International economics - Knowledge (XXG)

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in wage rates. As noted above, that theorem is sometimes taken to mean that trade between an industrialised country and a developing country would lower the wages of the unskilled in the industrialised country. However, it is unreasonable to assume that productivity would be the same in a low-wage developing country as in a high-wage developed country. A 1999 study has found international differences in wage rates to be approximately matched by corresponding differences in productivity. (Such discrepancies that remained were probably the result of over-valuation or under-valuation of exchange rates, or of inflexibilities in labour markets.) It has been argued that, although there may sometimes be short-term pressures on wage rates in the developed countries, competition between employers in developing countries can be expected eventually to bring wages into line with their employees'

1466:), leaving the remaining workforce without the benefit of their support. That effect upon the welfare of the parent country is to some extent offset by the remittances that are sent home by the emigrants, and by the increased skill and education with which some of them return. One study introduces a further offsetting factor to suggest that the opportunity to migrate fosters enrolment in education thus promoting a "brain gain" that can counteract the lost human capital associated with emigration. However, these factors can be counterweighed on their turn depending on the intentions that remittances are used for. As evidence from Armenia suggests, instead of acting as a contractual tool, remittances have a potential for recipients to further incentivize emigration by serving as a resource to alleviate the migration process. 1055:(H-O) depends upon the assumptions of no international differences of technology, productivity, or consumer preferences; no obstacles to pure competition or free trade and no scale economies. On those assumptions, it derives a model of the trade patterns that would arise solely from international differences in the relative abundance of labour and capital (referred to as factor endowments). The resulting theorem states that, on those assumptions, a country with a relative abundance of capital would export capital-intensive products and import labour-intensive products. The theorem proved to be of very limited predictive value, as was demonstrated by what came to be known as the " 1075:

trade between an industrialised country and a developing country would lower the wages of the unskilled in the industrialised country. (But, as noted below, that conclusion depends upon the unlikely assumption that productivity is the same in the two countries). Large numbers of learned papers have been produced in attempts to elaborate on the H–O and Stolper–Samuelson theorems, and while many of them are considered to provide valuable insights, they have seldom proved to be directly applicable to the task of explaining trade patterns.

1253:(VRAs) or voluntary export restraints (VERs) which were negotiated with the governments of exporting countries (mainly Japan)—until they too were banned. Tariffs have been considered to be less harmful than quotas, although it can be shown that their welfare effects differ only when there are significant upward or downward trends in imports. Governments also impose a wide range of non-tariff barriers that are similar in effect to quotas, some of which are subject to WTO agreements. A recent example has been the application of the 1418:

there are many possible failure sequences. The internationally systemic crises that followed included the equity crash of October 1987, the Japanese asset price collapse of the 1990s the Asian financial crisis of 1997 the Russian government default of 1998(which brought down the Long-Term Capital Management hedge fund) and the 2007-8 sub-prime mortgages crisis. The symptoms have generally included collapses in asset prices, increases in risk premiums, and general reductions in liquidity.

1203:". Whether such policies succeed depends upon the governments’ skills in picking winners, with reasonably expectations of both successes and failures. It has been claimed that South Korea's automobile industry owes its existence to initial protection against imports, but a study of infant industry protection in Turkey reveals the absence of any association between productivity gains and degree of protection, such as might be expected of a successful import substitution policy. 1518:). Part of the increase in income inequality that has taken place within countries is attributable - in some cases - to globalisation. A recent IMF report demonstrates that the increase in inequality in the developing countries in the period 1981 to 2004 was due entirely to technological change, with globalisation making a partially offsetting negative contribution, and that in the developed countries globalisation and technological change were equally responsible. 1470:

concentrated in specific highly skilled sectors, such as medicine, the consequences are severe and even catastrophic in cases where 50% or so of trained doctors have emigrated. The crucial issues, as recently acknowledged by the OECD, is the matter of return and reinvestment in their countries of origin by the migrants themselves: thus, government policies in Europe are increasingly focused upon facilitating temporary skilled migration alongside migrant remittances.

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wage earners and corporate and personal taxpayers threatened to migrate in search of better terms. In fact, there are few signs of international convergence of interest rates, wage rates or tax rates. Although the world is more integrated in some respects, it is possible to argue that on the whole it is now less integrated than it was before the first world war, and that many middle-east countries are less globalised than they were 25 years ago.

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cent increase in openness to trade increases the level of GDP per capita by between 0.9 per cent and 2.0 per cent. They suggested that much of the gain arises from the growth of the most productive firms at the expense of the less productive. Those findings and others have contributed to a broad consensus among economists that trade confers very substantial net benefits, and that government restrictions upon trade are generally damaging.

1635: 1478:. Since such migrants work in unskilled industries for lower wages and often zero social insurance costs, the gain from labour migration flows is actually higher than the minimal gains calculated for legal flows; accompanying side-effects are significant, however, and include political damage to the idea of immigration, lower unskilled wages for the host population, and increased policing costs alongside lower tax receipts. 1334:

by reducing their costs of capital, and the direct investment of physical capital would tend to promote specialisation and the transfer of skills and technology. However, the eventual outcome of these policies was not what had been expected. Theoretical considerations alone cannot determine the balance between those benefits and the costs of volatility, and the question has had to be tackled by empirical analysis.

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export hi-tech products to others and receive imports of more standard products from them. Another econometric study also established a correlation between country size and the share of exports made up of goods in the production of which there are scale economies. The study further suggested that internationally traded goods fall into three categories, each with a different type of comparative advantage:

1236:(WTO), average tariff levels were progressively reduced to about 7 per cent during the second half of the 20th century, and some other trade restrictions were also removed. The restrictions that remain are nevertheless of major economic importance: among other estimates, the World Bank estimated in 2004 that the removal of all trade restrictions would yield benefits of over $ 500 billion a year by 2015. 878: 1022:

international trade economics differs little from that of the remainder of economics. However, the direction of academic research on the subject has been influenced by the fact that governments have often sought to impose restrictions upon international trade, and the motive for the development of trade theory has often been a wish to determine the consequences of such restrictions.

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years into the future. Markets in financial assets tend to be more volatile than markets in goods and services because decisions are more often revised and more rapidly put into effect. There is the share presumption that a transaction that is freely undertaken will benefit both parties, but there is a much greater danger that it will be harmful to others.

1393:") and have often included the removal of all restrictions upon incoming investment. The Fund has been severely criticised by Joseph Stiglitz and others for what they consider to be the inappropriate enforcement of those policies and for failing to warn recipient countries of the dangers that can arise from the volatility of capital movements. 1323:

an extended series of damaging financial crises. One study estimated that by the end of the twentieth century there had been 112 banking crises in 93 countries, another that there had been 26 banking crises, 86 currency crises and 27 mixed banking and currency crises, many times more than in the previous post-war years.

1059:" (the discovery that, despite its capital-rich factor endowment, America was exporting labour-intensive products and importing capital-intensive products) Nevertheless, the theoretical techniques (and many of the assumptions) used in deriving the H–O model were subsequently used to derive further theorems. 1538:

of Harvard has noted that the benefits of globalisation are unevenly spread, and that it has led to income inequalities, and to damaging losses of social capital in the parent countries and to social stresses resulting from immigration in the receiving countries. An extensive critical analysis of

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It is a process that has ancient origins, which has gathered pace in the last fifty years, but which is very far from complete. In its concluding stages, interest rates, wage rates and corporate and income tax rates would become the same everywhere, driven to equality by competition, as investors,

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committee to conclude that any economic benefits of immigration to the United Kingdom are relatively small. Evidence from the United States also suggests that the economic benefits to the receiving country are relatively small, and that the presence of immigrants in its labour market results in only

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Neoclassical theory had led them to expect capital to flow from the capital-rich developed economies to the capital-poor developing countries - because the returns to capital there would be higher. Flows of financial capital would tend to increase the level of investment in the developing countries

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in which most governments no longer attempt to control their exchange rates or to impose controls upon access to foreign currencies or upon access to international financial markets. The behaviour of the international financial system was transformed. Exchange rates became very volatile and there was

1313:($ ), and the United States government had undertaken to buy gold on demand at a fixed rate of $ 35 per ounce. In support of those commitments, most signatory nations had maintained strict control over their nationals’ use of foreign exchange and upon their dealings in international financial assets. 1239:

The largest of the remaining trade-distorting policies are those concerning agriculture. In the OECD countries government payments account for 30 per cent of farmers’ receipts and tariffs of over 100 per cent are common. OECD economists estimate that cutting all agricultural tariffs and subsidies by

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by manufacturers. The Prebisch/Singer findings remain controversial, but they were used at the time—and have been used subsequently—to suggest that the developing countries should erect barriers against manufactured imports in order to nurture their own "infant industries" and so reduce their need

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differs from the remainder of economic theory mainly because of the comparatively limited international mobility of the capital and labour. In that respect, it would appear to differ in degree rather than in principle from the trade between remote regions in one country. Thus the methodology of

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Of the moves toward integration that have occurred, the strongest has been in financial markets, in which globalisation is estimated to have tripled since the mid-1970s. Recent research has shown that it has improved risk-sharing, but only in developed countries, and that in the developing countries

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Quotas prompt foreign suppliers to raise their prices toward the domestic level of the importing country. That relieves some of the competitive pressure on domestic suppliers, and both they and the foreign suppliers gain at the expense of a loss to consumers, and to the domestic economy, in addition

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is concerned with the effects upon economic activity from international differences in productive resources and consumer preferences and the international institutions that affect them. It seeks to explain the patterns and consequences of transactions and interactions between the inhabitants of

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has a variety of meanings, but in economic terms it refers to the move that is taking place in the direction of complete mobility of capital and labour and their products, so that the world's economies are on the way to becoming totally integrated. The driving forces of the process are reductions

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Nevertheless, there have been widespread misgivings about the effects of international trade upon wage earners in developed countries. Samuelson's factor price equalisation theorem indicates that, if productivity were the same in both countries, the effect of trade would be to bring about equality

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There is a strong presumption that any exchange that is freely undertaken will benefit both parties, but that does not exclude the possibility that it may be harmful to others. However (on assumptions that included constant returns and competitive conditions) Paul Samuelson has proved that it will

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provides a logical explanation of international trade as the rational consequence of the comparative advantages that arise from inter-regional differences - regardless of how those differences arise. Since its exposition by David Ricardo the techniques of neo-classical economics have been applied

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One of their effects has been greatly to increase the international inter-connectedness of the financial markets and to create an international financial system with the characteristics known in control theory as "complex-interactive". The stability of such a system is difficult to analyse because

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offers a summary of the empirical evidence. The authors found little evidence either of the benefits of the liberalisation of capital movements, or of claims that it is responsible for the spate of financial crises. They suggest that net benefits can be achieved by countries that are able to

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does not differ in principle from the economics of international trade, but there are significant differences of emphasis. The practice of international finance tends to involve greater uncertainties and risks because the assets that are traded are claims to flows of returns that often extend many

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industrialisation is not that it is bound to fail, but that subsidies and tax incentives do the job better. It has also been pointed out that, in any case, trade restrictions could not be expected to correct the domestic market imperfections that often hamper the development of infant industries.

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study has suggested that there are further dynamic gains resulting from better resource allocation, deepening specialisation, increasing returns to R&D, and technology spillover. The authors found the evidence concerning growth rates to be mixed, but that there is strong evidence that a 1 per

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to identify from the available statistics, the contribution of particular factors among the many different factors that affect trade. One example of such an econometric model is the gravity equation. The contributions of differences of technology have been evaluated in several such studies. The

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Another corollary of the H–O theorem is Samuelson's factor price equalisation theorem which states that as trade between countries tends to equalise their product prices, it tends also to equalise the prices paid to their factors of production. Those theories have sometimes been taken to mean that

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Increased globalisation has also made it easier for recessions to spread from country to country. A reduction in economic activity in one country can lead to a reduction in activity in its trading partners as a result of its consequent reduction in demand for their exports, which is one of the

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Other researchers have found research and development expenditure, patents issued, and the availability of skilled labor, to be indicators of the technological leadership that enables some countries to produce a flow of such technological innovations and have found that technology leaders tend to

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of the H–O theorem, was an early example. In its most general form it states that if the price of a good rises (falls) then the price of the factor used intensively in that industry will also rise (fall) while the price of the other factor will fall (rise). In the international trade context for

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onwards, regulators and their economic advisors have been aware that economic and financial crises can spread rapidly from country to country, and that financial crises can have serious economic consequences. For many decades, that awareness led governments to impose strict controls over the

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For example, mismanagement of mortgage lending in the United States led in 2008 to banking failures and credit shortages in other developed countries, and sudden reversals of international flows of capital have often led to damaging financial crises in developing countries. And, because of the

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Whereas some studies suggest that parent countries can benefit from the emigration of skilled workers, generally it is emigration of unskilled and semi-skilled workers that is of economic benefit to countries of origin, by reducing pressure for employment creation. Where skilled emigration is

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Another study provides descriptive evidence suggesting that attempts at import substitution industrialisation since the 1970s have usually failed, but the empirical evidence on the question has been contradictory and inconclusive. It has been argued that the case against import substitution

1446:. Economic theory indicates that the movement of a skilled worker from a place where the returns to skill are relatively low to a place where they are relatively high should produce a net gain, although it would tend to depress the wages of skilled workers in the recipient country). 1473:

Unlike movement of capital and goods, since 1973 government policies have tried to restrict migration flows, often without any economic rationale. Such restrictions have had diversionary effects, channeling the great majority of migration flows into illegal migration and "false"

1132:. Any remaining international wage differences would then be the result of productivity differences, so that there would be no difference between unit labour costs in developing and developed countries, and no downward pressure on wages in the developed countries. 1048:

to it to model the patterns of trade that would result from various postulated sources of comparative advantage. However, extremely restrictive (and often unrealistic) assumptions have had to be adopted in order to make the problem amenable to theoretical analysis.

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results in a net gain in economic welfare. Wage differences between developed and developing countries have been found to be mainly due to productivity differences which may be assumed to arise mostly from differences in the availability of physical, social and

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goods that are produced by the extraction and routine processing of available natural resources—such as coal, oil and wheat, for which developing countries often have an advantage compared with other types of production—which might be referred to as "Ricardo

1384:, mainly by restoring their depleted currency reserves. Their loans are, however, conditional upon the introduction of economic measures by recipient governments that are considered by the Fund's economists to provide conditions favourable to recovery. 1376:

The IMF was set up in 1944 to encourage international cooperation on monetary matters, to stabilise exchange rates and create an international payments system. Its principal activity is the payment of loans to help member countries to overcome

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high-technology goods and high scale-economy goods, such as computers and aeroplanes, for which the comparative advantage arises from the availability of R&D resources and specific skills and the proximity to large sophisticated

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economies. Successful identification of such a situation, followed by the temporary imposition of a barrier against imports can, in principle, produce substantial benefits to the country that applies it—a policy known as

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Economists’ findings about the benefits of trade have often been rejected by government policy-makers, who have frequently sought to protect domestic industries against foreign competition by erecting barriers, such as

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Modern trade analysis moves away from the restrictive assumptions of the H-O theorem and explores the effects upon trade of a range of factors, including technology and scale economies. It makes extensive use of

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to the world economy. When quotas were banned under the rules of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the United States, Britain and the European Union made use of equivalent arrangements known as

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study suggests that if the share of foreign workers grew to 3% of the labour force in the rich countries there would be global benefits of $ 675 billion a year by 2025. However, a survey of the evidence led a

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mechanisms by which the business cycle is transmitted from country to country. Empirical research confirms that the greater the trade linkage between countries the more coordinated are their business cycles.

1630: 1369:" and some, such as Denmark, have retained their national currencies but have pegged them at a fixed rate to an adjacent common currency. On an international scale, the economic policies promoted by the 2787: 1531: 1406:

activities and conduct of banks and other credit agencies, but in the 1980s many governments pursued a policy of deregulation in the belief that the resulting efficiency gains would outweigh any

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meet threshold conditions of financial competence but that for others, the benefits are likely to be delayed, and vulnerability to interruptions of capital flows is likely to be increased.

3142: 1680: 1354:, some of them – together with many developing countries – maintain exchange rates that are nominally "fixed", usually with the US dollar or the euro. The adoption of a fixed rate requires 2360: 1330:

had claimed that if there were any resulting instability, it would mainly be the consequence of macroeconomic instability, but an empirical analysis in 1999 found no apparent connection.

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always be possible for the gainers from international trade to compensate the losers. Moreover, in that proof, Samuelson did not take account of the gains to others resulting from wider

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A major change in the organisation of international finance occurred in the latter years of the twentieth century, and economists are still debating its implications. At the end of the

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is more widely employed. Also, the consensus among economists concerning its principal issues is narrower and more open to controversy than is the consensus about international trade.

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and developing into a range of theorems that depend for their practical value upon the realism of their postulates. "Modern" trade analysis, on the other hand, depends mainly upon

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There has also been concern that international trade could operate against the interests of developing countries. Influential studies published in 1950 by the Argentine economist

1114:, from the international specialisation of productive activities - and consequent economies of scale, and from the transmission of the benefits of technological innovation. An 1224:, against imports. Average tariff levels of around 15 per cent in the late 19th century rose to about 30 percent in the 1930s, following the passage in the United States of the 1101:

low-technology goods, such as textiles and steel, that tend to migrate to countries with appropriate factor endowments—which might be referred to as "Heckscher-Ohlin goods"; and,

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But in 1971 the United States government announced that it was suspending the convertibility of the dollar, and there followed a progressive transition to the current regime of

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in the long-term, but which would be unable to survive in the face of competition from imported goods. This situation can occur when time is needed either to achieve potential

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The branch of trade theory which is conventionally categorized as "classical" consists mainly of the application of deductive logic, originating with Ricardo's Theory of

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has advanced the infant industry case for protection in developing countries and criticised the conditions imposed for help by the International Monetary Fund. Professor

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made two successive recommendations (Basel I and Basel II) concerning the regulation of banks, and a coordinating group of regulating authorities, and the

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Gary Hufbauer: "The Impact of National Characteristics and Technology on the Commodity Composition of Trade in Manufactured Goods" in Vernon op cit 1970

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Their recommended economic policies are broadly those that have been adopted in the United States and the other major developed countries (known as the "

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50% would set off a chain reaction in realignments of production and consumption patterns that would add an extra $ 26 billion to annual world income.

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Measures designed to reduce the vulnerability of the international financial system have been put forward by several international institutions. The

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it has increased macroeconomic volatility. It is estimated to have resulted in net welfare gains worldwide, but with losers as well as gainers. .

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suggested that there is a tendency for the prices of agricultural products to fall relative to the prices of manufactured goods; turning the

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Blattman, Christopher; Clemens, Michael A.; Williamson, Jeffrey G. (June 2003). "Who Protected and Why? Tariffs the World Around 1870–1938".

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Core Principles of Effective Banking Supervision Basel Committee on Banking Supervision, Bank for International Settlements 2006(Basel 2)

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Jagdish Bhagwati The Consensus for Free Trade Among economists — has it frayed? Lecture to the World Trade Organization October 8th 2007

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which it was devised it means that trade lowers the real wage of the scarce factor of production, and protection from trade raises it.

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by the country's central bank, and is usually accompanied by a degree of control over its citizens’ access to international markets.

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Subir Lall, Chris Papageorgiou and Petia Topalva Globalization and Inequality in IMF World Economic Outlook October 2007 Chapter 4

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Their findings have been confirmed by a number of subsequent studies, although it has been suggested that the effect may be due to

4323: 2988: 2724: 1595: 989: 901: 3736: 2976: 2788:"Catia Batista, Pedro Vicente and Aitor Lacuesta: "Brain Drain or Brain Gain?Micro: Evidence from an African Success Story", 2212:

Hallak, Juan Carlos; Levisohn, James (2008). "Fooling Ourselves: The Globalization and Growth Debate". In Zedillo, E. (ed.).

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From the standpoint of a developing country, the emigration of skilled workers represents a loss of human capital (known as

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temporary advantage arising from a country's development of a new technology is seen as contributory factor in one study.

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The essential guide to understanding why domestic companies will soon change their outsourcing focus from China to Mexico.

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against the developing countries and producing an unintended transfer of wealth from them to the developed countries.

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to export agricultural products. The arguments for and against such a policy are similar to those concerning the

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Frenkel, Jacob; Razin, Assaf (1987). "The Mundell–Fleming Model A Quarter Century Later: A Unified Exposition".

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House of Lords Select Committee on Economic Affairs Session 2007-8 HL paper 82, The Stationery Office, London

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and its extensions are often used to analyse the role of capital mobility (and it was also used by

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Globalisation is seen as contributing to economic welfare by most economists – but not all. Professor

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Kym Anderson and Alan Winter: "The Challenge of Reducing International Trade and Migration Barriers",

1738:. Links to article-abstract examples for each subclassification are at JEL Classification Codes Guide 4293: 3997: 3741: 3711: 3664: 3627: 3553: 3504: 3469: 3409: 3374: 3309: 3187: 1450: 1389: 1310: 939: 581: 403: 354: 319: 259: 224: 128: 118: 65: 1475: 4223: 4032: 3892: 3851: 3751: 3731: 3691: 3647: 3632: 3588: 3529: 3454: 3444: 3414: 3337: 3120: 2877: 1411: 1379: 1362: 1282: 963: 930: 807: 616: 476: 438: 379: 304: 294: 264: 191: 99: 3052: 2852: 1506:

Globalisation can also have a significant influence upon the conduct of macroeconomic policy. The

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Some governments have abandoned their national currencies in favour of the common currency of a

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Henry Thompson (2011). "International Economics: Global Markets and Competition (3rd Edition)"

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study flows of money across countries and the resulting effects on their economies as a whole.

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Singer, Hans (1950). "The Distribution of Gains between Investing and Borrowing Countries".

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Krueger, Anne; Tuncer, Bilge (1982). "An Empirical Test of the Infant Industry Argument".

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Samuelson, Paul (June 1949). "International Trade and the Equalization of Factor Prices".

1719: 1527: 1438: 1327: 1179: 1111: 1003:; national security and economic nationalism; and international agreements and observance. 870: 781: 746: 711: 646: 571: 556: 443: 418: 413: 389: 161: 156: 2685: 2868: 2247:"Domestic Distortions, Tariffs, and the Theory of Optimum Subsidy: Some Further Results" 4217: 4202: 4167: 4152: 4132: 4102: 3952: 3922: 3573: 3294: 3262: 3154: 2641: 2417: 1704: 1455: 1194: 1150: 981: 801: 786: 751: 736: 716: 686: 536: 506: 423: 113: 109: 17: 2985: 2017: 1410:

s. The extensive financial innovations that followed are described in the article on

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The Gains from Trade and the Gains from Aid: Essays in International Trade Theory

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Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, vol. XCVII p332 September 1953

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Understanding Exchange Rate Volatility Without the Contrivance of Macroeconomics

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Rybczyinski, Tadeusz (1955). "Factor Endowments and Relative Commodity Prices".

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Domestic Production and Foreign Trade: The American Capital Position Re-examined

1628: • A. Venables (2001), "International Trade: Economic Integration," 1576: 1540: 1535: 1463: 1145: 771: 761: 551: 186: 1228:. Mainly as the result of international agreements under the auspices of the 4097: 3897: 3674: 2947: 2287:

Baldwin, Robert (1969). "The Case against Infant-Industry Tariff Protection".

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across international financial markets, and the effects of these movements on

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There have been many econometric studies intended to quantify those gains. A

3947: 3877: 3324: 3254: 3246: 2136: 1596:"International Economics - London School of Economics and Political Science" 1561: 1373:(IMF) have had a major influence, especially upon the developing countries. 1067: 531: 462: 42: 2772: 1989:

Nordås, Hildegunn Kyvik; Miroudot, Sébastien; Kowalski, Przemyslaw (2006).

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Global Financial Stability Report International Monetary Fund April 2008

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Stolper, Wolfgang; Samuelson, Paul (1941). "Protection and Real Wages".

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has fewer applications than in the theory of international trade, and

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studies goods and services flows across international boundaries from

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Paul Streeten "Integration, Interdependence, and Globalization" in

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Bruton, Henry J. (1998). "A Reconsideration of Import Substitution".

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Elementary considerations lead to a presumption that international

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Chapter 7 John Murray, 1821. Third edition.(First published: 1817)

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1182:" is used to denote a new industry which has prospects of gaining 925:

different countries, including trade, investment and transaction.

2610:

Timothy Lane: "The Asian Financial Crisis; What Have We Learned"

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Bhagwati, Jagdish; Ramaswami, V. K.; Srinivasan, T. N. (1969).

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Ayhan Kose, Eswar Prasad, Kenneth Rogoff, and Shang-Jin Wei

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Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science

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On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation

1161:in the index numbers used or to the possession of 3210: 3125:International Trade and Globalisation, 3rd edition 2830:Fred Bergsten “The G-20 and the World Economy” in 1305:had agreed to maintain their currencies each at a 2871:Reaping the Benefits of Financial Globalisation 1281:incidence of rapid change, the methodology of 3005:Globalization and its Discontents" Norton 2002 2873:IMF Research Department Discussion Paper 2007 2031: 2029: 3231: 902: 8: 3067:This article incorporates material from the 2950:Analytical Afterthoughts on The Asian Crisis 1933:The Technology Factor in International Trade 1752:Studies in the Theory of International Trade 1051:The best-known of the resulting models, the 2834:Vol 5 Number 3 Page 28 July/September 2004 2628:The Russian Default and Contagion to Brazil 2220:. London and New York: Routledge. pp. 1709:Foundations of International Macroeconomics 1694: • Bennett T. McCallum (1996). 1356:intervention in the foreign exchange market 3238: 3224: 3216: 3167:Carnegie Endowment for International Peace 3030:Institute for International Economics 1997 2675:, Financial Stability Forum, February 2008 909: 895: 29: 2773:Aleksandr Grigoryan and Knar Khachatryan 2361:World Bank Global Economic Prospects 2004 2002: 1935:National Bureau of Economic Research 1970 3181:IIGG Interactive Guide to Global Finance 3163:Links for A-Z with much micro/macro too. 3111:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics 3101:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics 3090:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics 2915:International Monetary Fund Staff Papers 2717:"The Economic Benefits from Immigration" 2122:California School of Mines Working Paper 1914:International Trade and Technical Change 1690:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics 1677:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics 1667:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics 1621:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics 1611:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics 2759:Frederic Docquier and Hillel Rapoport 2436:Tariff and Non-tariff Barriers to Trade 1587: 41: 2878:Martin Evans and Viktoria Hnatkovska 2855:Who's Driving Financial Globalization? 2568:Financial Globalization: A Reappraisal 1995:OECD Trade Policy Working Paper No. 43 1230:General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 2420:International Trade Theory and Policy 1931: • Raymond Vernon (Ed): 1201:import substitution industrialization 7: 3160:Glossary of International Economics. 2054:pages 176 to 180 Yale Nota Bene 2005 1703: • Maurice Obstfeld and 2040:American Enterprise Institute: 1999 2038:Labor Costs and International Trade 1684: • Mario I. Blejer and 1539:these contentions has been made by 1293:Exchange rates and capital mobility 1754: : Harper and Brothers 1937] 1557:List of international trade topics 1459:a small reduction in local wages. 1423:Bank for International Settlements 1301:, the national signatories to the 25: 3173:" Analysis on the Global Economy. 3171:International Economics Bulletin. 2882:IMF Staff Papers Vol 54 No 2 2007 2570:IMF Working Paper WP/06/189 2006 2135:Chang, Ha-Joon (September 2002). 1649:(2008). "international finance," 1397:International financial stability 1170:of infant industries in general. 3761:neoclassical–Keynesian synthesis 3028:Has Globalization Gone Too Far?. 2853:Paolo Mauro and Jonathan Ostry 2725:Journal of Economic Perspectives 2599:, IMF Working Paper WP/00/7 2000 2348:Assessing the Cost of Protection 1696:International Monetary Economics 1514:to give a simple account of the 1259:to exclude innovatory products. 1066:, which is often described as a 876: 864: 49: 3075:", which is licensed under the 2892:Kose, M. 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OECD Trade Policy Papers. 1232:(GATT) and subsequently the 2582:The 1987 Stock Market Crash 2517:NBER Working Paper No. 8716 2373:"Trends in Market Openness" 1777:The Heckscher-Ohlin Theorem 1371:International Monetary Fund 1339:International Monetary Fund 1192:, or to acquire potential 1144:and the British economist 4340: 3835:Real business-cycle theory 2715:Borjas, George J. (1995). 1991:"Dynamic Gains from Trade" 1803:Review of Economic Studies 4275: 2869:IMF Research Department 2137:"Kicking Away the Ladder" 1927:Review of World Economics 1427:Financial Stability Forum 1346:Policies and institutions 1123:Factor price equalisation 1064:Stolper–Samuelson theorem 3199:Historical documents on 3127:. Stocksfield: Anforme. 2160:American Economic Review 2087:American Economic Review 1732:JEL classification codes 1234:World Trade Organization 139:JEL classification codes 4324:International economics 3475:Industrial organization 3305:Computational economics 3073:International economics 3041:Why Globalization Works 2974:Joseph Stiglitz website 2818:Finance and Development 2790:Oxford Economics Papers 2612:Finance and development 2541:p173 Phoenix Books 1966 2064:Prebisch, Raul (1950). 2052:Why Globalization Works 1319:floating exchange rates 1303:Bretton Woods Agreement 1256:precautionary principle 1226:Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act 1053:Heckscher-Ohlin theorem 1017:The economic theory of 1001:international sanctions 996:international relations 922:International economics 325:Industrial organization 182:Computational economics 18:International Economics 3680:Modern monetary theory 3345:Experimental economics 3315:Pluralism in economics 3300:Mathematical economics 2595:Akihiro and David Woo 2389:on September 10, 2006. 2382:. 1999. Archived from 1516:Asian financial crisis 177:Experimental economics 3205:international finance 3016:Dani Rodrik's website 2484:World Bank May, 2001" 2438:Farm Foundation 2002" 1567:Comparative advantage 1508:Mundell–Fleming model 1401:From the time of the 1274:international finance 1268:Scope and methodology 1263:International finance 1184:comparative advantage 1044:comparative advantage 1027:Comparative Advantage 1013:Scope and methodology 962:studies the flow of 959:International finance 3554:Social choice theory 3310:Behavioral economics 2688:Copenhagen Consensus 2434:"David Sumner et al 2380:OECD Economic Review 1838:The Economic Journal 1451:Copenhagen Consensus 1390:Washington Consensus 1311:United States dollar 1244:to which there is a 993:, a sub-category of 940:economic integration 404:Social choice theory 3638:American (National) 3338:Economic statistics 3207:available on FRASER 3201:international trade 3043:Yale Nota Bene 2005 2073:. Santiago: UNECLA. 1787:Wassily Leontief, 1412:financial economics 1380:balance of payments 1307:fixed exchange rate 1283:comparative statics 1019:international trade 1008:International trade 931:International trade 871:Business portal 192:Operations research 172:National accounting 3193:2013-05-22 at the 3079:but not under the 2991:2006-09-27 at the 2979:2008-05-09 at the 2840:2007-07-17 at the 2614:September 1999 IMF 1872:Rybczynski theorem 1718:2010-08-09 at the 1287:empirical analysis 1189:economies of scale 1031:empirical analysis 979:and international 976:monetary economics 202:Industrial complex 197:Middle income trap 4311: 4310: 3842:New institutional 3134:978-1-905504-10-7 2738:10.1257/jep.9.2.3 2231:978-0-415-77184-9 1705:Kenneth S. 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3396: 3393: 3391: 3388: 3386: 3383: 3381: 3378: 3376: 3373: 3371: 3368: 3367: 3363: 3361: 3357: 3351: 3348: 3346: 3343: 3339: 3336: 3335: 3334: 3331: 3330: 3328: 3326: 3322: 3316: 3313: 3311: 3308: 3306: 3303: 3301: 3298: 3296: 3293: 3289: 3286: 3284: 3281: 3279: 3276: 3274: 3271: 3269: 3266: 3265: 3264: 3261: 3260: 3258: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3241: 3236: 3234: 3229: 3227: 3222: 3221: 3218: 3212: 3209: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3196: 3192: 3189: 3185: 3182: 3178: 3175: 3172: 3168: 3165: 3162: 3161: 3156: 3153: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3096: 3092: 3091: 3086: 3084: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3065: 3064: 3060: 3054: 3049: 3046: 3042: 3036: 3033: 3029: 3023: 3020: 3017: 3012: 3009: 3006: 3000: 2997: 2994: 2990: 2987: 2982: 2978: 2975: 2969: 2966: 2963: 2958: 2955: 2952: 2951: 2948:Paul Krugman 2944: 2941: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2909: 2906: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2889: 2886: 2883: 2881: 2874: 2872: 2864: 2861: 2858: 2856: 2849: 2846: 2843: 2839: 2836: 2833: 2827: 2824: 2821: 2820:IMF June 2001 2819: 2812: 2809: 2798:on 2011-09-26 2797: 2793: 2791: 2783: 2780: 2777: 2776: 2769: 2766: 2763: 2762: 2755: 2752: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2726: 2718: 2711: 2709: 2705: 2702: 2697: 2694: 2691: 2689: 2682: 2679: 2676: 2674: 2668: 2665: 2662: 2657: 2654: 2651: 2649: 2643: 2637: 2634: 2631: 2629: 2621: 2618: 2615: 2613: 2606: 2603: 2600: 2598: 2591: 2588: 2585: 2583: 2577: 2574: 2571: 2569: 2562: 2559: 2556: 2554: 2547: 2544: 2540: 2534: 2531: 2526: 2525:10.3386/w8716 2522: 2518: 2511: 2504: 2501: 2490:on 2009-01-23 2489: 2485: 2483: 2475: 2472: 2469: 2464: 2461: 2450:on 2007-04-23 2446: 2439: 2437: 2429: 2426: 2423: 2421: 2414: 2411: 2406: 2402: 2396: 2393: 2385: 2381: 2374: 2368: 2365: 2362: 2357: 2354: 2350: 2349: 2343: 2340: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2320: 2317: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2291: 2283: 2280: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2248: 2241: 2238: 2233: 2227: 2223: 2218: 2217: 2208: 2205: 2200: 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1542: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1521: 1519: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1489: 1488:globalization 1482:Globalization 1481: 1479: 1477: 1471: 1467: 1465: 1460: 1457: 1452: 1447: 1445: 1444:human capital 1440: 1432: 1430: 1428: 1424: 1419: 1415: 1413: 1409: 1408:systemic risk 1404: 1396: 1394: 1392: 1391: 1385: 1383: 1381: 1374: 1372: 1368: 1365:such as the " 1364: 1363:currency area 1359: 1357: 1353: 1345: 1343: 1340: 1335: 1331: 1329: 1324: 1321: 1320: 1314: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1292: 1290: 1288: 1284: 1278: 1275: 1267: 1262: 1260: 1258: 1257: 1252: 1247: 1241: 1237: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1222:import quotas 1219: 1210: 1208: 1204: 1202: 1197: 1196: 1191: 1190: 1185: 1181: 1173: 1171: 1169: 1164: 1160: 1155: 1153: 1152: 1147: 1143: 1142:Raul Prebisch 1135: 1133: 1131: 1122: 1120: 1117: 1113: 1103: 1100: 1096: 1095: 1094: 1090: 1087: 1078: 1076: 1072: 1069: 1065: 1060: 1058: 1054: 1049: 1046: 1045: 1036: 1034: 1032: 1028: 1023: 1020: 1012: 1007: 1002: 998: 997: 992: 991: 987: 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440: 437: 435: 432: 430: 427: 425: 422: 420: 417: 415: 412: 410: 407: 405: 401: 400:Public choice 398: 396: 393: 391: 388: 386: 383: 381: 378: 376: 375:Participation 373: 371: 368: 366: 363: 361: 358: 356: 353: 351: 348: 346: 343: 341: 338: 336: 335:Institutional 333: 331: 328: 326: 323: 321: 318: 316: 313: 311: 308: 306: 303: 301: 298: 296: 293: 291: 288: 286: 285:Expeditionary 283: 281: 278: 276: 275:Environmental 273: 271: 268: 266: 263: 261: 258: 256: 253: 251: 248: 246: 243: 241: 238: 236: 233: 231: 228: 226: 223: 221: 218: 217: 211: 210: 203: 200: 198: 195: 193: 190: 188: 185: 183: 180: 178: 175: 173: 170: 168: 165: 163: 160: 158: 155: 154: 148: 147: 140: 137: 135: 132: 130: 127: 125: 122: 120: 117: 115: 111: 108: 106: 105:International 103: 101: 98: 96: 93: 91: 88: 87: 84: 81:Branches and 78: 77: 72: 69: 67: 64: 62: 59: 58: 57: 56: 52: 48: 47: 44: 40: 36: 32: 31: 19: 4299:Publications 4255:Publications 4222: 3818:Neoclassical 3808:Mercantilism 3717:Evolutionary 3579:Sociological 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Article 3. 2144: 2140: 2130: 2121: 2108: 2091: 2085: 2079: 2066: 2059: 2051: 2050:Martin Wolf 2046: 2037: 2019: 2018:Murray Kemp 2013: 1994: 1984: 1959: 1955: 1949: 1940: 1932: 1926: 1921: 1913: 1906: 1881: 1877: 1866: 1841: 1837: 1831: 1809:(1): 58–73. 1806: 1802: 1796: 1788: 1783: 1772: 1764: 1759: 1751: 1746: 1736:JEL: F51-F55 1726: 1713:Description. 1708: 1700:Description. 1695: 1689: 1676: 1666: 1661: 1650: 1642: 1629: 1620: 1609: 1604: 1590: 1525: 1512:Paul Krugman 1505: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1485: 1472: 1468: 1461: 1448: 1436: 1420: 1416: 1407: 1400: 1388: 1386: 1378: 1375: 1360: 1349: 1336: 1332: 1325: 1317: 1315: 1296: 1279: 1271: 1254: 1250: 1245: 1242: 1238: 1214: 1205: 1193: 1187: 1177: 1167: 1163:market power 1162: 1159:quality bias 1158: 1156: 1149: 1139: 1129: 1126: 1108: 1091: 1086:econometrics 1082: 1073: 1061: 1050: 1042: 1040: 1030: 1026: 1024: 1018: 1016: 994: 988: 980: 973: 957: 952:trade quotas 929: 921: 920: 841:Publications 806: 429:Sociological 402: / 300:Geographical 280:Evolutionary 255:Digitization 220:Agricultural 124:Mathematical 104: 95:Econometrics 4093:von Neumann 3862:Supply-side 3847:Physiocracy 3791:Marginalism 3480:Information 3420:Engineering 3400:Development 3395:Demographic 3278:Game theory 3255:Theoretical 3069:Citizendium 2732:(2): 3–22. 1698:. Oxford. 1577:Geopolitics 1541:Martin Wolf 1536:Dani Rodrik 1464:brain drain 1146:Hans Singer 677:von Neumann 330:Information 270:Engineering 250:Development 245:Demographic 187:Game theory 129:Methodology 4250:Economists 4123:Schumacher 4028:Schumpeter 3998:von Wieser 3918:von Thünen 3878:Economists 3777:Circuitism 3742:Humanistic 3737:Historical 3712:Ecological 3702:Democratic 3675:Chartalism 3665:Behavioral 3628:Mainstream 3589:Statistics 3584:Solidarity 3505:Managerial 3470:Humanistic 3465:Historical 3410:Ecological 3375:Behavioral 3061:References 2802:2009-06-27 2494:2009-06-27 2454:2009-06-27 2422:Chap 110-4 1730:As at the 1522:Opposition 1178:The term " 1168:protection 950:rates and 836:Economists 707:Schumacher 612:Schumpeter 582:von Wieser 502:von Thünen 463:economists 439:Statistics 434:Solidarity 355:Managerial 320:Humanistic 315:Historical 260:Ecological 225:Behavioral 119:Mainstream 4168:Greenspan 4133:Samuelson 4113:Galbraith 4083:Tinbergen 4023:von Mises 4018:Heckscher 3978:Edgeworth 3857:Stockholm 3852:Socialist 3752:Keynesian 3732:Happiness 3692:Classical 3653:Mutualism 3648:Anarchist 3633:Heterodox 3530:Personnel 3490:Knowledge 3455:Happiness 3445:Financial 3415:Education 3390:Democracy 3325:Empirical 3247:Economics 3143:Abstract. 3115:Abstract. 3105:Abstract. 3095:Abstract. 3071:article " 2311:154784307 2274:154714998 1878:Economica 1681:Abstract. 1655:Abstract. 1636:Abstract. 1625:Abstract. 1616:Abstract. 1562:Arbitrage 1486:The term 1439:migration 1433:Migration 1309:with the 1068:corollary 938:factors, 752:Greenspan 717:Samuelson 697:Galbraith 667:Tinbergen 607:von Mises 602:Heckscher 562:Edgeworth 380:Personnel 340:Knowledge 305:Happiness 295:Financial 265:Education 240:Democracy 134:Political 100:Heterodox 43:Economics 4318:Category 4279:Category 4259:journals 4245:Glossary 4198:Stiglitz 4163:Rothbard 4143:Buchanan 4128:Friedman 4118:Koopmans 4108:Leontief 4088:Robinson 3973:Marshall 3823:Lausanne 3727:Georgism 3722:Feminist 3670:Buddhist 3660:Austrian 3559:Regional 3535:Planning 3510:Monetary 3440:Feminist 3385:Cultural 3380:Business 3191:Archived 3123:(2007). 2989:Archived 2977:Archived 2838:Archived 1716:Archived 1707:(1996). 1671:Abstract 1551:See also 1382:problems 1367:Eurozone 1105:markets. 845:journals 831:Glossary 782:Stiglitz 747:Rothbard 727:Buchanan 712:Friedman 702:Koopmans 692:Leontief 672:Robinson 557:Marshall 461:Notable 409:Regional 385:Planning 360:Monetary 290:Feminist 235:Cultural 230:Business 35:a series 33:Part of 4294:Outline 4265:Schools 4257: ( 4218:Piketty 4213:Krugman 4078:Kuznets 4068:Kalecki 4043:Polanyi 3933:Cournot 3928:Bastiat 3913:Ricardo 3903:Malthus 3893:Quesnay 3796:Marxian 3687:Chicago 3617:history 3612:Schools 3599:Welfare 3569:Service 3360:Applied 2935:3867191 2746:9506404 2407:. 2006. 2199:2565125 2172:1812029 2100:1818065 1898:2551188 1858:2225933 1823:2967638 1530:of the 1218:tariffs 1098:goods"; 964:capital 851:Schools 843: ( 802:Piketty 797:Krugman 662:Kuznets 652:Kalecki 627:Polanyi 517:Cournot 512:Bastiat 497:Ricardo 487:Malthus 477:Quesnay 449:Welfare 419:Service 90:Applied 66:Outline 61:History 4203:Thaler 4183:Ostrom 4178:Becker 4173:Sowell 4153:Baumol 4058:Myrdal 4053:Sraffa 4048:Frisch 4038:Knight 4033:Keynes 4008:Fisher 4003:Veblen 3988:Pareto 3968:Menger 3963:George 3958:Jevons 3953:Walras 3943:Gossen 3867:Thermo 3545:Public 3540:Policy 3495:Labour 3460:Health 3131: 2933: 2902:368201 2900: 2744: 2690:, 2008 2334:431740 2332: 2309: 2272: 2228: 2224:–223. 2197: 2170: 2098: 1976:137133 1974: 1896: 1856: 1821: 948:tariff 787:Thaler 767:Ostrom 762:Becker 757:Sowell 737:Baumol 642:Myrdal 637:Sraffa 632:Frisch 622:Knight 617:Keynes 592:Fisher 587:Veblen 572:Pareto 552:Menger 547:George 542:Jevons 537:Walras 527:Gossen 395:Public 390:Policy 345:Labour 310:Health 167:Market 4289:Lists 4284:Index 4235:Lists 4208:Hoppe 4193:Lucas 4158:Solow 4148:Arrow 4138:Simon 4103:Lange 4098:Hicks 4073:Röpke 4063:Hayek 4013:Pigou 3983:Clark 3898:Smith 3813:Mixed 3772:Post- 3594:Urban 3574:Socio 3564:Rural 2931:JSTOR 2742:S2CID 2720:(PDF) 2513:(PDF) 2448:(PDF) 2441:(PDF) 2387:(PDF) 2376:(PDF) 2307:S2CID 2270:S2CID 2250:(PDF) 2195:JSTOR 2168:JSTOR 2118:(PDF) 2096:JSTOR 2071:(PDF) 1972:JSTOR 1894:JSTOR 1874:, in 1854:JSTOR 1819:JSTOR 1583:Notes 824:Lists 792:Hoppe 777:Lucas 742:Solow 732:Arrow 722:Simon 687:Lange 682:Hicks 657:Röpke 647:Hayek 597:Pigou 567:Clark 482:Smith 444:Urban 424:Socio 414:Rural 114:Macro 110:Micro 71:Index 4224:more 3948:Marx 3938:Mill 3923:List 3801:Neo- 3757:Neo- 3203:and 3129:ISBN 3081:GFDL 2898:SSRN 2405:OECD 2330:SSRN 2226:ISBN 1220:and 1116:OECD 1062:The 808:more 532:Marx 522:Mill 507:List 4188:Sen 3908:Say 3767:New 3500:Law 3179:. 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