: 6234: 6224: 6217: 6216: 6205: 6200: 6190: 6184: 6181: 6180: 6176: 6175: 6172: 6171: 6167: 6165: 6164: 6159: 6149: 6142: 6141: 6131: 6125: 6122: 6121: 6117: 6116: 6113: 6112: 6108: 6106: 6105: 6100: 6092: 6085: 6084: 6080:Primary school 6074: 6068: 6065: 6064: 6060: 6058: 6057: 6050: 6040: 6033: 6032: 6027: 6022: 6017: 6009: 6006: 6005: 6000: 5993: 5992: 5989: 5988: 5986: 5985: 5980: 5975: 5970: 5965: 5960: 5955: 5949: 5947: 5943: 5942: 5940: 5939: 5934: 5933: 5932: 5927: 5922: 5917: 5912: 5907: 5902: 5897: 5892: 5887: 5882: 5877: 5872: 5867: 5862: 5852: 5847: 5842: 5837: 5832: 5827: 5826: 5825: 5820: 5815: 5805: 5800: 5795: 5793:Cognitive load 5790: 5785: 5779: 5777: 5773: 5772: 5770: 5769: 5764: 5759: 5754: 5749: 5744: 5739: 5734: 5728: 5726: 5720: 5719: 5717: 5716: 5711: 5706: 5701: 5696: 5691: 5686: 5681: 5676: 5671: 5666: 5661: 5656: 5651: 5646: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5626: 5621: 5616: 5611: 5606: 5601: 5596: 5591: 5586: 5581: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5561: 5556: 5550: 5548: 5542: 5541: 5539: 5538: 5537: 5536: 5526: 5521: 5516: 5511: 5506: 5501: 5496: 5491: 5486: 5481: 5476: 5471: 5466: 5464:Evidence-based 5461: 5456: 5451: 5450: 5449: 5444: 5439: 5434: 5429: 5428: 5427: 5412: 5407: 5401: 5399: 5398:By perspective 5395: 5394: 5392: 5391: 5386: 5381: 5375: 5373: 5367: 5366: 5363: 5356: 5355: 5350: 5348: 5347: 5340: 5333: 5325: 5316: 5315: 5313: 5312: 5305: 5298: 5291: 5284: 5277: 5269: 5266: 5265: 5262: 5261: 5259: 5258: 5253: 5248: 5243: 5238: 5233: 5228: 5223: 5218: 5213: 5208: 5203: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5178: 5173: 5168: 5163: 5162: 5161: 5156: 5146: 5141: 5136: 5129: 5128: 5126:Wicked problem 5123: 5118: 5113: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5093: 5088: 5083: 5078: 5073: 5068: 5063: 5058: 5053: 5048: 5043: 5038: 5033: 5028: 5023: 5017: 5014: 5013: 5011:Related topics 5010: 5003: 5002: 4999: 4998: 4995: 4994: 4992: 4991: 4986: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4966: 4961: 4956: 4950: 4948: 4944: 4943: 4941: 4940: 4935: 4930: 4928:Design Council 4925: 4920: 4915: 4909: 4907: 4903: 4902: 4900: 4899: 4898: 4897: 4895:European Union 4887: 4880: 4875: 4870: 4865: 4860: 4854: 4852: 4846: 4845: 4843: 4842: 4837: 4832: 4827: 4822: 4817: 4812: 4807: 4802: 4797: 4792: 4787: 4782: 4781: 4780: 4775: 4765: 4760: 4755: 4750: 4744: 4742: 4732: 4731: 4728: 4727: 4724: 4721: 4718: 4714: 4713: 4706: 4705: 4702: 4701: 4699: 4698: 4693: 4688: 4683: 4678: 4673: 4668: 4663: 4658: 4653: 4648: 4643: 4638: 4633: 4628: 4623: 4616: 4615: 4614: 4613: 4603: 4598: 4593: 4592: 4591: 4581: 4576: 4574:Usage-centered 4571: 4570: 4569: 4567:Design for All 4559: 4554: 4549: 4547:Transformation 4544: 4539: 4534: 4529: 4528: 4527: 4517: 4512: 4507: 4502: 4497: 4495:Research-based 4492: 4487: 4482: 4477: 4472: 4467: 4462: 4460:Platform-based 4457: 4452: 4447: 4442: 4437: 4432: 4427: 4422: 4417: 4412: 4410:KISS principle 4407: 4402: 4397: 4392: 4387: 4382: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4362: 4357: 4352: 4347: 4342: 4337: 4332: 4327: 4322: 4320:Fault-tolerant 4317: 4315:Error-tolerant 4312: 4311: 4310: 4300: 4298:Energy neutral 4295: 4290: 4285: 4280: 4279: 4278: 4268: 4263: 4258: 4257: 4256: 4254:Design fiction 4246: 4241: 4236: 4231: 4226: 4221: 4216: 4211: 4206: 4201: 4196: 4191: 4186: 4181: 4176: 4171: 4165: 4162: 4161: 4158: 4151: 4150: 4147: 4146: 4143: 4142: 4140: 4139: 4137:Systems design 4134: 4129: 4124: 4119: 4114: 4109: 4107:Protein design 4104: 4099: 4097:Process design 4094: 4089: 4084: 4079: 4074: 4073: 4072: 4067: 4062: 4060:Circuit design 4052: 4047: 4042: 4037: 4032: 4027: 4022: 4017: 4012: 4007: 4001: 3999: 3988: 3987: 3985: 3984: 3982:Textile design 3979: 3974: 3969: 3964: 3959: 3954: 3949: 3948: 3947: 3942: 3940:Costume design 3935:Fashion design 3932: 3923: 3917: 3915: 3907: 3906: 3904: 3903: 3898: 3893: 3888: 3883: 3878: 3873: 3868: 3863: 3862: 3861: 3856: 3846: 3845: 3844: 3833: 3831: 3823: 3822: 3820: 3819: 3817:Service design 3814: 3812:Sensory design 3809: 3804: 3802:Product design 3799: 3794: 3789: 3784: 3779: 3778: 3777: 3767: 3762: 3757: 3752: 3747: 3741: 3739: 3731: 3730: 3728: 3727: 3722: 3720:Spatial design 3717: 3712: 3711: 3710: 3700: 3698:Keyline design 3695: 3694: 3693: 3683: 3678: 3673: 3668: 3667: 3666: 3664:Computer-aided 3656: 3651: 3646: 3645: 3644: 3634: 3629: 3623: 3621: 3613: 3612: 3610: 3609: 3604: 3599: 3590: 3581: 3576: 3571: 3566: 3561: 3556: 3551: 3550: 3549: 3544: 3539: 3532:Graphic design 3529: 3524: 3522:Exhibit design 3519: 3514: 3509: 3503: 3501: 3489: 3488: 3485: 3478: 3477: 3475: 3474: 3469: 3463: 3460: 3459: 3454: 3452: 3451: 3444: 3437: 3429: 3423: 3422: 3417: 3412: 3407: 3399: 3398:External links 3396: 3394: 3393: 3386: 3358: 3347: 3327: 3297: 3278: 3237: 3222: 3203:Keller, John. 3195: 3168: 3137: 3116: 3107: 3098: 3079: 3068: 3048: 3029: 3022: 2997: 2988: 2979: 2950: 2935: 2923: 2910: 2891: 2882: 2873: 2864: 2855: 2818: 2799: 2773: 2747: 2701: 2675: 2653: 2644: 2635: 2595: 2586: 2577: 2537: 2528: 2500: 2468: 2446: 2420: 2394: 2368: 2342: 2340:Penn State LDT 2316: 2290: 2255: 2242: 2214: 2184: 2158: 2136: 2111: 2089: 2054: 2027: 2008: 1996: 1989: 1971: 1945: 1915: 1877: 1870: 1852: 1845: 1827: 1817: 1807: 1796:(4): 405–412. 1780: 1765: 1745: 1712: 1671: 1669: 1666: 1664: 1663: 1654: 1653: 1647: 1641: 1635: 1629: 1620: 1614: 1605: 1599: 1590: 1584: 1578: 1572: 1566: 1560: 1554: 1548: 1542: 1535: 1533: 1530: 1529: 1528: 1511: 1505: 1499: 1493: 1487: 1481: 1475: 1469: 1463: 1457: 1448: 1442: 1436: 1430: 1424: 1418: 1408: 1394: 1388: 1385:Constructivism 1381:Bruner, Jerome 1378: 1372: 1358: 1357: 1315: 1313: 1306: 1299: 1298: 1278:embedded lists 1272:indiscriminate 1263: 1261: 1254: 1248: 1245: 1235: 1232: 1149: 1148: 1142: 1138: 1137: 1131: 1127: 1126: 1119: 1118: 1111: 1110: 1104: 1100: 1099: 1092: 1091: 1084: 1083: 1076: 1075: 1068: 1067: 1061: 1057: 1056: 1053: 1040: 1037: 1023: 1020: 1014: 1011: 1005: 1002: 996: 993: 991: 988: 978: 975: 967: 966: 958: 957: 952: 951: 944: 943: 932: 929: 923: 920: 897:constructivism 881: 878: 877: 876: 873: 870: 867: 864: 844: 841: 837: 836: 833: 830: 827: 824: 821: 818: 814: 810: 807: 783: 782:Dick and Carey 780: 763: 760: 690: 687: 685: 682: 681: 680: 677: 666: 654: 651: 617: 614: 609: 608: 605: 602: 599: 596: 593: 590: 587: 584: 574: 571: 570: 569: 565: 564: 560: 559: 555: 554: 550: 549: 546: 545: 544: 541: 538: 535: 532: 526: 523: 520: 516: 515: 507: 504: 489:Main article: 486: 483: 480: 479: 475: 472: 469: 465: 464: 460: 457: 454: 450: 449: 446: 443: 440: 436: 435: 432: 429: 426: 422: 421: 418: 415: 412: 408: 407: 404: 401: 398: 394: 393: 390: 387: 384: 380: 379: 376: 373: 370: 366: 365: 362: 359: 356: 352: 351: 348: 345: 342: 332: 329: 285: 282: 273: 270: 249: 246: 238:learning space 228: 225: 219: 216: 192: 189: 173:Benjamin Bloom 134: 131: 101:constructivism 88: 85: 83: 80: 60:implementation 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8118: 8107: 8104: 8102: 8099: 8097: 8094: 8092: 8089: 8087: 8084: 8082: 8079: 8078: 8076: 8061: 8053: 8051: 8043: 8041: 8040: 8029: 8028: 8025: 8011: 8006: 8004: 8003:French Guiana 8001: 7999: 7996: 7995: 7993: 7987: 7982: 7976: 7973: 7971: 7968: 7966: 7963: 7961: 7958: 7956: 7953: 7951: 7948: 7946: 7943: 7941: 7938: 7936: 7933: 7931: 7928: 7926: 7923: 7921: 7918: 7917: 7915: 7913: 7909: 7902: 7892: 7889: 7887: 7884: 7882: 7879: 7877: 7874: 7872: 7869: 7867: 7866:New Caledonia 7864: 7862: 7859: 7857: 7854: 7852: 7849: 7847: 7846:Easter Island 7844: 7842: 7839: 7837: 7834: 7832: 7829: 7827: 7824: 7823: 7821: 7815: 7809: 7806: 7804: 7801: 7800: 7798: 7792: 7786: 7783: 7781: 7778: 7776: 7773: 7771: 7768: 7766: 7763: 7761: 7758: 7756: 7753: 7751: 7748: 7746: 7743: 7741: 7738: 7736: 7733: 7731: 7728: 7726: 7723: 7721: 7718: 7717: 7715: 7711: 7704: 7694: 7691: 7689: 7686: 7684: 7681: 7679: 7676: 7674: 7671: 7669: 7666: 7664: 7661: 7659: 7656: 7654: 7651: 7649: 7646: 7644: 7641: 7639: 7636: 7634: 7631: 7629: 7626: 7624: 7621: 7619: 7616: 7614: 7611: 7609: 7606: 7604: 7601: 7599: 7596: 7595: 7593: 7585: 7579: 7578:United States 7576: 7574: 7571: 7569: 7566: 7564: 7561: 7559: 7556: 7554: 7551: 7549: 7546: 7544: 7541: 7539: 7536: 7534: 7531: 7529: 7526: 7524: 7521: 7519: 7516: 7514: 7511: 7509: 7506: 7504: 7501: 7499: 7496: 7494: 7491: 7489: 7486: 7484: 7481: 7479: 7476: 7474: 7471: 7469: 7466: 7465: 7463: 7459: 7452: 7442: 7439: 7438: 7436: 7432: 7426: 7423: 7421: 7418: 7416: 7413: 7411: 7408: 7406: 7403: 7401: 7400:Faroe Islands 7398: 7396: 7393: 7392: 7390: 7384: 7378: 7375: 7373: 7372:South Ossetia 7370: 7368: 7365: 7363: 7360: 7358: 7355: 7354: 7352: 7346: 7340: 7337: 7335: 7332: 7330: 7327: 7325: 7322: 7320: 7317: 7315: 7312: 7310: 7307: 7305: 7302: 7300: 7297: 7295: 7292: 7290: 7287: 7285: 7282: 7280: 7277: 7275: 7272: 7270: 7267: 7265: 7262: 7260: 7257: 7255: 7252: 7250: 7247: 7245: 7242: 7240: 7237: 7235: 7232: 7230: 7227: 7225: 7224:Liechtenstein 7222: 7220: 7217: 7215: 7212: 7210: 7207: 7205: 7203: 7200: 7198: 7195: 7193: 7190: 7188: 7185: 7183: 7180: 7178: 7175: 7173: 7170: 7168: 7165: 7163: 7160: 7158: 7155: 7153: 7150: 7148: 7145: 7143: 7140: 7138: 7135: 7133: 7130: 7128: 7125: 7123: 7120: 7118: 7115: 7113: 7110: 7108: 7105: 7103: 7100: 7098: 7095: 7094: 7092: 7088: 7084: 7079: 7069: 7065: 7061: 7059: 7051: 7050: 7047: 7041: 7038: 7036: 7033: 7031: 7028: 7026: 7023: 7021: 7018: 7017: 7015: 7010: 7006: 7000: 6997: 6995: 6994:South Ossetia 6992: 6990: 6987: 6985: 6982: 6980: 6977: 6976: 6974: 6972: 6966: 6960: 6957: 6955: 6952: 6950: 6947: 6945: 6942: 6940: 6937: 6935: 6932: 6930: 6927: 6925: 6922: 6920: 6917: 6915: 6912: 6910: 6907: 6905: 6902: 6900: 6897: 6895: 6892: 6890: 6887: 6885: 6882: 6880: 6877: 6875: 6872: 6870: 6867: 6865: 6862: 6860: 6857: 6855: 6852: 6850: 6847: 6845: 6842: 6840: 6837: 6835: 6832: 6830: 6827: 6825: 6822: 6820: 6817: 6815: 6812: 6810: 6807: 6805: 6802: 6800: 6797: 6795: 6792: 6790: 6787: 6785: 6782: 6780: 6777: 6775: 6772: 6770: 6767: 6765: 6762: 6760: 6757: 6755: 6752: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6742: 6740: 6737: 6735: 6732: 6730: 6727: 6725: 6722: 6720: 6717: 6716: 6714: 6712: 6708: 6704: 6699: 6684: 6680: 6676: 6673: 6667: 6663: 6660: 6654: 6651: 6645: 6641: 6637: 6634: 6633: 6630: 6622: 6616: 6613: 6611: 6608: 6607: 6605: 6597: 6591: 6588: 6586: 6583: 6581: 6578: 6576: 6573: 6571: 6568: 6566: 6563: 6561: 6558: 6556: 6553: 6551: 6548: 6546: 6543: 6541: 6538: 6536: 6533: 6531: 6528: 6526: 6523: 6521: 6518: 6516: 6513: 6511: 6508: 6506: 6503: 6501: 6498: 6496: 6493: 6491: 6488: 6486: 6483: 6481: 6478: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6463: 6461: 6458: 6456: 6453: 6451: 6448: 6446: 6443: 6441: 6440:Guinea-Bissau 6438: 6436: 6433: 6431: 6428: 6426: 6423: 6421: 6418: 6416: 6413: 6411: 6408: 6406: 6403: 6401: 6398: 6396: 6393: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6383: 6381: 6378: 6376: 6373: 6371: 6368: 6366: 6363: 6361: 6358: 6356: 6353: 6351: 6348: 6346: 6343: 6341: 6338: 6336: 6333: 6331: 6328: 6326: 6323: 6322: 6320: 6316: 6312: 6307: 6303: 6296: 6292: 6281: 6277: 6273: 6272: 6268: 6243: 6238: 6235: 6231: 6230:Undergraduate 6228: 6227: 6222: 6219: 6218: 6214: 6209: 6206: 6204: 6201: 6197: 6194: 6193: 6188: 6185: 6166: 6160: 6156: 6155:Middle school 6153: 6152: 6147: 6144: 6143: 6138: 6135: 6134: 6129: 6126: 6107: 6101: 6096: 6095: 6090: 6087: 6086: 6081: 6078: 6077: 6072: 6069: 6059: 6054: 6051: 6047: 6044: 6043: 6038: 6035: 6034: 6031: 6028: 6026: 6023: 6021: 6018: 6016: 6013: 6012: 6007: 6003: 5998: 5994: 5984: 5981: 5979: 5976: 5974: 5971: 5969: 5966: 5964: 5961: 5959: 5956: 5954: 5951: 5950: 5948: 5944: 5938: 5935: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5920:Project-based 5918: 5916: 5915:Problem-based 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5893: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5881: 5878: 5876: 5875:Demonstration 5873: 5871: 5870:Contemplative 5868: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5858: 5857: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5848: 5846: 5843: 5841: 5838: 5836: 5833: 5831: 5828: 5824: 5821: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5810: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5794: 5791: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5780: 5778: 5774: 5768: 5765: 5763: 5760: 5758: 5757:Homeschooling 5755: 5753: 5750: 5748: 5745: 5743: 5740: 5738: 5735: 5733: 5730: 5729: 5727: 5725: 5721: 5715: 5712: 5710: 5707: 5705: 5702: 5700: 5697: 5695: 5692: 5690: 5687: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5627: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5615: 5612: 5610: 5607: 5605: 5604:Environmental 5602: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5560: 5557: 5555: 5552: 5551: 5549: 5547: 5543: 5535: 5532: 5531: 5530: 5529:Instructional 5527: 5525: 5522: 5520: 5517: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5507: 5505: 5502: 5500: 5497: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5482: 5480: 5477: 5475: 5472: 5470: 5467: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5455: 5452: 5448: 5445: 5443: 5440: 5438: 5435: 5433: 5432:Psychometrics 5430: 5426: 5423: 5422: 5421: 5418: 5417: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5402: 5400: 5396: 5390: 5387: 5385: 5382: 5380: 5377: 5376: 5374: 5372: 5368: 5361: 5357: 5353: 5346: 5341: 5339: 5334: 5332: 5327: 5326: 5323: 5311: 5306: 5304: 5299: 5297: 5292: 5290: 5285: 5283: 5278: 5276: 5271: 5270: 5267: 5257: 5254: 5252: 5249: 5247: 5244: 5242: 5241:specification 5239: 5237: 5234: 5232: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5187: 5184: 5182: 5179: 5177: 5174: 5172: 5169: 5167: 5164: 5160: 5157: 5155: 5154:architectural 5152: 5151: 5150: 5147: 5145: 5142: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5131: 5130: 5127: 5124: 5122: 5121:Visualization 5119: 5117: 5114: 5112: 5109: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5099: 5097: 5094: 5092: 5089: 5087: 5084: 5082: 5079: 5077: 5074: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5064: 5062: 5059: 5057: 5054: 5052: 5049: 5047: 5044: 5042: 5041:Cultural icon 5039: 5037: 5034: 5032: 5029: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5019: 5018: 5015: 5008: 5004: 4990: 4987: 4985: 4982: 4980: 4977: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4951: 4949: 4945: 4939: 4936: 4934: 4931: 4929: 4926: 4924: 4921: 4919: 4916: 4914: 4911: 4910: 4908: 4906:Organizations 4904: 4896: 4893: 4892: 4891: 4888: 4886: 4885: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4874: 4873:Design patent 4871: 4869: 4866: 4864: 4863:Design around 4861: 4859: 4856: 4855: 4853: 4847: 4841: 4838: 4836: 4833: 4831: 4828: 4826: 4823: 4821: 4818: 4816: 4813: 4811: 4808: 4806: 4803: 4801: 4798: 4796: 4793: 4791: 4788: 4786: 4783: 4779: 4776: 4774: 4771: 4770: 4769: 4766: 4764: 4761: 4759: 4756: 4754: 4751: 4749: 4746: 4745: 4743: 4741: 4737: 4733: 4725: 4723:Organizations 4722: 4719: 4716: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4697: 4694: 4692: 4689: 4687: 4684: 4682: 4679: 4677: 4674: 4672: 4669: 4667: 4664: 4662: 4659: 4657: 4654: 4652: 4649: 4647: 4644: 4642: 4639: 4637: 4634: 4632: 4629: 4627: 4624: 4622: 4618: 4617: 4612: 4609: 4608: 4607: 4604: 4602: 4599: 4597: 4594: 4590: 4587: 4586: 4585: 4584:User-centered 4582: 4580: 4577: 4575: 4572: 4568: 4565: 4564: 4563: 4560: 4558: 4555: 4553: 4550: 4548: 4545: 4543: 4540: 4538: 4535: 4533: 4532:Tableless web 4530: 4526: 4523: 4522: 4521: 4518: 4516: 4513: 4511: 4508: 4506: 4503: 4501: 4498: 4496: 4493: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4478: 4476: 4473: 4471: 4468: 4466: 4463: 4461: 4458: 4456: 4455:Participatory 4453: 4451: 4448: 4446: 4443: 4441: 4438: 4436: 4433: 4431: 4428: 4426: 4423: 4421: 4418: 4416: 4413: 4411: 4408: 4406: 4403: 4401: 4398: 4396: 4393: 4391: 4388: 4386: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4366: 4363: 4361: 4358: 4356: 4353: 4351: 4348: 4346: 4345:For Six Sigma 4343: 4341: 4338: 4336: 4333: 4331: 4328: 4326: 4323: 4321: 4318: 4316: 4313: 4309: 4306: 4305: 4304: 4301: 4299: 4296: 4294: 4291: 4289: 4288:Domain-driven 4286: 4284: 4281: 4277: 4276:architect-led 4274: 4273: 4272: 4269: 4267: 4264: 4262: 4259: 4255: 4252: 4251: 4250: 4247: 4245: 4242: 4240: 4237: 4235: 4232: 4230: 4227: 4225: 4222: 4220: 4219:Configuration 4217: 4215: 4212: 4210: 4207: 4205: 4202: 4200: 4197: 4195: 4192: 4190: 4187: 4185: 4184:Brainstorming 4182: 4180: 4177: 4175: 4172: 4170: 4167: 4166: 4163: 4156: 4152: 4138: 4135: 4133: 4130: 4128: 4125: 4123: 4120: 4118: 4117:Social design 4115: 4113: 4110: 4108: 4105: 4103: 4100: 4098: 4095: 4093: 4090: 4088: 4085: 4083: 4080: 4078: 4075: 4071: 4068: 4066: 4063: 4061: 4058: 4057: 4056: 4053: 4051: 4048: 4046: 4043: 4041: 4040:Filter design 4038: 4036: 4033: 4031: 4028: 4026: 4023: 4021: 4018: 4016: 4015:Boiler design 4013: 4011: 4008: 4006: 4003: 4002: 4000: 3998: 3989: 3983: 3980: 3978: 3975: 3973: 3970: 3968: 3967:Scenic design 3965: 3963: 3960: 3958: 3955: 3953: 3952:Floral design 3950: 3946: 3943: 3941: 3938: 3937: 3936: 3933: 3931: 3927: 3924: 3922: 3919: 3918: 3916: 3914: 3908: 3902: 3899: 3897: 3894: 3892: 3889: 3887: 3884: 3882: 3879: 3877: 3874: 3872: 3869: 3867: 3864: 3860: 3857: 3855: 3852: 3851: 3850: 3847: 3843: 3840: 3839: 3838: 3835: 3834: 3832: 3830: 3824: 3818: 3815: 3813: 3810: 3808: 3805: 3803: 3800: 3798: 3795: 3793: 3790: 3788: 3785: 3783: 3780: 3776: 3773: 3772: 3771: 3768: 3766: 3763: 3761: 3758: 3756: 3753: 3751: 3748: 3746: 3743: 3742: 3740: 3738: 3732: 3726: 3723: 3721: 3718: 3716: 3713: 3709: 3706: 3705: 3704: 3701: 3699: 3696: 3692: 3689: 3688: 3687: 3684: 3682: 3679: 3677: 3674: 3672: 3669: 3665: 3662: 3661: 3660: 3659:Garden design 3657: 3655: 3652: 3650: 3647: 3643: 3642:Passive solar 3640: 3639: 3638: 3635: 3633: 3630: 3628: 3625: 3624: 3622: 3620: 3617:Environmental 3614: 3608: 3605: 3603: 3600: 3598: 3594: 3591: 3589: 3585: 3582: 3580: 3579:Retail design 3577: 3575: 3572: 3570: 3567: 3565: 3562: 3560: 3557: 3555: 3552: 3548: 3545: 3543: 3540: 3538: 3535: 3534: 3533: 3530: 3528: 3525: 3523: 3520: 3518: 3515: 3513: 3510: 3508: 3505: 3504: 3502: 3500: 3497:Communication 3494: 3490: 3483: 3479: 3473: 3470: 3468: 3465: 3464: 3461: 3457: 3450: 3445: 3443: 3438: 3436: 3431: 3430: 3427: 3421: 3418: 3416: 3413: 3411: 3408: 3405: 3402: 3401: 3397: 3389: 3387:9780203826034 3383: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3370: 3362: 3359: 3354: 3350: 3348:9781555039851 3344: 3340: 3339: 3331: 3328: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3304: 3302: 3298: 3293: 3289: 3282: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3268: 3262: 3260: 3258: 3256: 3254: 3252: 3250: 3248: 3246: 3244: 3242: 3238: 3233: 3226: 3223: 3210: 3206: 3199: 3196: 3183: 3179: 3172: 3169: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3141: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3127: 3120: 3117: 3111: 3108: 3102: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3088: 3083: 3080: 3075: 3071: 3069:1-58283-037-1 3065: 3061: 3060: 3052: 3049: 3044: 3040: 3033: 3030: 3025: 3023:0-205-41274-2 3019: 3015: 3014: 3006: 3004: 3002: 2998: 2992: 2989: 2983: 2980: 2975: 2969: 2961: 2954: 2951: 2946: 2939: 2936: 2930: 2928: 2924: 2921:ADA 019 490). 2917: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2900: 2895: 2892: 2886: 2883: 2877: 2874: 2868: 2865: 2859: 2856: 2844: 2840: 2839: 2834: 2827: 2825: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2814:Richey, R. C. 2810: 2808: 2806: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2790: 2788: 2786: 2784: 2782: 2780: 2778: 2774: 2762: 2758: 2751: 2748: 2743: 2737: 2719: 2712: 2705: 2702: 2690: 2686: 2679: 2676: 2673: 2669: 2666: 2660: 2658: 2654: 2648: 2645: 2639: 2636: 2631: 2625: 2611:on 2015-01-09 2610: 2606: 2599: 2596: 2590: 2587: 2581: 2578: 2573: 2567: 2553:on 2015-01-09 2552: 2548: 2541: 2538: 2532: 2529: 2517: 2513: 2507: 2505: 2501: 2490:on 2019-06-05 2489: 2485: 2481: 2475: 2473: 2469: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2450: 2447: 2435:on 2016-09-01 2434: 2430: 2424: 2421: 2408: 2404: 2398: 2395: 2382: 2378: 2372: 2369: 2356: 2352: 2346: 2343: 2330: 2326: 2320: 2317: 2305:on 2016-08-05 2304: 2300: 2294: 2291: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2259: 2256: 2252: 2246: 2243: 2239: 2238:0-7890-1706-7 2235: 2231: 2227: 2224: 2218: 2215: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2188: 2185: 2174:on 2012-05-26 2173: 2169: 2162: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2148: 2143: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2126: 2123:Markham, R. " 2120: 2118: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2101: 2096: 2094: 2090: 2078: 2074: 2073: 2068: 2061: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2044: 2038: 2036: 2034: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2017: 2012: 2009: 2006: 2000: 1997: 1992: 1990:9780877782308 1986: 1982: 1975: 1972: 1961:on 2016-09-14 1960: 1956: 1949: 1946: 1943: 1942: 1938: 1935: 1928: 1926: 1924: 1922: 1920: 1916: 1910: 1908: 1906: 1904: 1902: 1900: 1898: 1896: 1894: 1892: 1890: 1888: 1886: 1884: 1882: 1878: 1873: 1871:9780470190685 1867: 1863: 1856: 1853: 1848: 1842: 1838: 1831: 1828: 1821: 1818: 1811: 1808: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1784: 1781: 1776: 1769: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1755: 1749: 1746: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1723: 1716: 1713: 1702:on 2012-04-26 1698: 1694: 1690: 1683: 1676: 1673: 1667: 1662: 1661: 1660: 1658: 1651: 1648: 1645: 1642: 1639: 1636: 1633: 1630: 1624: 1621: 1618: 1615: 1609: 1606: 1603: 1600: 1594: 1591: 1588: 1585: 1582: 1579: 1576: 1573: 1570: 1567: 1564: 1561: 1558: 1555: 1552: 1549: 1546: 1543: 1540: 1537: 1536: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1512: 1509: 1508:Vygotsky, Lev 1506: 1503: 1502:Skinner, B.F. 1500: 1497: 1494: 1491: 1490:Schank, Roger 1488: 1485: 1482: 1479: 1476: 1473: 1470: 1467: 1464: 1461: 1458: 1456: 1452: 1449: 1446: 1443: 1440: 1437: 1434: 1431: 1428: 1425: 1422: 1419: 1416: 1412: 1409: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1395: 1392: 1389: 1387:- 1950s-1990s 1386: 1382: 1379: 1376: 1373: 1370: 1367: 1366: 1365: 1364: 1354: 1351: 1343: 1340:February 2022 1333: 1332:the talk page 1329: 1323: 1321: 1316:This article 1314: 1305: 1304: 1295: 1292:December 2010 1285: 1279: 1275: 1273: 1269: 1264:This article 1262: 1253: 1252: 1246: 1244: 1240: 1233: 1231: 1228: 1227: 1223: 1220: 1219: 1215: 1212: 1211: 1207: 1204: 1203: 1199: 1196: 1195: 1191: 1188: 1187: 1183: 1180: 1179: 1175: 1172: 1171: 1167: 1164: 1163: 1159: 1156: 1155: 1147: 1143: 1140: 1139: 1136: 1132: 1129: 1128: 1125: 1121: 1120: 1117: 1113: 1112: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1098: 1094: 1093: 1090: 1086: 1085: 1082: 1078: 1077: 1074: 1070: 1069: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1051: 1050: 1045: 1038: 1032: 1028: 1021: 1019: 1012: 1010: 1003: 1001: 994: 989: 987: 983: 976: 974: 971: 963: 960: 959: 954: 953: 949: 946: 945: 940: 939: 938: 937: 930: 928: 921: 919: 917: 916:0-9637457-0-0 913: 908: 906: 902: 898: 894: 889: 887: 879: 874: 871: 868: 865: 862: 861: 860: 857: 853: 851: 842: 840: 834: 831: 828: 825: 822: 819: 815: 811: 808: 805: 804: 803: 795: 791: 789: 781: 779: 775: 771: 769: 761: 759: 756: 753: 751: 747: 743: 739: 737: 733: 731: 727: 725: 721: 719: 711: 707: 704: 702: 698: 696: 689:ADDIE process 688: 683: 678: 675: 671: 667: 664: 663: 662: 659: 652: 650: 646: 642: 638: 634: 632: 628: 622: 615: 613: 606: 603: 600: 597: 594: 591: 588: 585: 581: 580: 579: 572: 567: 566: 562: 561: 557: 556: 552: 551: 547: 542: 539: 536: 533: 530: 529: 527: 524: 521: 518: 517: 513: 512: 511: 505: 503: 498: 492: 484: 476: 473: 470: 467: 466: 461: 458: 455: 452: 451: 447: 444: 441: 438: 437: 433: 430: 427: 424: 423: 419: 416: 413: 410: 409: 405: 402: 399: 396: 395: 391: 388: 385: 382: 381: 377: 374: 371: 368: 367: 363: 360: 357: 354: 353: 349: 346: 343: 340: 339: 330: 328: 324: 322: 318: 315: 311: 307: 303: 299: 295: 291: 283: 281: 277: 271: 269: 266: 262: 258: 255: 247: 245: 243: 239: 235: 226: 224: 217: 215: 211: 209: 205: 200: 197: 196:Robert Glaser 190: 188: 186: 182: 178: 174: 169: 167: 163: 159: 155: 154:B. 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