205:
308:. This ultimately leads to a decrease in female fitness, as increasing behaviours such as egg-laying can decrease the success of fertilization, delay remating, and impact the female's life span. In response to the negative effects of SPFs, female fruit flies have evolved resistance tactics to hyperactive males and refractoriness, resulting in interlocus sexual conflict. This has been supported in studies revealing the rapid evolution of SPF genes.
278:
164:(ICE), characterized by the coevolution of genes at different loci in a species through intergenomic conflict. In other words, a disequilibrium forms as alleles for reproductive traits are substituted at different loci in opposing sexes, resulting in rapid evolution of the trait at the locus, which further fuels an arms race between the sexes.
331:
conditions. In divergent populations, organisms will respond adaptively to local mates but not foreign mates. As a result, the female remating rate decreased significantly upon introduction of foreign males. Females are most resistant to males they coevolved with in local conditions, but show limited
171:
postulates that evolution of a trait in one species will drive antagonistic coevolution in an opposing species and can be used to explain coevolution in cases of predatory behaviour, host-parasite relationships, and sexual selection. Of interest to interlocus sexual conflict, the Red Queen hypothesis
110:
The first model of interlocus sexual conflict, the genetic threshold model, was developed by Parker to explain sexual conflict among yellow dung flies. Further investigation of sexual conflict theory remained relatively untouched until Rice predicted that genes for sexually antagonistic traits exist
200:
Sexual antagonistic coevolution is characterized by an arms race between the sexes in which one sex experiences changes in morphology or behaviour to compensate for the negative effects of the reproductive traits of the opposite sex. Both sexes strive to maintain an optimal fitness level, but do so
260:
differ in female fitness. When females are placed in enforced polyandrous or monogamous mating conditions, females from polyandrous conditions exhibit substantially reduced fitness, displaying decreased egg production, decreased number of offspring, and a shortened life span compared to monogamous
130:
that cause males to harm females during reproduction, proliferate within a population and initiate interlocus sexual conflict. In a population of fruit flies where a Y-linked harming allele decreases the fitness of a female mate, an indirect cost is imposed on the male's fitness. Consequently, the
265:
was enough to compensate for the direct impact of antagonistic coevolution on female fitness. However, the detrimental fitness impact in females singly-mated with a polyandrous male suggests adaptations to resist harm by males requires competition, and is therefore better explained by interlocus
191:
Importantly, many examples of sexual conflict are not categorized into interlocus sexual conflict or intralocus sexual conflict, as the genetic locations of the interacting alleles for these traits are not known or specified. It is critical to note when interpreting information regarding sexual
319:
of the experimental females. By reducing the attractiveness of the females expressing the trait, the mutation provided females with resistance to the direct costs of re-mating and male courtship. These results show that the resistance allele significantly accumulated in the experimental group,
38:
optima for the traits. A co-evolutionary arms race is established between the sexes in which either sex evolves a set of antagonistic adaptations that is detrimental to the fitness of the other sex. The potential for reproductive success in one organism is strengthened while the fitness of the
225:
Through Parker's genetic threshold model, it was discovered that female yellow dung flies can be injured in battles between male suitors. Males are selected to evolve traits for competitive ability that would increase their reproductive success, but females would evolve a set of antagonistic
311:
In a study examining fruit flies under polygamous and monogamous conditions, it was discovered that antagonistic coevolution decreases in monogamy, as the organisms mate with only one opposite-sex member and there is no competition among males to mate with the female.
188:. Conflict in which the antagonistic alleles are located at the same locus is termed intralocus sexual conflict. This occurs when males and females undergo different selective pressures at the same locus, resulting in either sex limiting the fitness of the other sex.
201:
at the expense of their mate's fitness. For interlocus sexual conflict to be a valid cause of antagonistic coevolution, the harm induced by the males across all loci has to outweigh the indirect benefits that the females gain by interacting with males.
172:
allows for the evolution of traits that enhance reproductive fitness. ICE extends from this hypothesis, proposing that antagonistic coevolution does not require opposing species, but can be applied to genes at different loci in a single species.
1574:
Haerty, Wilfried; Jagadeeshan, Santosh; Kulathinal, Rob J.; Wong, Alex; Ravi Ram, Kristipati; Sirot, Laura K.; Levesque, Lisa; Artieri, Carlo G.; Wolfner, Mariana F.; Civetta, Alberto; Singh, Rama S. (November 2007).
58:
by females, and sperm are produced in much greater quantities. Consequently, males invest more energy into mating frequency, while females are choosier with mates and invest their energy into offspring quality.
1514:
Chapman, Tracey; Liddle, Lindsay F.; Kalb, John M.; Wolfner, Mariana F.; Partridge, Linda (January 1995). "Cost of mating in
Drosophila melanogaster females is mediated by male accessory gland products".
131:
harming allele is only favored in circumstances where the difference between offspring sired by harming males and normal males is greater for harming males, or harming males are at a fitness advantage.
134:
The chase-away sexual selection model, proposed by
Holland and Rice, enabled the prediction that mating discrimination by females will drive the evolution of male display features toward extreme
50:, a species member will display reproductive characteristics that enhance their ability to reproduce, regardless of whether the fitness of their mate is negatively affected.
1282:
Aigaki, Toshiro; Fleischmann, Iréne; Chen, Pei-Shen; Kubli, Eric (October 1991). "Ectopic expression of sex peptide alters reproductive behavior of female D. melanogaster".
1212:
Hollis, Brian; Koppik, Mareike; Wensing, Kristina U.; Ruhmann, Hanna; Genzoni, Eléonore; Erkosar, Berra; Kawecki, Tadeusz J.; Fricke, Claudia; Keller, Laurent (2019-04-08).
238:. Larger males have a competitive advantage in displacing the sperm of other males, enhancing the likelihood of their sperm fertilizing the eggs. This phenomenon is termed
300:
of male fruit flies contains seminal fluid proteins (SFPs) that play a significant role in determining female fitness. SPFs are capable of influencing processes such as
1084:
880:
Arnqvist, Goran; Rowe, Locke (1995-07-22). "Sexual conflict and arms races between the sexes: a morphological adaptation for control of mating in a female insect".
622:
Rice, William R.; Holland, Brett (1997-07-14). "The enemies within: intergenomic conflict, interlocus contest evolution (ICE), and the intraspecific Red Queen".
119:
demonstrated that alleles for reproductive traits will persist if they increase the fitness of one sex, regardless of the associated cost for their mate.
142:
drives male morphology. A model of antagonistic coevolution by
Arnqvist and Rowe highlighted the example of abdominal spines in female water striders,
829:
Holland, Brett; Rice, William R. (February 1998). "Perspective: Chase-Away Sexual
Selection: Antagonistic Seduction Versus Resistance".
429:
77:
Well-evidenced examples come exclusively from the insect world, with the majority of research being conducted in yellow dung flies,
39:
opposite sex is weakened. Interlocus sexual conflict can arise due to aspects of male–female interactions such as mating frequency,
46:
As the sexes demonstrate a significant investment discrepancy for reproduction, interlocus sexual conflict can arise. To achieve
230:(SPFs), and aggressive behaviour attributable to their size to manipulate females during courtship. As yellow dung flies are a
34:, or the location of a gene on a chromosome, in males and females, resulting in the deviation of either or both sexes from the
293:
are a promiscuous species in which mate choice is a recurring event, fostering the development of interlocus sexual conflict.
148:, to demonstrate how this arms race leads to evolutionary adaptations in females. Female water striders achieve control over
1694:
115:
in both sexes, which led to the development of intralocus sexual conflict. Rice's genetic model of X-linkage influencing
356:
161:
63:
226:
adaptations to reduce their chances of being injured during these interactions. Male yellow dung flies use pheromones,
341:
181:
94:
778:
Andrés, J. A.; Morrow, E. H. (2003-02-10). "The origin of interlocus sexual conflict: is sex-linkage important?".
204:
1704:
351:
71:
1100:"The function of female accessory reproductive gland secretion and a cost to polyandry in the yellow dung fly"
320:
suggesting that the direct costs of male-courtship are greater than the indirect benefits of male-courtship.
283:
210:
85:
79:
315:
In another laboratory study, a mutation that reduces the attractiveness of females was introduced into the
67:
328:
227:
1459:"The Acp26Aa seminal fluid protein is a modulator of early egg hatchability in Drosophila melanogaster"
1457:
Chapman, Tracey; Herndon, Laura A.; Heifetz, Yael; Partridge, Linda; Wolfner, Mariana F. (2001-08-22).
1524:
1405:
1225:
1063:
Assessing putative interlocus sexual conflict in
Drosophila melanogaster using experimental evolution
1006:
889:
514:
346:
231:
168:
47:
1214:"Sexual conflict drives male manipulation of female postmating responses in Drosophila melanogaster"
277:
262:
257:
97:, a similar theory in which a set of antagonistic alleles resides on the same locus in both sexes.
1556:
1439:
1315:
1129:
1078:
913:
854:
811:
747:
647:
149:
1671:
1653:
1614:
1596:
1548:
1540:
1496:
1478:
1431:
1423:
1374:
1356:
1307:
1299:
1261:
1243:
1189:
1171:
1121:
1066:
1040:
1022:
975:
967:
905:
862:
846:
803:
795:
755:
739:
704:
686:
639:
597:
589:
548:
530:
483:
465:
425:
239:
144:
116:
35:
1661:
1645:
1604:
1588:
1532:
1486:
1470:
1413:
1364:
1346:
1291:
1251:
1233:
1179:
1163:
1111:
1030:
1014:
959:
897:
838:
787:
731:
694:
678:
631:
579:
538:
522:
473:
457:
417:
389:
192:
conflict that these terms are sometimes used interchangeably, despite this being incorrect.
66:, a theory describing the coevolution of different loci in a species through the process of
31:
993:
Schenkel, Martijn A.; Pen, Ido; Beukeboom, Leo W.; Billeter, Jean-Christophe (2018-12-11).
1699:
361:
51:
23:
1394:"The Drosophila seminal fluid protein Acp26Aa stimulates release of oocytes by the ovary"
1634:"Quantifying the gender load: can population crosses reveal interlocus sexual conflict?"
1528:
1409:
1229:
1010:
893:
722:
Rice, William R. (July 1984). "Sex
Chromosomes and the Evolution of Sexual Dimorphism".
518:
1666:
1633:
1609:
1576:
1491:
1458:
1392:
Heifetz, Yael; Lung, Oliver; Frongillo, Edward A.; Wolfner, Mariana F. (January 2000).
1369:
1334:
1256:
1213:
1184:
1151:
1035:
994:
950:
Bonduriansky, Russell; Chenoweth, Stephen F. (May 2009). "Intralocus sexual conflict".
699:
666:
543:
502:
478:
445:
421:
1418:
1393:
393:
1688:
1295:
1116:
1099:
791:
235:
127:
40:
1443:
1335:"Acp36DE is required for uterine conformational changes in mated Drosophila females"
1319:
1133:
917:
815:
43:, relative parental effort, female remating behavior, and female reproductive rate.
1560:
90:
Examples outside of these taxa are theoretical, though currently not well studied.
651:
62:
The evolutionary pathways resulting from interlocus sexual conflict form part of
1592:
1152:"Post–copulatory sexual selection and female fitness in Scathophaga stercoraria"
682:
503:"Two sexes, one genome: the evolutionary dynamics of intralocus sexual conflict"
297:
250:, and an enhanced ability to select sperm based on the fitness of male suitors.
243:
139:
123:
963:
261:
females after only one mating experience. Initially, it was suggested that the
122:
An expansion of Parker's genetic threshold model was later used to examine how
1577:"Evolution in the Fast Lane: Rapidly Evolving Sex-Related Genes in Drosophila"
247:
112:
1657:
1600:
1544:
1482:
1427:
1360:
1303:
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1175:
1125:
1070:
1026:
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850:
799:
743:
690:
643:
593:
534:
469:
1351:
1238:
305:
301:
180:
The genetic basis of the distinction between interlocus sexual conflict and
135:
55:
1675:
1649:
1618:
1500:
1474:
1435:
1378:
1265:
1193:
1167:
1044:
979:
901:
866:
807:
759:
708:
601:
552:
487:
461:
1632:
Long, Tristan A.F; Montgomerie, Robert; Chippindale, Adam K (2006-01-04).
1552:
1311:
635:
584:
567:
380:
Chapman, T; Arnqvist, G; Bangham, J; Rowe, L (2003). "Sexual conflict".
858:
751:
185:
1638:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
1018:
450:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
234:
species, females obtain sperm from multiple males which is stored for
1536:
526:
316:
27:
842:
735:
327:
have been used to investigate the evolution of sexual traits under
276:
203:
1150:
Martin, Oliver Y.; Hosken, David J.; Ward, Paul I. (2004-02-22).
152:
acts by using their spines as defense against aggressive males.
412:
Parker, G.A. (1979), "Sexual
Selection and Sexual Conflict",
26:
that occurs through the interaction of a set of antagonistic
446:"Sexual conflict over mating and fertilization: an overview"
995:"Making sense of intralocus and interlocus sexual conflict"
414:
Sexual
Selection and Reproductive Competition in Insects
54:
by males is substantially less biologically costly than
1463:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
1156:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
882:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
1061:
Stewart, Andrew D Morrow, Edward H Rice, William R.
1333:Avila, Frank W.; Wolfner, Mariana F. (2009-09-01).
667:"The Evolution of Sexually Antagonistic Phenotypes"
501:Pennell, Tanya M.; Morrow, Edward H. (2013-05-01).
1098:Hosken, D. J.; Uhia, E.; Ward, P. I. (June 2002).
138:. As a result, an arms race develops where female
184:is the location of the interacting antagonistic
1339:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1218:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
160:Interlocus sexual conflict forms the basis for
665:Perry, Jennifer C.; Rowe, Locke (June 2015).
8:
1083:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
931:Van Valen, Leigh. "A new evolutionary law".
242:. In response, females have evolved larger
70:. This has led to the proposal that sexual
671:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
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1255:
1237:
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1115:
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698:
583:
542:
477:
74:is fueled by interlocus sexual conflict.
93:Interlocus sexual conflict differs from
372:
1076:
568:"Intra-sexual selection in Drosophila"
1277:
1275:
1207:
1205:
1203:
1145:
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1056:
1054:
7:
773:
771:
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617:
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407:
405:
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624:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
422:10.1016/b978-0-12-108750-0.50010-0
304:, sperm storage, and the onset of
14:
952:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
176:Versus intralocus sexual conflict
1117:10.1046/j.1365-3032.2002.00271.x
792:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2003.00525.x
780:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
382:Trends in Ecology and Evolution
332:defense against foreign males.
256:displaying either polyandry or
566:Bateman, A J (December 1948).
416:, Elsevier, pp. 123–166,
1:
1419:10.1016/s0960-9822(00)00288-8
394:10.1016/s0169-5347(02)00004-6
1296:10.1016/0896-6273(91)90368-a
357:Interlocus contest evolution
162:interlocus contest evolution
156:Interlocus contest evolution
111:at the same loci of the sex
64:interlocus contest evolution
1593:10.1534/genetics.107.078865
683:10.1101/cshperspect.a017558
1721:
964:10.1016/j.tree.2008.12.005
444:Parker, G.A (2006-02-28).
342:Intralocus sexual conflict
182:intralocus sexual conflict
95:intralocus sexual conflict
20:Interlocus sexual conflict
30:at two or more different
1104:Physiological Entomology
352:Antagonistic Coevolution
196:Antagonistic coevolution
72:antagonistic coevolution
1352:10.1073/pnas.0904029106
1239:10.1073/pnas.1821386116
325:Drosophila melanogaster
291:Drosophila melanogaster
284:Drosophila melanogaster
272:Drosophila melanogaster
254:Scathophaga stercoraria
220:Scathophaga stercoraria
211:Scathophaga stercoraria
86:Drosophila melanogaster
80:Scathophaga stercoraria
16:Type of sexual conflict
1650:10.1098/rstb.2005.1786
1475:10.1098/rspb.2001.1684
1168:10.1098/rspb.2003.2588
902:10.1098/rspb.1995.0126
462:10.1098/rstb.2005.1785
323:Reciprocal crosses of
287:
228:seminal fluid proteins
214:
1065:. The Royal Society.
999:Ecology and Evolution
636:10.1007/s002650050357
507:Ecology and Evolution
280:
207:
68:intergenomic conflict
1695:Evolutionary biology
347:Red Queen hypothesis
169:Red Queen hypothesis
126:harming alleles, or
48:reproductive success
1529:1995Natur.373..241C
1469:(1477): 1647–1654.
1410:2000CBio...10...99H
1345:(37): 15796–15800.
1230:2019PNAS..116.8437H
1011:2018EcoEv...813035S
1005:(24): 13035–13050.
933:Evolutionary Theory
894:1995RSPSB.261..123A
585:10.1038/hdy.1948.21
519:2013EcoEv...3.1819P
263:sexy son hypothesis
83:, and fruit flies,
288:
215:
101:Theory development
1644:(1466): 363–374.
1523:(6511): 241–244.
1224:(17): 8437–8444.
1162:(1537): 353–359.
1019:10.1002/ece3.4629
888:(1360): 123–127.
456:(1466): 235–259.
266:sexual conflict.
240:sperm competition
145:Gerris incognitus
117:sexual dimorphism
1712:
1705:Sexual selection
1680:
1679:
1669:
1629:
1623:
1622:
1612:
1587:(3): 1321–1335.
1571:
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1537:10.1038/373241a0
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1038:
990:
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527:10.1002/ece3.540
513:(6): 1819–1834.
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52:Sperm production
1720:
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1398:Current Biology
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843:10.2307/2410914
828:
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777:
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24:sexual conflict
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1624:
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1449:
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1325:
1290:(4): 557–563.
1271:
1199:
1139:
1090:
1050:
985:
958:(5): 280–288.
942:
923:
872:
821:
786:(2): 219–223.
765:
730:(4): 735–742.
714:
677:(6): a017558.
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578:(3): 349–368.
558:
493:
436:
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281:Copulation in
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208:Copulation in
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128:mutant alleles
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56:egg production
15:
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3:
2:
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1407:
1404:(2): 99–102.
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248:spermicides
232:polyandrous
140:mate choice
113:chromosomes
1689:Categories
837:(1): 1–7.
368:References
329:allopatric
150:copulatory
136:phenotypes
124:sex-linked
1658:0962-8436
1601:0016-6731
1545:0028-0836
1483:0962-8452
1428:0960-9822
1361:0027-8424
1304:0896-6273
1248:0027-8424
1176:0962-8452
1126:0307-6962
1079:cite book
1071:678851562
1027:2045-7758
972:0169-5347
910:0962-8452
851:0014-3820
831:Evolution
800:1010-061X
744:0014-3820
724:Evolution
691:1943-0264
644:0340-5443
594:0018-067X
535:2045-7758
470:0962-8436
388:: 41–47.
306:ovulation
302:oogenesis
298:ejaculate
1676:16612894
1619:18039869
1581:Genetics
1501:11506676
1444:14117465
1436:10662669
1379:19805225
1320:38400344
1266:30962372
1194:15101693
1134:85362662
1045:30619603
980:19307043
918:85175671
867:28568154
816:31832137
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760:28555827
709:26032715
602:18103134
572:Heredity
553:23789088
488:16612884
336:See also
258:monogamy
1667:1569607
1610:2147986
1561:4336339
1553:7816137
1525:Bibcode
1492:1088790
1406:Bibcode
1370:2747198
1312:1931051
1257:6486729
1226:Bibcode
1185:1691601
1036:6309128
1007:Bibcode
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890:Bibcode
859:2410914
752:2408385
700:4448611
544:3686212
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479:1569603
186:alleles
36:fitness
28:alleles
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106:Models
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914:S2CID
855:JSTOR
812:S2CID
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296:The
167:The
32:loci
1662:PMC
1646:doi
1642:361
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1589:doi
1585:177
1533:doi
1521:373
1487:PMC
1471:doi
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1414:doi
1365:PMC
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1180:PMC
1164:doi
1160:271
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886:261
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