154:
17:
211:. These models provide either analytical or numerical solutions. The wide range of variables involved in interfacial polymerization has led to several different approaches and several different models. One of the more general models of interfacial polymerization, summarized by Berezkin and co-workers, involves treating interfacial polymerization as a heterogenous mass transfer combined with a second-order chemical reaction. In order to take into account different variables, this interfacial polymerization model is divided into three scales, yielding three different models: the kinetic model, the local model, and the macrokinetic model.
219:
Parameters determined using the local model include the mass transfer weight, the degree of polymerization, topology near the interface, and the molecular weight distribution of the polymer. Using local modeling, the dependence of monomer mass transfer characteristics and polymer characteristics as a function of kinetic, diffusion, and concentration factors can be analyzed. One approach to calculating a local model can be represented by the following differential equation:
167:
monomer dissolved in both phases, polymerization occurs on both sides. An interfacial polymerization reaction may proceed either stirred or unstirred. In a stirred reaction, the two phases are combined using vigorous agitation, resulting in a higher interfacial surface area and a higher polymer yield. In the case of capsule synthesis, the size of the capsule is directly determined by the stirring rate of the emulsion.
52:
694:
171:
monomer concentration, reactivity, solubility, the stability of the interface, and the number of functional groups present on the monomers. The identity of the organic solvent is of utmost importance, as it affects several other factors such as monomer diffusion, reaction rate, and polymer solubility and permeability. The number of
170:
Although interfacial polymerization appears to be a relatively straightforward process, there are several experimental variables that can be modified in order to design specific polymers or modify polymer characteristics. Some of the more notable variables include the identity of the organic solvent,
166:
In a liquid-solid interface, polymerization begins at the interface, and results in a polymer attached to the surface of the solid phase. In a liquid-liquid interface with monomer dissolved in one phase, polymerization occurs on only one side of the interface, whereas in liquid-liquid interfaces with
214:
The kinetic model is based on the principles of kinetics, assumes uniform chemical distribution, and describes the system at a molecular level. This model takes into account thermodynamic qualities such as mechanisms, activation energies, rate constants, and equilibrium constants. The kinetic model
1171:
and other applications. One added benefits of using polymers prepared by interfacial polymerization is that several properties, such as pore size and interconnectivity, can be fined-tuned to create a more ideal product for specific applications. For example, synthesizing a polymer with a pore size
218:
The local model is used to determine the characteristics of polymerization at a section around the interface, termed the diffusion boundary layer. This model can be used to describe a system in which the monomer distribution and concentration are inhomogeneous, and is restricted to a small volume.
183:
in order to provide additional mechanical strength, allowing delicate nano films to be used in industrial applications. In this case, a good support would consist of pores ranging from 1 to 100 nm. Free-standing films, by contrast, do not use a support, and are often used to synthesize unique
162:
The most commonly used interfacial polymerization methods fall into 3 broad types of interfaces: liquid-solid interfaces, liquid-liquid interfaces, and liquid-in-liquid emulsion interfaces. In the liquid-liquid and liquid-in-liquid emulsion interfaces, either one or both liquid phases may contain
1137:
OH). PANI nanofibers can be further fined-tuned by doping and modifying the polymer chain conformation, among other methods, to increase selectivity to certain gases. A typical PANI chemical sensor consists of a substrate, an electrode, and a selective polymer layer. PANI nanofibers, like other
377:
In the macrokinetic model, the progression of an entire system is predicted. One important assumption of the macrokinetic model is that each mass transfer process is independent, and can therefore be described by a local model. The macrokinetic model may be the most important, as it can provide
104:, usually synthesized via melt polymerization, was synthesized from diamine and diacid chloride monomers. The diacid chloride monomers were placed in an organic solvent (benzene) and the diamene monomers in a water phase, such that when the monomers reached the interface they would polymerize.
1076:
Interfacial polymerization has found much use in industrial applications, especially as a route to synthesize conducting polymers for electronics. Conductive polymers synthesized by interfacial polymerization such as polyaniline (PANI), Polypyrrole (PPy), poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene), and
381:
More specific approaches to modeling interfacial polymerization are described by Ji and co-workers, and include modeling of thin-film composite (TFC) membranes, tubular fibers, hollow membranes, and capsules. These models take into account both reaction- and diffusion-controlled interfacial
80:
Interfacial polymerization (then termed "interfacial polycondensation") was first discovered by
Emerson L. Wittbecker and Paul W. Morgan in 1959 as an alternative to the typically high-temperature and low-pressure melt polymerization technique. As opposed to melt polymerization, interfacial
1917:
Choi, Yeong Suk; Joo, Sang Hoon; Lee, Seol-Ah; You, Dae Jong; Kim, Hansu; Pak, Chanho; Chang, Hyuk; Seung, Doyoung (April 2006). "Surface
Selective Polymerization of Polypyrrole on Ordered Mesoporous Carbon: Enhancing Interfacial Conductivity for Direct Methanol Fuel Cell Application".
184:
topologies such as micro- or nanocapsules. In the case of polyurethanes and polyamides especially, the film can be pulled continuously from the interface in an unstirred reaction, forming "ropes" of polymeric film. As the polymer precipitates, it can be withdrawn continuously.
387:
992:
337:
35:
occurs at the interface between two immiscible phases (generally two liquids), resulting in a polymer that is constrained to the interface. There are several variations of interfacial polymerization, which result in several types of polymer topologies, such as
157:
Five common types of interfacial polymerization interfaces (from left to right): liquid-solid, liquid-liquid, and liquid-in-liquid emulsion. There are two examples each for liquid-liquid and liquid-in-liquid emulsion, either using one monomer or
1212:
Compared to previous methods of capsule synthesis, interfacial polymerization is an easily modified synthesis that results in capsules with a wide range of properties and functionalities. Once synthesized, the capsules can enclose drugs,
1158:
applications. The polymerization of PPy onto the OMC reduces interfacial electrical resistances without altering the open mesopore structure, making PPy-coated OMC composites a more ideal material for fuel cells than plain OMCs.
1569:
De Cock, Liesbeth J.; De Koker, Stefaan; De Geest, Bruno G.; Grooten, Johan; Vervaet, Chris; Remon, Jean Paul; Sukhorukov, Gleb B.; Antipina, Maria N. (2010-09-17). "Polymeric
Multilayer Capsules in Drug Delivery".
175:
present on the monomer is also important, as it affects the polymer topology: a di-substituted monomer will form linear chains whereas a tri- or tetra-substituted monomer forms branched polymers.
1217:, and other nanoparticles, to list a few examples. Further fine-tuning of the chemical and topological properties of these polymer capsules could prove an effective route to create drug-delivery systems.
689:{\displaystyle t=-({E_{0} \over B_{0}}+{A_{0}D_{0} \over B_{0}^{2}}+{C_{0}A_{0}^{2} \over B_{0}^{2}})\ln(1-{X \over X_{max}})-{C_{0} \over 2B_{0}}X^{2}-({D_{0} \over B_{0}}+{C_{0}A_{0} \over B_{0}^{2}})X}
752:
1797:
Ji, J.; Dickson, J. M.; Childs, R. F.; McCarry, B. E. (December 1999). "Mathematical Model for the
Formation of Thin-Film Composite Membranes by Interfacial Polymerization: Porous and Dense Films".
374:
is the thermodynamic rate of reaction. Although precise, no analytical solution exists for this differential equation, and as such solutions must be found using approximate or numerical techniques.
1068:
There are several assumptions made by these and similar models, including but not limited to uniformity of monomer concentration, temperature, and film density, and second-order reaction kinetics.
224:
20:
A typically experimental setup for interfacial polymerization. One phase is above the interface, and the other phase is below. Polymerization occurs where the two phases meet, at the interface.
382:
polymerization under non-steady-state conditions. One model is for thin film composite (TFC) membranes, and describes the thickness of the composite film as a function of time:
137:. In recent years, polymers synthesized by interfacial polymerization have been used in applications where a particular topological or physical property is desired, such as
1616:
Ji, J (2001-10-15). "Mathematical model for the formation of thin-film composite hollow fiber and tubular membranes by interfacial polymerization".
1646:
Morgan, Paul W.; Kwolek, Stephanie L. (November 1959). "Interfacial polycondensation. II. Fundamentals of polymer formation at liquid interfaces".
1097:
PANI nanofibers are the most commonly used for sensing applications. These nanofibers have been shown to detect various gaseous chemicals, such as
1509:
Li, Shichun; Wang, Zhi; Yu, Xingwei; Wang, Jixiao; Wang, Shichang (2012-06-26). "High-Performance
Membranes with Multi-permselectivity for CO
187:
It is interesting to note that the molecular weight distribution of polymers synthesized by interfacial polymerization is broader than the
1967:
1457:
987:{\displaystyle t=A_{0}{R_{min}}^{5}E_{0}I_{4}+B_{0}{R_{min}}^{4}E_{0}I_{3}+C_{0}{R_{min}}^{2}E_{0}I_{2}+D_{0}{R_{min}}E_{0}I_{1}}
208:
332:{\displaystyle {\partial c_{i} \over \partial t}={\partial \over \partial y}(D_{i}{\partial c_{i} \over \partial y})+J_{i}}
188:
85:
1869:
Huang, Jiaxing; Virji, Shabnam; Weiller, Bruce H.; Kaner, Richard B. (2004-03-19). "Nanostructured
Polyaniline Sensors".
195:
and the rate of reaction is high, this reaction mechanism tends to produce a small number of long polymer chains of high
191:
due to the high concentration of monomers near the interfacial site. Because the two solutions used in this reaction are
1167:
Composite polymer films synthesized via a liquid-solid interface are the most commonly used to synthesize membranes for
107:
Since 1959, interfacial polymerization has been extensively researched and used to prepare not only polyamides but also
153:
163:
monomers. There are also other interface categories, rarely used, including liquid-gas, solid-gas, and solid-solid.
1361:
81:
polymerization reactions can be accomplished using standard laboratory equipment and under atmospheric conditions.
28:
1714:
Berezkin, Anatoly V.; Khokhlov, Alexei R. (2006-09-15). "Mathematical modeling of interfacial polycondensation".
1155:
56:
215:
is typically incorporated into either the local or the macrokinetic model in order to provide greater accuracy.
378:
feedback on the efficiency of the reaction process, important in both laboratory and industrial applications.
1292:
Song, Yongyang; Fan, Jun-Bing; Wang, Shutao (January 2017). "Recent progress in interfacial polymerization".
1927:
1723:
1655:
1522:
1425:
1142:, detect by a change in electrical resistance/conductivity in response to the chemical environment.
16:
1231:
1151:
142:
1546:
138:
747:
Another model for interfacial polymerization of capsules, or encapsulation, is also described:
1972:
1943:
1894:
1886:
1814:
1739:
1587:
1538:
1309:
1098:
1416:
Wittbecker, Emerson L.; Morgan, Paul W. (November 1959). "Interfacial polycondensation. I.".
1935:
1878:
1844:
1806:
1766:
1731:
1663:
1625:
1579:
1530:
1472:
1433:
1373:
1301:
1078:
196:
172:
207:
Interfacial polymerization has proven difficult to model accurately due to its nature as a
1835:
Ji, J (2001-10-15). "Mathematical model for encapsulation by interfacial polymerization".
1168:
64:
1931:
1727:
1659:
1526:
1480:
1429:
1377:
1226:
1086:
32:
1848:
1629:
1961:
1139:
180:
134:
97:
1550:
116:
367:
is the molecular diffusion coefficient of the functional groups of interest, and
1667:
1476:
1437:
1214:
1065:
is the minimum value of the inside diameter of the polymeric capsule wall.
744:
is the maximum value of film thickness, which can be determined experimentally.
124:
108:
60:
41:
51:
1122:
192:
1947:
1890:
1818:
1743:
1313:
1110:
1082:
130:
112:
101:
45:
37:
1898:
1882:
1591:
1583:
1542:
1534:
1770:
1130:
120:
1735:
1305:
1102:
1939:
1810:
1456:
Lau, W.J.; Ismail, A.F.; Misdan, N.; Kassim, M.A. (February 2012).
1757:
MacRitchie, F. (1969). "Mechanism of interfacial polymerization".
93:
89:
50:
84:
This first interfacial polymerization was accomplished using the
1458:"A recent progress in thin film composite membrane: A review"
1360:
Raaijmakers, Michiel J.T.; Benes, Nieck E. (December 2016).
1362:"Current trends in interfacial polymerization chemistry"
348:
is the molar concentration of functional groups in the
1172:
somewhere between the molecular size of hydrogen gas (
179:
Most interfacial polymerizations are synthesized on a
755:
390:
227:
1716:Journal of Polymer Science Part B: Polymer Physics
986:
688:
331:
1188:) results in a membrane selectively-permeable to
360:is a coordinate normal to the surface/interface,
1077:polythiophene (PTh) have found applications as
8:
1061:are constants determined by the system and R
133:, polysulfonamides, polyphenyl esters and
67:under Schotten-Baumann conditions to form
978:
968:
951:
946:
940:
927:
917:
907:
894:
889:
882:
869:
859:
849:
836:
831:
824:
811:
801:
791:
778:
773:
766:
754:
672:
667:
656:
646:
639:
628:
618:
612:
600:
587:
573:
567:
547:
538:
512:
507:
496:
491:
481:
474:
463:
458:
447:
437:
430:
419:
409:
403:
389:
323:
296:
286:
280:
258:
238:
228:
226:
1204:, effectively separating the compounds.
733:are constants determined by the system,
152:
15:
1572:Angewandte Chemie International Edition
1243:
1154:carbon (OMC) composites can be used in
1912:
1910:
1908:
1792:
1790:
1788:
1786:
1784:
1782:
1780:
1709:
1707:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1699:
1697:
352:th component of a monomer or polymer,
1864:
1862:
1860:
1858:
1830:
1828:
1695:
1693:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1685:
1683:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1411:
1409:
1407:
1355:
1353:
1351:
1349:
1347:
1345:
1343:
1287:
1285:
1283:
1281:
1279:
1277:
1275:
1273:
1271:
1269:
1267:
1208:Cargo-loading Micro- and Nanocapsules
7:
1641:
1639:
1611:
1609:
1607:
1605:
1603:
1601:
1564:
1562:
1560:
1504:
1502:
1500:
1451:
1449:
1447:
1405:
1403:
1401:
1399:
1397:
1395:
1393:
1391:
1389:
1387:
1341:
1339:
1337:
1335:
1333:
1331:
1329:
1327:
1325:
1323:
1265:
1263:
1261:
1259:
1257:
1255:
1253:
1251:
1249:
1247:
141:for electronics, water purification
1759:Transactions of the Faraday Society
145:, and cargo-loading microcapsules.
1378:10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2016.06.004
304:
289:
264:
260:
246:
231:
14:
1163:Separation/Purification Membranes
1871:Chemistry - A European Journal
680:
609:
561:
529:
520:
400:
313:
273:
1:
1849:10.1016/S0376-7388(01)00495-1
1630:10.1016/S0376-7388(01)00496-3
1294:Materials Chemistry Frontiers
1232:Interfacial polycondensation
1837:Journal of Membrane Science
1668:10.1002/pol.1959.1204013702
1618:Journal of Membrane Science
1477:10.1016/j.desal.2011.04.004
1438:10.1002/pol.1959.1204013701
1366:Progress in Polymer Science
737:is the film thickness, and
1989:
1648:Journal of Polymer Science
1418:Journal of Polymer Science
29:step-growth polymerization
25:Interfacial polymerization
1156:direct methanol fuel cell
189:Flory–Schulz distribution
88:, a method to synthesize
86:Schotten–Baumann reaction
57:Schotten-Baumann reaction
1968:Polymerization reactions
1184:) and carbon dioxide (CO
1883:10.1002/chem.200305211
1584:10.1002/anie.200906266
1535:10.1002/adma.201200638
988:
690:
333:
209:nonequilibrium process
159:
72:
48:, to name just a few.
21:
989:
691:
356:is the elapsed time,
334:
156:
54:
19:
1771:10.1039/TF9696502503
1089:, and nanoswitches.
753:
388:
225:
1932:2006MaMol..39.3275C
1728:2006JPoSB..44.2698B
1660:1959JPoSc..40..299M
1527:2012AdM....24.3196L
1430:1959JPoSc..40..289W
1150:PPy-coated ordered
677:
517:
501:
468:
203:Mathematical Models
139:conducting polymers
1736:10.1002/polb.20907
1515:Advanced Materials
1306:10.1039/C6QM00325G
984:
686:
663:
503:
487:
454:
329:
160:
100:. In this case, a
73:
22:
1940:10.1021/ma052363v
1811:10.1021/ma991377w
1722:(18): 2698–2724.
1578:(39): 6954–6973.
1521:(24): 3196–3200.
1099:hydrogen chloride
678:
634:
594:
559:
518:
469:
425:
311:
271:
253:
173:functional groups
71:-benzylacetamide.
1980:
1952:
1951:
1926:(9): 3275–3282.
1914:
1903:
1902:
1877:(6): 1314–1319.
1866:
1853:
1852:
1832:
1823:
1822:
1794:
1775:
1774:
1754:
1748:
1747:
1711:
1672:
1671:
1654:(137): 299–327.
1643:
1634:
1633:
1613:
1596:
1595:
1566:
1555:
1554:
1506:
1495:
1494:
1492:
1491:
1485:
1479:. Archived from
1462:
1453:
1442:
1441:
1424:(137): 289–297.
1413:
1382:
1381:
1357:
1318:
1317:
1300:(6): 1028–1040.
1289:
1199:
1198:
1197:
1183:
1182:
1181:
1079:chemical sensors
993:
991:
990:
985:
983:
982:
973:
972:
963:
962:
961:
945:
944:
932:
931:
922:
921:
912:
911:
906:
905:
904:
887:
886:
874:
873:
864:
863:
854:
853:
848:
847:
846:
829:
828:
816:
815:
806:
805:
796:
795:
790:
789:
788:
771:
770:
695:
693:
692:
687:
679:
676:
671:
662:
661:
660:
651:
650:
640:
635:
633:
632:
623:
622:
613:
605:
604:
595:
593:
592:
591:
578:
577:
568:
560:
558:
557:
539:
519:
516:
511:
502:
500:
495:
486:
485:
475:
470:
467:
462:
453:
452:
451:
442:
441:
431:
426:
424:
423:
414:
413:
404:
338:
336:
335:
330:
328:
327:
312:
310:
302:
301:
300:
287:
285:
284:
272:
270:
259:
254:
252:
244:
243:
242:
229:
197:molecular weight
55:An example of a
1988:
1987:
1983:
1982:
1981:
1979:
1978:
1977:
1958:
1957:
1956:
1955:
1916:
1915:
1906:
1868:
1867:
1856:
1834:
1833:
1826:
1796:
1795:
1778:
1756:
1755:
1751:
1713:
1712:
1675:
1645:
1644:
1637:
1615:
1614:
1599:
1568:
1567:
1558:
1512:
1508:
1507:
1498:
1489:
1487:
1483:
1460:
1455:
1454:
1445:
1415:
1414:
1385:
1359:
1358:
1321:
1291:
1290:
1245:
1240:
1223:
1210:
1203:
1200:, but not to CO
1196:
1193:
1192:
1191:
1189:
1187:
1180:
1177:
1176:
1175:
1173:
1169:reverse osmosis
1165:
1148:
1136:
1128:
1120:
1116:
1108:
1095:
1087:supercapacitors
1074:
1064:
1059:
1052:
1045:
1038:
1033:
1029:
1022:
1015:
1008:
1001:
974:
964:
947:
936:
923:
913:
890:
888:
878:
865:
855:
832:
830:
820:
807:
797:
774:
772:
762:
751:
750:
742:
731:
724:
717:
710:
703:
652:
642:
641:
624:
614:
596:
583:
579:
569:
543:
477:
476:
443:
433:
432:
415:
405:
386:
385:
372:
365:
346:
319:
303:
292:
288:
276:
263:
245:
234:
230:
223:
222:
205:
151:
78:
65:acetyl chloride
12:
11:
5:
1986:
1984:
1976:
1975:
1970:
1960:
1959:
1954:
1953:
1920:Macromolecules
1904:
1854:
1843:(1–2): 55–70.
1824:
1805:(2): 624–633.
1799:Macromolecules
1776:
1749:
1673:
1635:
1624:(1–2): 41–54.
1597:
1556:
1510:
1496:
1443:
1383:
1319:
1242:
1241:
1239:
1236:
1235:
1234:
1229:
1227:Polymerization
1222:
1219:
1209:
1206:
1201:
1194:
1185:
1178:
1164:
1161:
1147:
1144:
1140:chemiresistors
1134:
1126:
1118:
1114:
1106:
1094:
1091:
1073:
1070:
1062:
1057:
1050:
1043:
1036:
1031:
1027:
1020:
1013:
1006:
999:
981:
977:
971:
967:
960:
957:
954:
950:
943:
939:
935:
930:
926:
920:
916:
910:
903:
900:
897:
893:
885:
881:
877:
872:
868:
862:
858:
852:
845:
842:
839:
835:
827:
823:
819:
814:
810:
804:
800:
794:
787:
784:
781:
777:
769:
765:
761:
758:
740:
729:
722:
715:
708:
701:
685:
682:
675:
670:
666:
659:
655:
649:
645:
638:
631:
627:
621:
617:
611:
608:
603:
599:
590:
586:
582:
576:
572:
566:
563:
556:
553:
550:
546:
542:
537:
534:
531:
528:
525:
522:
515:
510:
506:
499:
494:
490:
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473:
466:
461:
457:
450:
446:
440:
436:
429:
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412:
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402:
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370:
363:
344:
326:
322:
318:
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309:
306:
299:
295:
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283:
279:
275:
269:
266:
262:
257:
251:
248:
241:
237:
233:
204:
201:
181:porous support
150:
147:
135:polycarbonates
98:acid chlorides
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1481:the original
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109:polyanilines
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61:Benzylamine
1962:Categories
1490:2019-12-11
1372:: 86–142.
1238:References
1152:mesoporous
1146:Fuel Cells
1123:chloroform
1083:fuel cells
193:immiscible
131:polyesters
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38:thin films
1948:0024-9297
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102:polyamide
31:in which
1973:Polymers
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1221:See also
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1093:Sensors
76:History
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