Division of labour - Knowledge (XXG)

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put them into the paper; and the important business of making a pin is, in this manner, divided into about eighteen distinct operations, which, in some manufactories, are all performed by distinct hands, though in others the same man will sometimes perform two or three of them. I have seen a small manufactory of this kind, where ten men only were employed, and where some of them consequently performed two or three distinct operations. But though they were very poor, and therefore but indifferently accommodated with the necessary machinery, they could, when they exerted themselves, make among them about twelve pounds of pins in a day. There are in a pound upwards of four thousand pins of a middling size. Those ten persons, therefore, could make among them upwards of forty-eight thousand pins in a day. Each person, therefore, making a tenth part of forty-eight thousand pins, might be considered as making four thousand eight hundred pins in a day. But if they had all wrought separately and independently, and without any of them having been educated to this peculiar business, they certainly could not each of them have made twenty, perhaps not one pin in a day.

1370:, Smith famously argued that the difference between a street porter and a philosopher was as much a consequence of the division of labour as its cause. Therefore, while for Plato the level of specialisation determined by the division of labour was externally determined, for Smith it was the dynamic engine of economic progress. However, in a further chapter of the same book, Smith criticised the division of labour, saying that it makes man "as stupid and ignorant as it is possible for a human creature to become" and that it can lead to "the almost entire corruption and degeneracy of the great body of the people.…unless the government takes some pains to prevent it." The contradiction has led to some debate over Smith's opinion of the division of labour. 3867:

based on an equally divided knowledge has become possible. The people who like to deride any suggestion that this may so usually distort the argument by insinuating that it asserts that by some miracle just that sort of system has spontaneously grown up which is best suited to modern civilisation. It is the other way round: man has been able to develop that division of labour on which our civilisation is based because he happened to stumble upon a method which made it possible. Had he not done so, he might still have developed some other, altogether different, type of civilisation, something like the "state" of the termite ants, or some other altogether unimaginable type.

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work to support himself. And it is impossible for a man of many trades to do all of them well. In large cities, however, because many make demands on each trade, one alone is enough to support a man, and often less than one: for instance one man makes shoes for men, another for women, there are places even where one man earns a living just by mending shoes, another by cutting them out, another just by sewing the uppers together, while there is another who performs none of these operations but assembles the parts. Of necessity, he who pursues a very specialised task will do it best.

44: 1151:…like workmen in the street of the silversmiths, where one vessel, in order that it may go out perfect, passes through the hands of many, when it might have been finished by one perfect workman. But the only reason why the combined skill of many workmen was thought necessary, was, that it is better that each part of an art should be learned by a special workman, which can be done speedily and easily, than that they should all be compelled to be perfect in one art throughout all its parts, which they could only attain slowly and with difficulty. 4917:

their ordinary employments. The man whose whole life is spent in performing a few simple operations, of which the effects too are, perhaps, always the same, or very nearly the same, has no occasion to exert his understanding, or to exercise his invention in finding out expedients for removing difficulties which never occur. He naturally loses, therefore, the habit of such exertion, and generally becomes as stupid and ignorant as it is possible for a human creature to become.

982: 1346: 79: 4922: 3561: 1429: 3858: 1481: 1332:; but we shall be even more surprised, when we know how many different operations, most of them very delicate, are mandatory to make a good pin. We are going to go through these operations in a few words to stimulate the curiosity to know their detail; this enumeration will supply as many articles which will make the division of this work.… The first operation is to have brass go through the drawing plate to calibrate it.… 1282:

the least failure in either of these particulars must be attended with inevitable ruin and misery. Society provides a remedy for these three inconveniences. By the conjunction of forces, our power is augmented: By the partition of employment, our ability increases: And by mutual succour we are less exposed to fortune and accidents. 'Tis by this additional force, ability, and security, that society becomes advantageous.

3742: 906: 4516: 4420: 4313: 3960: 1199: 3796: 3643:. That is, some forms of labour co-operation are purely due to "technical necessity", but others are a result of a "social control" function related to a class and status hierarchy. If these two divisions are conflated, it might appear as though the existing division of labour is technically inevitable and immutable, rather than (in good part) socially constructed and influenced by 894: 3585: 4018: 3716:, Smith observes the division of labour results in "a proportionable increase of the productive powers of labour." While they shared this belief, Durkheim believed the division of labour applied to all "biological organisms generally," while Smith believed this law applied "only to human societies." This difference may result from the influence of 3573: 4389:) or by women (e.g., in clearing forests), but are only least-effort or role-consistent tendencies. To the extent that women clear forests for agriculture, for example, they tend to do the entire agricultural sequence of tasks on those clearings. In theory, these types of constraints could be removed by provisions of child care, but 1298: 4916:

In the progress of the division of labour, the employment of the far greater part of those who live by labour, that is, of the great body of people, comes to be confined to a few very simple operations, frequently one or two. But the understandings of the greater part of men are necessarily formed by

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Efficient policies to encourage employment and combat unemployment are essential if countries are to reap the full benefits of globalisation and avoid a backlash against open trade... Job losses in some sectors, along with new job opportunities in other sectors, are an inevitable accompaniment of the

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When every individual person labors apart, and only for himself, his force is too small to execute any considerable work; his labour being employed in supplying all his different necessities, he never attains a perfection in any particular art; and as his force and success are not at all times equal,

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in a chosen field later report increased satisfaction compared to their previous jobs. This can be attributed to their high levels of specialisation. The higher the training needed for the specialised job position, the higher is the level of job satisfaction as well, although many highly specialised

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The majority of workers in industry and services were wage and salary earners—58 per cent of the industrial workforce and 65 per cent of the services workforce. But a large portion was self-employed or involved in family labour. Filmer suggests the total of employees worldwide in the 1990s was about

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The price system is just one of those formations which man has learned to use (though he is still very far from having learned to make the best use of it) after he had stumbled upon it without understanding it. Through it, not only a division of labour but also a coordinated utilisation of resources

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Just as the various trades are most highly developed in large cities, in the same way, food at the palace is prepared in a far superior manner. In small towns, the same man makes couches, doors, ploughs and tables, and often he even builds houses, and still, he is thankful if only he can find enough

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as well as skills. Training and combinations of equipment and other assets acting together are often important. For example, an individual may specialise by acquiring tools and the skills to use them effectively just as an organisation may specialise by acquiring specialised equipment and hiring or

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There are also advantages in a reduced division of labour where knowledge would otherwise have to be transferred between stages. For example, having a single person deal with a customer query means that only that one person has to be familiar with the customer's details. It is also likely to result

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that the division of labour is limited by the extent of the market. This is because it is by the exchange that each person can be specialised in their work and yet still have access to a wide range of goods and services. Hence, reductions in barriers to exchange lead to increases in the division of

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Development of new technology: technological developments have led to a decrease in the amount of job specialisation in organisations as new technology makes it easier for fewer employees to accomplish a variety of tasks and still enhance production. New technology has also been helpful in the flow

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prevails in more advanced societies, while mechanical solidarity typifies less developed societies. He explains that in societies with more mechanical solidarity, the diversity and division of labour is much less, so individuals have a similar worldview. Similarly, Durkheim opines that in societies

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on Durkheim's writings. For example, Durkheim observed an apparent relationship between "the functional specialisation of the parts of an organism" and "the extent of that organism's evolutionary development," which he believed "extended the scope of the division of labour so as to make its origins

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All crafts, trades and arts have profited from the division of labour; for when each worker sticks to one particular kind of work that needs to be handled differently from all the others, he can do it better and more easily than when one person does everything. Where work is not thus differentiated

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One man draws out the wire; another straights it; a third cuts it; a fourth points it; a fifth grinds it at the top for receiving the head; to make the head requires two or three distinct operations; to put it on is a peculiar business; to whiten the pins is another; it is even a trade by itself to

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Silvermintz (2010) noted that "Historians of economic thought credit Plato, primarily on account of arguments advanced in his Republic, as an early proponent of the division of labour." Notwithstanding this, Silvermintz argues that "While Plato recognises both the economic and political benefits of

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and the use of multi-skilled work teams. For instance, one stage of a production process may temporarily work at a slower pace, forcing other stages to slow down. One answer to this is to make some portion of resources mobile between stages so that those resources must be capable of undertaking a

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But if one will wholly apply himself to the making of Bows and Arrows, whilst another provides Food, a third builds Huts, a fourth makes Garments, and a fifth Utensils, they not only become useful to one another, but the Callings and Employments themselves will in the same Number of Years receive

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of task durations and so are subject to subsequent revisions. Again, consolidating tasks so that they are undertaken consecutively by the same resources and having resources available that can be called on at short-notice from other tasks can help to reduce such problems, though at the cost of

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often leads to greater skill and greater productivity on their particular subtasks than would be achieved by the same number of workers each carrying out the original broad task, in part due to increased quality of production, but more importantly because of increased efficiency of production,

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the division of labour was necessary and useful. The similarity of the examples provided by these scholars with those provided by Adam Smith (such as al-Ghazali's needle factory and Tusi's claim that exchange, and by extension the division of labour, are the consequences of the human reasoning

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would build ships as units, finishing one before starting another. But the Dutch had it organised with several teams each doing the same tasks for successive ships. People with a particular task to do must have discovered new methods that were only later observed and justified by writers on

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of not using resources for other work, compared to the opportunity costs experienced by countries. Critics, however, allege that international specialisation cannot be explained sufficiently in terms of "the work nations do best", rather that this specialisation is guided more by

3811:. The primary argument is that the economic gains accruing from the division of labour far outweigh the costs, thus developing on the thesis that division of labour leads to cost efficiencies. It is argued that it is fully possible to achieve balanced human development within 3668:(1854), on the basis that it removes people from a sense of connectedness with society and with the world at large, including nature. He claimed that the average man in a civilised society is less wealthy, in practice than one in "savage" society. The answer he gave was that 1020:, pastoralism and agriculture led to more reliable and abundant food supplies, which increased the population and led to specialisation of labour, including new classes of artisans, warriors, and the development of elites. This specialisation was furthered by the process of 4253:

wider range of tasks. Another is to consolidate tasks so that they are undertaken one after another by the same workers and other resources. Stocks between stages can also help to reduce the problem to some extent but are costly and can hamper quality control. Modern

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Commitment division of labour, the style of the future, is oriented on including the employee and building a level of internal commitment towards accomplishing tasks. Tasks include more responsibility and are coordinated based on expertise rather than a formal

965:). Individuals, organisations, and nations are endowed with or acquire specialised capabilities, and either form combinations or trade to take advantage of the capabilities of others in addition to their own. Specialised capabilities may include equipment or 3635:

Additionally, Marx argued that the division of labour creates less-skilled workers. As the work becomes more specialised, less training is needed for each specific job, and the workforce, overall, is less skilled than if one worker did one job entirely.

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In 2006 the service sector's share of global employment overtook agriculture for the first time, increasing from 39.5 to 40 per cent. Agriculture decreased from 39.7 per cent to 38.7 per cent. The industry sector accounted for 21.3 per cent of total

1399:. For example, pin makers were organised with one making the head, another the body, each using different equipment. Similarly, he emphasised a large number of skills, used in cooperation and with suitable equipment, were required to build a ship. 4369:

across the full range of human societies can be summarised by a large number of logically complementary implicational constraints of the following form: if women of childbearing ages in a given community tend to do X (e.g., preparing soil for

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Division of labour, instead, refers to the allocation of tasks to individuals or organisations according to the skills and/or equipment those people or organisations possess. Often division of labour and division of work are both part of the

3632:: workers become more and more specialised and work becomes repetitive, eventually leading to complete alienation from the process of production. The worker then becomes "depressed spiritually and physically to the condition of a machine." 1071:

Well then, how will our state supply these needs? It will need a farmer, a builder, and a weaver, and also, I think, a shoemaker and one or two others to provide for our bodily needs. So that the minimum state would consist of four or five

6234: 1036:, were proponents of division of labour. Also, having workers perform single or limited tasks eliminated the long training period required to train craftsmen, who were replaced with less-paid but more productive unskilled workers. 4576:

A job divided into elemental parts is sometimes called "disaggregated work". Workers specialising in particular parts of the job are called professionals. The workers doing a portion of a non-recurring work may be called

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in a field and boosting organisational production. However, disadvantages of job specialisation included limited employee skill, dependence on entire department fluency, and employee discontent with repetitive tasks.

4385:. This type of finding has been replicated in a variety of studies, including those on modern industrial economies. These entailments do not restrict how much work for any given task could be done by men (e.g., in 1013:) culture, where assignment of jobs in some cities coincided with an increase in trade and economic interdependence. Division of labour generally also increases both producer and individual worker productivity. 1092:

the division of labour, he ultimately critiques this form of economic arrangement insofar as it hinders the individual from ordering his own soul by cultivating acquisitive motives over prudence and reason."

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It is widely accepted among economists and social theorists that the division of labour is, to a great extent, inevitable within capitalist societies, simply because no one can do all tasks at once. Labour

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By "division of this work," du Monceau is referring to the subdivisions of the text describing the various trades involved in the pin making activity; this can also be described as a division of labour.

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leading to a higher nominal output of units produced per time unit. Smith uses the example of a production capability of an individual pin maker compared to a manufacturing business that employed 10 men:

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by exploiting the poverty of workers in the developing world, where wages are much lower. These increased profits enable these companies to pay higher wages and taxes in the developed world (which fund

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The division of labour was discussed by multiple medieval Persian scholars. They considered the division of labour between members of a household, between members of society and between nations. For

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with more organic solidarity, the diversity of occupations is greater, and individuals depend on each other more, resulting in greater benefits to society as a whole. Durkheim's work enabled

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880 million, compared with around a billion working on their own account on the land (mainly peasants), and some 480 million working on their own account in industry and services. The 2007

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Kelly, E. L.; Goldberg, L. R. (1959). "Correlates of later performance and specialization in psychology: A follow-up study of the trainees assessed in the VA Selection Research Project".

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or technological progress are possible because human and physical capital are matched, usually in an organisation. See also a short discussion of Adam Smith's theory in the context of

6650:. Speakers: Bina Agarwal, Martin Baily, Jean-Louis Beffa, Richard N. Cooper, Jan Fagerberg, Elhanan Helpman, Shelly Lundberg, Valentina Meliciani, Peter Nunnenkamp. Recorded in 2009. 3651:

society, the division of labour is transcended, meaning that balanced human development occurs where people fully express their nature in the variety of creative work that they do.

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is a very common feature of the modern capitalist workplace structure, and the way these hierarchies are structured can be influenced by a variety of different factors, including:

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foresaw the essence of industrialism by determining that division of labour represents a substantial increase in productivity. Like du Monceau, his example was the making of pins.

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capability and that no animals have been observed to exchange one bone for another) led some scholars to conjecture that Smith was influenced by the medieval Persian scholarship.

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process of globalisation... The challenge is to ensure that the adjustment process involved in matching available workers with new job openings works as smoothly as possible.

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in which a specific task is performed by a mechanical device, instead of an individual labourer. This method of production is significantly more effective in both yield and

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Marx argued that increasing the specialisation may also lead to workers with poorer overall skills and a lack of enthusiasm for their work. He described the process as

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in first world countries), thus creating a working class satisfied with their standard of living and not inclined to revolution. This concept is further explored in

4086:(produces the most and best output with the least input) will generally be adopted. Often, techniques that work in one place or time do not work as well in another. 1867: 3734:" and worked to determine whether it should be embraced or resisted by first analysing its functions. Durkheim hypothesised that the division of labour fosters 3705:

observes that the division of labour appears in all societies and positively correlates with societal advancement because it increases as a society progresses.

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As social solidarity cannot be directly quantified, Durkheim indirectly studies solidarity by "classify the different types of law to find...the different

936: 868: 1642: 1517: 6049: 4374:) they will also do Y (e.g., the planting); while for men the logical reversal in this example would be that if men plant, they will prepare the soil. 4590: 3615: 6430: 4771:

Silvermintz, Daniel (2010). "Plato's Supposed Defense of the Division of Labor: A Reexamination of the Role of Job Specialisation in the Republic".

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labour and so help to drive economic growth. Limitations to the division of labour have also been related to coordination and transportation costs.

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refers to the division of a large task, contract, or project into smaller tasks—each with a separate schedule within the overall project schedule.

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agreed with Smith: "Nothing tends to materialize man, and to deprive his work of the faintest trace of mind, more than extreme division of labor."

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White, Brudner, and Burton's (1977) "Entailment Theory and Method: A Cross-Cultural Analysis of the Sexual Division of Labor", using statistical

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contemporaneous with the origins of life itself…implying that its conditions must be found in the essential properties of all organised matter."

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often add to this analysis by defending that the presence of coercive hierarchy in any form is contrary to the values of liberty and equality.

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wrote a seminal work "On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures" analysing perhaps for the first time the division of labour in factories.

6683: 6482: 6292: 5892: 5857: 5724: 5693: 5628: 5565: 5362: 5330: 5311:, "dedicated himself to the establishment of sociology as a legitimate and respected science and as an instrument of rational social action." 5251: 5223: 4909: 4828: 3336: 3263: 1712: 4665: 4036: 4028: 4988: 4067:

In the modern world, those specialists most preoccupied in their work with theorising about the division of labour are those involved in

4537: 4441: 4330: 4237:'). Jobs that are too specialised in a narrow range of tasks are said to result in demotivation due to boredom and alienation. Hence, a 3977: 3917:

and national statistical offices. In one study, Deon Filmer estimated that 2.474 billion people participated in the global non-domestic

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saw the very idea of a task being performed by a specialised mechanical device as being the greatest achievement of division of labour.

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Durkheim arrived at the same conclusion regarding the positive effects of the division of labour as his theoretical predecessor,

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Rummel, Jeffrey L.; Walter, Zhiping; Dewan, Rajiv; Seidman, Abraham (2005). "Activity consolidation to improve responsiveness".

5993: 5532: 4273: 3847: 3764:, a sense of unity resulting from individuals engaging in similar work who hold shared backgrounds, traditions, and values; and 2848: 2254: 2096: 1974: 1677: 1577: 1532: 1218:

was the first modern writer to take note of the division of labour, showing its has worth in existence and usefulness in Dutch

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analysis, shows that tasks more frequently chosen by women in these order relations are those more convenient in relation to

4334: 4249: 3981: 1894: 1792: 1682: 1607: 1321: 6170:"Effects of Job Specialization and Departmentalization on Job Satisfaction among the Staff of a Nigerian University Library" 4973: 3816: 3629: 1772: 1238:. His breakthrough was to divide up the work so that large parts of it could be done by people with no extensive training. 6693: 6688: 4401:

Job satisfaction has been shown to improve as an employee is given the task of a specific job. Students who have received

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It is often argued that the most equitable principle in allocating people within hierarchies is that of true (or proven)

3888:. This would mean that countries specialise in the work they can do at the lowest relative cost measured in terms of the 6601: 6567: 5537: 4926: Curiously, this edition's Index carries no reference to this instance of usage of the phrase 'division of labour.' 4670: 4147: 2818: 2698: 1872: 1787: 1632: 4248:

variations and uncertainties. These help to explain issues in modern work organisation, such as task consolidations in

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Global Employment Trends Report indicated that services have surpassed agriculture for the first time in human history:

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in the query being handled faster due to the elimination of delays in passing the query between different people.

4101:, the style of the past, is based on the principles of job specialisation and the division of labour. This is the 4083: 3970: 2245: 43: 6376: 4298: 3640: 2129: 1747: 1707: 1637: 1622: 1137:, Augustine seems to be aware of the role of different social layers in the production of goods, like household ( 282: 5975: 1206: 1131:

shows that the division of labour was practised and understood in late Imperial Rome. In a brief passage of his

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Divided world, divided class : global political economy and the stratification of labour under capitalism

3774:, a society in which individuals engage in different kinds of work that benefit society and other individuals. 604: 3803:

Marx's theories, including his negative claims regarding the division of labour, have been criticised by the

6505: 5168: 3496: 3476: 2309: 2041: 1924: 1777: 1742: 1562: 1557: 1512: 554: 362: 352: 312: 302: 209: 132: 6673: 5388: 3424: 2748: 2154: 2086: 2076: 2064: 1996: 724: 569: 307: 247: 204: 151: 4082:, such things are not decided consciously. Different people try different things, and that which is most 539: 5014: 4938: 4221: 3885: 2568: 2413: 2016: 1989: 1847: 1797: 1717: 1662: 1371: 1355: 1262: 1025: 858: 514: 499: 357: 297: 277: 272: 6496: 4105:

style of job specialisation, where employees are given a very narrow set of tasks or one specific task.

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claim hierarchy is created to support the power structures in capitalist societies which maintain the

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Size: as organisations increase in size, there is a correlation in the rise of the division of labour.

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and divided, where everyone is a jack-of-all-trades, the crafts remain at an utterly primitive level.

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Few studies have taken place regarding the global division of labour. Information can be drawn from

1266:(1714). This elaborates many matters raised by the original poem about a 'Grumbling Hive'. He says: 6329: 3881: 3804: 3676: 3659: 3540: 3491: 3193: 3013: 2948: 2503: 2144: 2124: 2119: 2011: 2001: 1949: 1939: 1857: 1837: 1692: 1612: 1507: 1029: 962: 835: 644: 504: 466: 407: 332: 322: 292: 219: 127: 51: 4844:

Hosseini, Hamid (1998). "Seeking the Roots of Adam Smith's Division of Labor in Medieval Persia".

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There are also limitations to the division of labour (and the division of work) that result from

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would be used. Smith's insight suggests that the huge increases in productivity obtainable from

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much greater Improvements, than if all had been promiscuously followed by every one of the Five.

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Social Institutions and the Politics of Recognition: From the Ancient Greeks to the Reformation

1345: 17: 6524: 6516: 6478: 6404: 6394: 6317: 6306: 6298: 6288: 6203: 6016: 5898: 5888: 5863: 5853: 5820: 5785: 5720: 5689: 5634: 5624: 5599: 5571: 5561: 5412: 5358: 5326: 5302: 5257: 5247: 5219: 5185: 5048: 4995: 4905: 4824: 4748: 4650: 4493: 4489: 4204: 3738:, yielding "a wholly moral phenomenon" that ensures "mutual relationships" among individuals. 3735: 3702: 3644: 3577: 3506: 3466: 3444: 3173: 3138: 2968: 2873: 2808: 2758: 2728: 2648: 2623: 2573: 2383: 2314: 2288: 2240: 2169: 2149: 2021: 1984: 1964: 1954: 1944: 1917: 1879: 1822: 1228: 1064: 1021: 1002: 754: 729: 679: 639: 519: 476: 412: 377: 367: 199: 161: 117: 4744: 4229:

There can be motivational advantages to a reduced division of labour (which has been termed ‘

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Among Marx's theoretical contributions is his sharp distinction between the economic and the

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processes. The concept and implementation of division of labour has been observed in ancient

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Two styles of management that are seen in modern organisations are control and commitment:

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Adeyoyin, S. O.; Agbeze-Unazi, F.; Oyewunmi, O. O.; Adegun, A. I.; Ayodele, R. O. (2015).

6057: 5428: 5151: 5027: 4921: 4700: 4680: 4625: 4620: 4598: 4265: 4230: 3857: 3518: 3409: 3356: 3268: 3203: 3183: 3123: 3018: 2993: 2958: 2953: 2943: 2913: 2868: 2858: 2723: 2663: 2618: 2583: 2563: 2523: 2498: 2344: 2263: 1959: 1889: 1627: 1417: 1133: 1033: 954: 898: 809: 774: 739: 674: 599: 584: 471: 446: 441: 417: 189: 184: 6106:"Entailment Theory and Method: A Cross-Cultural Analysis of the Sexual Division of Labor" 4294: 4142:

of information between departments helping to reduce the feeling of department isolation.

3361: 2928: 6397:, Antti Parpo, and Lina Eriksson. 2008. "Household Regimes Matter." Pp. 197–257 in 6385:

Moral Sentiments and Material Interests: The Foundations of Cooperation in Economic Life

1395:

Smith saw the importance of matching skills with equipment—usually in the context of an

6596: 6468: 6451: 6372: 6276: 6189: 6116: 5929: 4705: 4635: 4586: 4234: 3784: 3717: 3523: 3351: 3253: 3188: 3178: 3168: 3163: 3083: 3063: 3053: 3043: 3033: 3003: 2983: 2923: 2918: 2903: 2888: 2878: 2798: 2778: 2768: 2763: 2753: 2678: 2653: 2643: 2638: 2613: 2603: 2578: 2493: 2488: 2483: 2458: 2139: 2071: 2026: 1802: 1647: 1138: 829: 814: 779: 764: 744: 714: 564: 534: 451: 141: 137: 6064: 5945:"Future work design research and practice: Towards an elaborated model of work design" 5762:

Heuer, Jan-Ocko; Lux, Thomas; Mau, Steffen; Zimmermann, Katharina (16 November 2020).

6657: 6528: 6418: 6264: 6012: 5595:

Unequal development : an essay on the social formations of peripheral capitalism

5465: 5205: 5191: 4737: 4660: 4615: 4102: 3877: 3827: 3218: 3088: 3078: 2988: 2863: 2743: 2718: 2713: 2683: 2608: 2513: 2463: 2388: 2373: 2319: 2293: 2051: 1832: 1443: 1404: 1375: 1215: 794: 784: 759: 699: 694: 689: 669: 659: 629: 619: 524: 427: 6032: 6028: 5971: 5673: 6575: 6512: 6488: 5685: 5098: 4710: 4695: 4690: 4390: 4382: 4072: 3757: 3741: 3461: 3283: 3258: 3223: 3153: 3148: 3133: 3118: 3068: 3058: 2908: 2893: 2883: 2833: 2803: 2788: 2773: 2738: 2558: 2518: 2468: 2418: 2339: 2283: 1396: 958: 910: 824: 769: 664: 654: 649: 574: 122: 6423:

The Division of Labour: The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism

5916:

Houthakker, H. S. (1956). "Economics and Biology: Specialization and Speciation".

4138:

Cost: cost limits small organisations from dividing their labour responsibilities.

3730:

Since Durkheim's division of labour applied to all organisms, he considered it a "

32:"Economic specialization" redirects here. For a list of economic specialties, see 6260: 5764:"Legitimizing Inequality: The Moral Repertoires of Meritocracy in Four Countries" 4895: 6256: 5122:

Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals by Immanuel Kant - Free Ebook

4515: 4419: 4312: 4290: 4187: 4183: 4155: 4151: 3959: 3731: 3298: 3243: 3198: 3093: 3038: 2963: 2793: 2783: 2688: 2668: 2628: 2553: 2543: 2533: 2334: 2031: 1929: 1904: 1592: 1527: 1413: 1198: 1103:, in the 4th century BC, makes a passing reference to division of labour in his 1010: 799: 789: 579: 214: 6090: 5069:"An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, by Adam Smith" 3795: 6622: 6564: 6380: 6284: 5780: 5603: 5357:. Masters of social theory (4 ed.). Newbury Park, California: Sage Publ. 5215: 5180: 4857: 4784: 4582: 4378: 4216: 4079: 4068: 3812: 3787:

to progress more efficiently "in…the understanding of human social behavior."

3709: 3293: 3103: 2933: 2843: 2838: 2828: 2708: 2633: 2593: 2588: 2428: 2228: 2203: 1899: 1522: 1409: 1360: 1181: 1105: 998: 709: 509: 6502:] The Shape of the Division of Labour: Nations, Industries and Households 6310: 6020: 5902: 5867: 5824: 5789: 5638: 5575: 5261: 6235:

Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century

5963: 4675: 4655: 4238: 4173: 4128: 3918: 3648: 3528: 3471: 3419: 3399: 3228: 2853: 2448: 2403: 2213: 1301: 559: 490: 70: 37: 5618: 4161:

This claim, however, is often disputed by various sources, particularly:

893: 6412: 4594: 4371: 4245: 3894: 3687:

citizenry is vital for the spiritual and physical health of the country.

3454: 3449: 3248: 2329: 1782: 1382: 1223: 1219: 1100: 5832: 5479:

Alpert, Harry (1959). "Emile Durkheim: A Perspective and Appreciation".

5275:

Alpert, Harry (1959). "Emile Durkheim: A Perspective and Appreciation".

5120: 3584: 989:

An increasing division of labour is associated with the growth of total

6610: 6224: 5620:

Scientific management : a management idea to reach a mass audience

5500: 5457: 5296: 5244:

Scientific management : a management idea to reach a mass audience

4640: 4406:

jobs can be monotonous and produce high rates of burnout periodically.

4386: 4337: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 4200: 4165: 3984: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2223: 1472: 1235: 6599:

1951. "The Division of Labor is Limited by the Extent of the Market."

5804: 5593: 4241:

approach to work design contributed to worsened industrial relations.

3834:, and utilises the division of labour to the fullest extent possible. 6548: 6154: 5882: 5847: 5816: 5555: 4114: 3684: 3664: 2218: 970:

training skilled operators. The division of labour is the motive for

27:

Separation of tasks in any system so that participants may specialise

6213:—— 1985. "Human Capital, Effort, and the Sexual Division of Labor." 5492: 5444:

Merton, Robert K (1994). "Durkheim's Division of Labor in Society".

5288: 4158:

or as a justification of why a division of labour is the way it is.

1381:

The specialisation and concentration of the workers on their single

6428:

Groenewegen, Peter. 1987. "division of labour." Pp. 901–07 in

6339:

Filmer, Deon. "Estimating the World at Work" (a background report).

1378:

shared similar views to Smith, though was generally more negative.

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White, Douglas R.; Burton, Michael L.; Brudner, Lilyan A. (1977).

3740: 1427: 1367: 1344: 1050: 1006: 994: 980: 971: 3880:, which is often interpreted as a euphemism for the expansion of 3901: 3876:

The issue reaches its broadest scope in the controversies about

6192:

1991. "Division of Labor in Households and Families." Ch. 2 in

5884:

Imperialism: the highest stage of capitalism: a popular outline

4172:

as the owner of the labour of workers, in order to exploit it.

4946: 4897:

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4884:, by R. Réaumur, and A. de Ferchault. Paris: Saillant et Nyon. 4509: 4413: 4306: 4011: 3953: 1753:

Their Morals and Ours: The class foundations of moral practice

1356:

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1329: 6250:

Women's Work, Men's Property: The Origins of Gender and Class

4264:, the coordination of resources is a difficult issue for the 5943:

Parker, Sharon K.; Wall, Toby D.; Cordery, John L. (2001).

5431:, Department of Sociology. Web. Retrieved 16 November 2012. 1723:

An Introduction to the Three Volumes of Karl Marx's Capital

6549:

Freedom, Inequality, Primitivism and the Division of Labor

4972:. New York, NY: J. & H. G. Langley. p. 4943:

An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought

4739:

Exploring the Black Box: Technology, economics and history

4113:

Job specialisation is advantageous in developing employee

3925:

around 15%, or 379 million people, worked in the industry;

1328:

There is nobody who isn't surprised of the small price of

1067:

of humanity, which is embodied in the division of labour:

6050:

Skill, Job Design, and the Labor Market under Uncertainty

6497: 1543:

The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State

6648:

Conference: "The New International Division of Labour"

5952:

Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology

5744:

McAlister-Kizzier, Donna. 2007. "Division of Labor."

4989:"Adam Smith, Adam Ferguson and the Division of Labor" 4257:

require both flexible machines and flexible workers.

5740: 5738: 5736: 5658:. BANGKOK: ILO News. 25 January 2007. Archived from 5355:

Emile Durkheim: an introduction to four major works

3897:criteria, which favour some countries over others. 6001:Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics 5186:Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, Volume 1 4736: 1304:of the first page of du Monceau's introduction to 1234:Petty also applied the principle to his survey of 5719:. New York, NY, USA: Bantam Dell. pp. 9–27. 5376: 5374: 5849:Philosophical anarchism and political obligation 5805:"Marxism and Class Theory: A Bourgeois Critique" 5439: 5437: 5095:"Babbage: pioneer economist by Nathan Rosenberg" 6587:Human Society: The Ricardian Law of Association 5680:, The World Bank, pp. 9–14, 30 June 1995, 3906: 3864: 3753:which correspond to it." Durkheim categorises: 1326: 1279: 1268: 1149: 1115: 1069: 5348: 5346: 5344: 5342: 5144:Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 3928:a third, or 800 million worked in services and 3760:and their respective punishments as promoting 1032:as well as some mechanical engineers, such as 6403:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 6143:Psychological Monographs: General and Applied 6113:BEHAVIOR SCIENCE RESEARCH VOLUME 12, NUMBER 1 4365:The clearest exposition of the principles of 4272:and resulting resource bookings are based on 4190:countries necessitated by companies (through 3609: 1503:The Condition of the Working Class in England 1260:discussed the matter in the second volume of 930: 8: 6539:, Valentina Meliciani, and Peter Nunnenkamp. 6400:Discretionary Time: A New Measure of Freedom 5656:"ILO releases Global Employment Trends 2007" 5623:. New Delhi: Global India Pub. p. 136. 4807:by M. I. Finley. Penguin books 1992, p. 135. 4182:see the globalised labour hierarchy between 3679:, criticised the division of labour in his " 1498:Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 1402:In the modern economic discussion, the term 6431:The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics 5409:Sociology: Understanding a Diverse Society. 4544:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 4448:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 3931:over 40%, or 1,074 million, in agriculture. 3872:Globalisation and global division of labour 3655:Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson 1308:, with "division de ce travail" highlighted 5994:"The Division of Labour under Uncertainty" 4894:Smith, Adam (1976) . Cannan, Edwin (ed.). 3616: 3602: 2190: 1643:Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses 1518:The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte 1459: 1446:notes the value of the division of labour: 1324:writes about the "division of this work": 937: 923: 57: 5779: 4823:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 127. 4605:for various kinds of disaggregated work. 4564:Learn how and when to remove this message 4480:In contrast to the division of labour, a 4468:Learn how and when to remove this message 4353:Learn how and when to remove this message 4055:Learn how and when to remove this message 4000:Learn how and when to remove this message 6636:Summary of Smith's example of pin-making 6491:, and Jean-Philippe Touffut, eds. 2010. 6363:The New International Division of Labour 6361:Froebel, F., J. Heinrichs, and O. Krey. 6079:European Journal of Operational Research 5305:, best known for his 1893 seminal work, 3856: 3819:is downplayed as mere romantic fiction. 3794: 3647:relationships. He also argues that in a 1296: 1245: 1205: 1197: 42: 4743:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 4727: 3672:was enough to cover one's basic needs. 2301: 2253: 2193: 1471: 1439:Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals 69: 5023: 5012: 2424:Socialism with Chinese characteristics 953:is the separation of the tasks in any 6591:Human Action: A Treatise on Economics 6577:Human Action: A Treatise on Economics 5650: 5648: 5587: 5585: 5549: 5547: 5516:Human Action: A Treatise on Economics 5237: 5235: 4207:, notably by Samir Amin and Zak Cope. 3826:, the idea has led to the concept of 3662:criticised the division of labour in 3337:Critique: Journal of Socialist Theory 1713:Change the World Without Taking Power 961:so that participants may specialise ( 7: 6565:Human Society: The Division of Labor 5746:Encyclopedia of Business and Finance 4869: 4867: 4766: 4764: 4666:New international division of labour 4542:adding citations to reliable sources 4446:adding citations to reliable sources 4397:Industrial organisational psychology 4335:adding citations to reliable sources 3982:adding citations to reliable sources 6474:Capitalism: A Treatise on Economics 1668:Marxism and the Oppression of Women 1598:Theses on the Philosophy of History 1001:, and the increasing complexity of 6269:The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism 5930:10.1111/j.1467-6435.1956.tb02717.x 5426:Sociology 138: Theory and Society. 5210:. London: Macmillan Education UK. 4686:Productive and unproductive labour 4027:tone or style may not reflect the 1028:-era factories. Accordingly, many 25: 6323:The Division of Labour in Society 6048:Barrera, Catherine Grace. 2014. " 5158:. § First Manuscript, p. 72. 4945:. Mises Institute. Archived from 1688:Time, Labor and Social Domination 36:. For branches of the field, see 6356:The Flight of the Creative Class 6013:10.1628/093245613X13620416111326 5383:The Division of Labor in Society 5308:De La Division Du Travail Social 5301:A founding father of sociology, 4920: 4514: 4418: 4311: 4037:guide to writing better articles 4016: 3958: 3698:The Division of Labor in Society 3583: 3571: 3559: 3395:21st-century communist theorists 1738:Towards Socialism or Capitalism? 1653:How Europe Underdeveloped Africa 1573:Essays on Marx's Theory of Value 1479: 1222:. Classically, the workers in a 904: 892: 77: 6477:. Laguna Hills, CA: TJS Books. 6463:Marx and the Division of Labour 6174:Library Philosophy and Practice 5881:Lenin, Vladimir Ilʹich (2010). 5674:"Introduction: A World at Work" 5533:The Use of Knowledge in Society 5321:Smith, Adam (23 January 2012). 5246:. New Delhi: Global India Pub. 5207:Marx and the Division of Labour 4968:Tocqueville, Alexis de (1841). 4874:du Monceau, Henri-Louis Duhamel 4817:Burns, Anthony (16 July 2020). 4322:needs additional citations for 4250:business process re-engineering 3969:needs additional citations for 3848:The Use of Knowledge in Society 2097:Theory of historical trajectory 1975:Dictatorship of the proletariat 1678:Hegemony and Socialist Strategy 1578:History and Class Consciousness 1533:Critique of the Gotha Programme 1210:Petty - Economic Writings, 1899 179:Concepts, theory and techniques 18:International division of labor 6348:The Rise of the Creative Class 5686:10.1596/9780195211023_chapter1 5132:– via Project Gutenberg. 4970:Democracy in America: Volume I 4255:flexible manufacturing systems 1895:Socially necessary labour time 1793:Philosophy in the Soviet Union 1683:The Sublime Object of Ideology 1608:A Critique of Soviet Economics 1322:Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau 1293:Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau 985:Division of labour CPU and GPU 1: 5678:World Development Report 1995 3683:" speech: a widely informed, 3675:Thoreau's friend and mentor, 1816:Critique of political economy 6684:Production and manufacturing 6602:Journal of Political Economy 6456:Sexual and Social Revolution 5481:American Sociological Review 5277:American Sociological Review 4846:History of Political Economy 4773:History of Political Economy 4671:Newly industrialised country 4150:or ability. This concept of 4090:Styles of division of labour 3921:in the mid-1990s. Of these: 1853:Falling profit-rate tendency 1633:The Society of the Spectacle 6052:" (Doctoral dissertation). 5846:Magda, Egoumenides (2014). 5353:Jones, Robert Alun (1992). 4939:"The Celebrated Adam Smith" 4902:University of Chicago Press 4601:, which is orchestrated by 4285:Gendered division of labour 3904:advised in June 2005 that: 3327:Capitalism Nature Socialism 1843:Concrete and abstract labor 1733:Capital in the Anthropocene 1658:Social Justice and the City 1553:The Accumulation of Capital 6710: 6367:Cambridge University Press 6216:Journal of Labor Economics 6091:10.1016/j.ejor.2003.07.015 5715:Smith, Adam (March 2003). 5047:. London: Atlantic Books. 4735:Rosenberg, Nathan (1993). 4591:communication technologies 4503: 4288: 3751:types of social solidarity 1603:Dialectic of Enlightenment 1288:A Treatise on Human Nature 31: 6285:10.4135/9781412965811.n79 5781:10.1163/15691330-BJA10017 5216:10.1007/978-1-349-16829-3 4858:10.1215/00182702-30-4-653 4785:10.1215/00182702-2010-036 4367:sexual division of labour 4299:Sexual division of labour 3641:social division of labour 1748:Literature and Revolution 1708:Late Victorian Holocausts 1638:Pedagogy of the Oppressed 1623:The Wretched of the Earth 1353:In the first sentence of 6617:World Development Report 6557:. Retrieved 2 July 2020. 6200:Harvard University Press 6195:A Treatise on the Family 5598:. Monthly Review Press. 5538:American Economic Review 5380:Durkheim, Emile. 1997. 5169:Wage Labor & Capital 5148:Karl Marx Early Writings 5044:On the Wealth of Nations 4716:Winner and loser culture 4303:Occupational segregation 4277:reduced specialisation. 3861:Friedrich Hayek portrait 3723:On the Origin of Species 1698:The Origin of Capitalism 1568:The State and Revolution 1314:The Art of the Pin-Maker 1172:Medieval Muslim scholars 976:economic interdependence 167:JEL classification codes 5992:Wadeson, Nigel (2013). 5964:10.1348/096317901167460 5852:. Bloomsbury Academic. 5041:O'Rourke, P.J. (2008). 4904:. pp. ii.302–303. 4031:used on Knowledge (XXG) 3778:Durkheim believes that 2399:Marxism–Leninism–Maoism 2042:Relations of production 1925:Base and superstructure 1778:Dialectical materialism 1743:The Revolution Betrayed 1563:Terrorism and Communism 1558:Philosophical Notebooks 1513:The Communist Manifesto 1312:In his introduction to 353:Industrial organisation 210:Computational economics 48:Visiting a Nail Factory 6589:." Pp. 158–60 in 6574:." Pp. 157–58 in 6570:4 October 2014 at the 6379:, Robert T. Boyd, and 6248:, and Peta Henderson. 5803:Parkin, Frank (1982). 5514:Mises, Ludwig (1949). 5204:Rattansi, Ali (1982). 5022:Cite journal requires 4393:examples are lacking. 4035:See Knowledge (XXG)'s 3947: 3911: 3869: 3862: 3800: 3746: 3342:Historical Materialism 2087:Proletarian revolution 2082:Primitive accumulation 2077:Historical determinism 1453: 1433: 1393: 1350: 1334: 1309: 1284: 1273: 1254: 1211: 1203: 1169: 1120: 1089: 986: 205:Experimental economics 55: 6664:Economic anthropology 6641:22 March 2009 at the 6271:. Thousand Oaks, CA: 5768:Comparative Sociology 5717:The Wealth of Nations 5401:Anderson, Margaret L. 5325:. Simon & Brown. 5323:The Wealth of Nations 4222:The Wealth of Nations 3950:Contemporary theories 3942: 3886:comparative advantage 3860: 3798: 3762:mechanical solidarity 3744: 3714:The Wealth of Nations 3695:In his seminal work, 3578:Philosophy portal 3372:Science & Society 1990:Democratic centralism 1848:Factors of production 1718:Caliban and the Witch 1663:Women, Race and Class 1448: 1431: 1388: 1372:Alexis de Tocqueville 1348: 1300: 1263:The Fable of the Bees 1258:Bernard de Mandeville 1253:by Bernard Mandeville 1249: 1242:Bernard de Mandeville 1209: 1201: 1026:Industrial Revolution 984: 46: 6694:Industry (economics) 6689:Production economics 6334:The American Scholar 6330:Emerson, Ralph Waldo 6240:Monthly Review Press 5617:Khurana, A. (2009). 5592:Amin, Samir (1976). 5242:Khurana, A. (2009). 5142:Marx, Karl. 1963. " 4646:Identity performance 4538:improve this section 4442:improve this section 4331:improve this article 4154:could be read as an 4080:capitalist economies 3978:improve this article 3681:The American Scholar 3590:Socialism portal 3566:Communism portal 3435:History of communism 3430:Economic determinism 3415:Criticism of Marxism 3405:Creative destruction 2165:Marxism and religion 1885:Scientific socialism 1788:Philosophy of nature 1673:Imagined Communities 1538:Dialectics of Nature 1178:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi 1063:lies in the natural 1030:classical economists 1018:Neolithic Revolution 432:Social choice theory 34:Lists of occupations 6498:permanent dead link 6442:The Economy of Time 6279:. pp. 125–26. 6261:"Division of Labor" 5529:Hayek, Friedrich A. 5424:Moody, James. n.d. 5167:Marx, Karl. 1849. " 5093:Rosenberg, Nathan. 4987:Hill, Lisa (2004). 4804:The Ancient Economy 4797:Book VIII, ch, ii, 4603:online marketplaces 4597:, gave rise to the 4593:, particularly the 4084:effective cost-wise 3882:international trade 3805:Austrian economists 3677:Ralph Waldo Emerson 3660:Henry David Thoreau 3322:Capital & Class 2002:False consciousness 1950:Commodity fetishism 1940:Class consciousness 1858:Means of production 1693:The Age of Extremes 1613:The Long Revolution 1548:What Is to Be Done? 1508:The German Ideology 1349:Adam Smith portrait 1061:origin of the state 1040:Pre-modern theories 899:Business portal 220:Operations research 200:National accounting 6669:Industrial history 6621:. Washington, DC: 6597:Stigler, George J. 6547:. 19 March 2018. " 6504:. Cheltenham, UK: 6058:Harvard Library ID 6054:Harvard University 5662:on 6 October 2008. 5554:Cope, Zak (2015). 5458:10.1007/bf01507702 5446:Sociological Forum 4937:Rothbard, Murray. 4882:Art de l'Épinglier 4631:Economies of scale 4506:Disaggregated work 4500:Disaggregated work 4262:project-based work 4196:labour aristocracy 4099:Control management 3863: 3852:Friedrich A. Hayek 3842:Friedrich A. Hayek 3832:cost-effectiveness 3801: 3780:organic solidarity 3772:organic solidarity 3747: 3536:Worker cooperative 3514:Left-wing populism 3440:Left-wing politics 3377:Socialist Register 3367:Rethinking Marxism 2160:Literary criticism 1863:Mode of production 1728:Capitalist Realism 1588:The Black Jacobins 1434: 1414:business processes 1351: 1318:Art de l'Épinglier 1310: 1306:Art de l'Épinglier 1255: 1212: 1204: 1129:Augustine of Hippo 1123:Augustine of Hippo 1111:Education of Cyrus 987: 974:and the source of 951:division of labour 230:Industrial complex 225:Middle income trap 56: 6561:von Mises, Ludwig 6525:Richard N. Cooper 6483:978-1-931089-25-8 6438:Heartfield, James 6395:James Mahmud Rice 6391:Goodin, Robert E. 6365:. Cambridge, UK: 6294:978-1-4129-6580-4 6246:Coontz, Stephanie 6038:on 27 April 2019. 5894:978-0-14-119256-7 5859:978-1-4411-9357-5 5752:. 1 December 2014 5748:(2nd ed.). – via 5726:978-0-553-58597-1 5695:978-0-19-521102-3 5630:978-93-80228-01-3 5567:978-1-894946-68-1 5413:Thomson Wadsworth 5364:978-0-8039-2333-1 5332:978-1-61382-931-8 5253:978-93-80228-01-3 5225:978-0-333-28556-5 5156:C.A. Watts and Co 5073:www.gutenberg.org 4911:978-0-226-76374-3 4830:978-1-78348-880-3 4651:Industrialisation 4587:temporary workers 4574: 4573: 4566: 4496:or organisation. 4494:industrial nation 4490:economic activity 4478: 4477: 4470: 4363: 4362: 4355: 4219:famously said in 4205:dependency theory 4180:Anti-imperialists 4065: 4064: 4057: 4029:encyclopedic tone 4010: 4009: 4002: 3736:social solidarity 3626: 3625: 3467:Political ecology 3445:Marxian economics 2384:Council communism 2352: 2351: 2279:Neue Marx-Lektüre 2241:Regulation school 2130:Cultural analysis 2022:Lumpenproletariat 1965:Cultural hegemony 1955:Communist society 1945:Classless society 1880:Productive forces 1618:Guerrilla Warfare 1491:Theoretical works 1251:Fable of the Bees 1229:political economy 1202:Sir William Petty 1147:) and the state. 1143:), corporations ( 1127:A simile used by 1022:industrialisation 967:natural resources 947: 946: 16:(Redirected from 6701: 6545:Rothbard, Murray 6521:Jean-Louis Beffa 6499: 6489:Solow, Robert M. 6411:. Cambridge ID: 6343:Florida, Richard 6314: 6230:Braverman, Harry 6219:3(1.2):S33–S58. 6178: 6177: 6165: 6159: 6158: 6155:10.1037/h0093748 6138: 6132: 6131: 6129: 6127: 6121: 6115:. Archived from 6110: 6101: 6095: 6094: 6074: 6068: 6063: 6046: 6040: 6039: 6037: 6031:. Archived from 5998: 5989: 5983: 5982: 5981:on 6 March 2019. 5980: 5974:. Archived from 5949: 5940: 5934: 5933: 5913: 5907: 5906: 5878: 5872: 5871: 5843: 5837: 5836: 5817:10.2307/40182929 5800: 5794: 5793: 5783: 5774:(4–5): 542–584. 5759: 5753: 5750:Encyclopedia.com 5742: 5731: 5730: 5712: 5706: 5705: 5704: 5702: 5670: 5664: 5663: 5652: 5643: 5642: 5614: 5608: 5607: 5589: 5580: 5579: 5560:. Kersplebedeb. 5551: 5542: 5526: 5520: 5519: 5511: 5505: 5504: 5476: 5470: 5469: 5441: 5432: 5422: 5416: 5405:Howard F. Taylor 5398: 5392: 5378: 5369: 5368: 5350: 5337: 5336: 5318: 5312: 5300: 5272: 5266: 5265: 5239: 5230: 5229: 5201: 5195: 5178: 5172: 5165: 5159: 5140: 5134: 5133: 5131: 5129: 5117: 5111: 5110: 5108: 5106: 5097:. Archived from 5090: 5084: 5083: 5081: 5079: 5065: 5059: 5058: 5038: 5032: 5031: 5025: 5020: 5018: 5010: 5008: 5006: 5000: 4994:. Archived from 4993: 4984: 4978: 4977: 4965: 4959: 4958: 4956: 4954: 4934: 4928: 4924: 4919: 4891: 4885: 4871: 4862: 4861: 4841: 4835: 4834: 4814: 4808: 4795: 4789: 4788: 4768: 4759: 4758: 4742: 4732: 4569: 4562: 4558: 4555: 4549: 4518: 4510: 4482:division of work 4473: 4466: 4462: 4459: 4453: 4422: 4414: 4410:Division of work 4358: 4351: 4347: 4344: 4338: 4315: 4307: 4194:) that create a 4192:unequal exchange 4170:capitalist class 4122:Labour hierarchy 4060: 4053: 4049: 4046: 4040: 4039:for suggestions. 4020: 4019: 4012: 4005: 3998: 3994: 3991: 3985: 3962: 3954: 3890:opportunity cost 3809:Ludwig von Mises 3799:Ludwig von Mises 3791:Ludwig von Mises 3670:self-sufficiency 3618: 3611: 3604: 3588: 3587: 3576: 3575: 3574: 3564: 3563: 3562: 3541:Workers' council 3362:Race & Class 2269:Frankfurt School 2236:Neo-Gramscianism 2209:Marxism–Leninism 2191: 2135:Cultural Studies 2092:World revolution 2037:Private property 1583:Prison Notebooks 1483: 1460: 1167: 1087: 1084:Penguin Classics 939: 932: 925: 911:Money portal 909: 908: 907: 897: 896: 393:Natural resource 185:Economic systems 81: 58: 52:Léonard Defrance 21: 6709: 6708: 6704: 6703: 6702: 6700: 6699: 6698: 6654: 6653: 6643:Wayback Machine 6632: 6572:Wayback Machine 6554:Mises Institute 6537:Shelly Lundberg 6533:Elhanan Helpman 6469:Reisman, George 6461:Rattansi, Ali. 6452:Ollman, Bertell 6446:Cultural Trends 6373:Gintis, Herbert 6318:Durkheim, Émile 6295: 6255: 6190:Becker, Gary S. 6186: 6184:Further reading 6181: 6167: 6166: 6162: 6140: 6139: 6135: 6125: 6123: 6119: 6108: 6103: 6102: 6098: 6076: 6075: 6071: 6061: 6047: 6043: 6035: 5996: 5991: 5990: 5986: 5978: 5947: 5942: 5941: 5937: 5915: 5914: 5910: 5895: 5880: 5879: 5875: 5860: 5845: 5844: 5840: 5811:(20): 185–187. 5802: 5801: 5797: 5761: 5760: 5756: 5743: 5734: 5727: 5714: 5713: 5709: 5700: 5698: 5696: 5672: 5671: 5667: 5654: 5653: 5646: 5631: 5616: 5615: 5611: 5591: 5590: 5583: 5568: 5553: 5552: 5545: 5527: 5523: 5513: 5512: 5508: 5493:10.2307/2089532 5478: 5477: 5473: 5443: 5442: 5435: 5429:Duke University 5423: 5419: 5399: 5395: 5379: 5372: 5365: 5352: 5351: 5340: 5333: 5320: 5319: 5315: 5289:10.2307/2089532 5274: 5273: 5269: 5254: 5241: 5240: 5233: 5226: 5203: 5202: 5198: 5179: 5175: 5166: 5162: 5152:T. 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Bottomore 5141: 5137: 5127: 5125: 5119: 5118: 5114: 5104: 5102: 5101:on 4 March 2016 5092: 5091: 5087: 5077: 5075: 5067: 5066: 5062: 5055: 5040: 5039: 5035: 5021: 5011: 5004: 5002: 5001:on 28 July 2013 4998: 4991: 4986: 4985: 4981: 4967: 4966: 4962: 4952: 4950: 4949:on 12 June 2012 4936: 4935: 4931: 4912: 4893: 4892: 4888: 4872: 4865: 4843: 4842: 4838: 4831: 4816: 4815: 4811: 4796: 4792: 4770: 4769: 4762: 4755: 4747:, 27–32, 37–8. 4734: 4733: 4729: 4725: 4720: 4701:Surplus product 4681:Precarious work 4626:Economic sector 4621:Complex society 4611: 4599:sharing economy 4570: 4559: 4553: 4550: 4535: 4519: 4508: 4502: 4474: 4463: 4457: 4454: 4439: 4423: 4412: 4399: 4359: 4348: 4342: 4339: 4328: 4316: 4305: 4289:Main articles: 4287: 4266:project manager 4231:job enlargement 4214: 4124: 4092: 4078:In general, in 4061: 4050: 4044: 4041: 4034: 4025:This section's 4021: 4017: 4006: 3995: 3989: 3986: 3975: 3963: 3952: 3874: 3844: 3793: 3693: 3657: 3622: 3582: 3572: 3570: 3560: 3558: 3546: 3545: 3519:Universal class 3410:Conflict theory 3390: 3382: 3381: 3357:New Left Review 3312: 3304: 3303: 2444: 2434: 2433: 2364: 2354: 2353: 2264:Budapest School 2188: 2187:Common variants 2180: 2179: 2110: 2102: 2101: 2067: 2057: 2056: 1960:Critical theory 1920: 1910: 1909: 1890:Surplus product 1818: 1808: 1807: 1768: 1758: 1757: 1628:Reading Capital 1493: 1458: 1426: 1343: 1295: 1278: 1244: 1196: 1191: 1189:Modern theories 1174: 1168: 1157:The City of God 1155: 1134:The City of God 1125: 1098: 1088: 1076: 1047: 1042: 1034:Charles Babbage 955:economic system 943: 905: 903: 891: 884: 883: 854: 844: 843: 842: 841: 605:von Böhm-Bawerk 493: 482: 481: 243: 235: 234: 190:Economic growth 180: 172: 171: 113: 111:classifications 54:(18th century) 41: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6707: 6705: 6697: 6696: 6691: 6686: 6681: 6676: 6671: 6666: 6656: 6655: 6652: 6651: 6645: 6631: 6630:External links 6628: 6627: 6626: 6613: 6605:59(3):185–93. 6594: 6583: 6558: 6542: 6541: 6540: 6511:Contributors: 6486: 6466: 6459: 6449: 6435: 6426: 6416: 6388: 6370: 6359: 6352: 6340: 6337: 6327: 6315: 6293: 6277:Cato Institute 6265:Hamowy, Ronald 6253: 6243: 6227: 6211: 6185: 6182: 6180: 6179: 6160: 6133: 6122:on 17 May 2006 6096: 6085:(3): 683–703. 6069: 6041: 5984: 5958:(4): 413–440. 5935: 5924:(2): 181–189. 5908: 5893: 5873: 5858: 5838: 5795: 5754: 5732: 5725: 5707: 5694: 5665: 5644: 5629: 5609: 5581: 5566: 5543: 5521: 5518:. p. 164. 5506: 5471: 5433: 5417: 5393: 5389:The Free Press 5370: 5363: 5338: 5331: 5313: 5303:Émile Durkheim 5267: 5252: 5231: 5224: 5196: 5173: 5160: 5135: 5112: 5085: 5060: 5053: 5033: 5024:|journal= 4979: 4960: 4929: 4910: 4886: 4863: 4852:(4): 667-673. 4836: 4829: 4809: 4790: 4760: 4753: 4726: 4724: 4721: 4719: 4718: 4713: 4708: 4706:Temporary work 4703: 4698: 4693: 4688: 4683: 4678: 4673: 4668: 4663: 4658: 4653: 4648: 4643: 4638: 4636:Family economy 4633: 4628: 4623: 4618: 4612: 4610: 4607: 4572: 4571: 4522: 4520: 4513: 4504:Main article: 4501: 4498: 4476: 4475: 4426: 4424: 4417: 4411: 4408: 4398: 4395: 4361: 4360: 4319: 4317: 4310: 4286: 4283: 4235:job enrichment 4213: 4210: 4209: 4208: 4177: 4144: 4143: 4139: 4136: 4123: 4120: 4111: 4110: 4106: 4091: 4088: 4063: 4062: 4024: 4022: 4015: 4008: 4007: 3966: 3964: 3957: 3951: 3948: 3933: 3932: 3929: 3926: 3873: 3870: 3843: 3840: 3792: 3789: 3785:social science 3776: 3775: 3765: 3745:Émile Durkheim 3718:Charles Darwin 3703:Émile Durkheim 3692: 3691:Émile Durkheim 3689: 3656: 3653: 3624: 3623: 3621: 3620: 3613: 3606: 3598: 3595: 3594: 3593: 3592: 3580: 3568: 3556: 3548: 3547: 3544: 3543: 3538: 3533: 3532: 3531: 3524:Vulgar Marxism 3521: 3516: 3511: 3510: 3509: 3504: 3499: 3494: 3489: 3484: 3479: 3469: 3464: 3459: 3458: 3457: 3452: 3442: 3437: 3432: 3427: 3422: 3417: 3412: 3407: 3402: 3397: 3391: 3389:Related topics 3388: 3387: 3384: 3383: 3380: 3379: 3374: 3369: 3364: 3359: 3354: 3352:Monthly Review 3349: 3344: 3339: 3334: 3332:Constellations 3329: 3324: 3319: 3313: 3310: 3309: 3306: 3305: 3302: 3301: 3296: 3291: 3286: 3281: 3276: 3271: 3266: 3261: 3256: 3251: 3246: 3241: 3236: 3231: 3226: 3221: 3216: 3211: 3206: 3201: 3196: 3191: 3186: 3181: 3176: 3171: 3166: 3161: 3156: 3151: 3146: 3141: 3136: 3131: 3126: 3121: 3116: 3111: 3106: 3101: 3096: 3091: 3086: 3081: 3076: 3071: 3066: 3061: 3056: 3051: 3046: 3041: 3036: 3031: 3026: 3021: 3016: 3011: 3006: 3001: 2996: 2991: 2986: 2981: 2976: 2971: 2966: 2961: 2956: 2951: 2946: 2941: 2936: 2931: 2926: 2921: 2916: 2911: 2906: 2901: 2896: 2891: 2886: 2881: 2876: 2871: 2866: 2861: 2856: 2851: 2846: 2841: 2836: 2831: 2826: 2821: 2816: 2811: 2806: 2801: 2796: 2791: 2786: 2781: 2776: 2771: 2766: 2761: 2756: 2751: 2746: 2741: 2736: 2731: 2726: 2721: 2716: 2711: 2706: 2701: 2696: 2691: 2686: 2681: 2676: 2671: 2666: 2661: 2656: 2651: 2646: 2641: 2636: 2631: 2626: 2621: 2616: 2611: 2606: 2601: 2596: 2591: 2586: 2581: 2576: 2571: 2566: 2561: 2556: 2551: 2546: 2541: 2536: 2531: 2526: 2521: 2516: 2511: 2506: 2501: 2496: 2491: 2486: 2481: 2476: 2471: 2466: 2461: 2456: 2451: 2445: 2440: 2439: 2436: 2435: 2432: 2431: 2426: 2421: 2416: 2411: 2406: 2401: 2396: 2391: 2386: 2381: 2376: 2371: 2365: 2362:Other variants 2360: 2359: 2356: 2355: 2350: 2349: 2348: 2347: 2342: 2337: 2332: 2327: 2322: 2317: 2312: 2304: 2303: 2299: 2298: 2297: 2296: 2291: 2286: 2281: 2276: 2271: 2266: 2258: 2257: 2251: 2250: 2249: 2248: 2246:Third-worldist 2243: 2238: 2233: 2232: 2231: 2226: 2221: 2216: 2206: 2198: 2197: 2189: 2186: 2185: 2182: 2181: 2178: 2177: 2172: 2167: 2162: 2157: 2155:Historiography 2152: 2147: 2142: 2137: 2132: 2127: 2122: 2117: 2111: 2108: 2107: 2104: 2103: 2100: 2099: 2094: 2089: 2084: 2079: 2074: 2072:Class struggle 2068: 2063: 2062: 2059: 2058: 2055: 2054: 2049: 2044: 2039: 2034: 2029: 2027:Metabolic rift 2024: 2019: 2014: 2009: 2004: 1999: 1994: 1993: 1992: 1987: 1982: 1977: 1967: 1962: 1957: 1952: 1947: 1942: 1937: 1932: 1927: 1921: 1916: 1915: 1912: 1911: 1908: 1907: 1902: 1897: 1892: 1887: 1882: 1877: 1876: 1875: 1870: 1860: 1855: 1850: 1845: 1840: 1835: 1830: 1819: 1814: 1813: 1810: 1809: 1806: 1805: 1803:Marxist ethics 1800: 1795: 1790: 1785: 1780: 1775: 1769: 1764: 1763: 1760: 1759: 1756: 1755: 1750: 1745: 1740: 1735: 1730: 1725: 1720: 1715: 1710: 1705: 1700: 1695: 1690: 1685: 1680: 1675: 1670: 1665: 1660: 1655: 1650: 1648:Ways of Seeing 1645: 1640: 1635: 1630: 1625: 1620: 1615: 1610: 1605: 1600: 1595: 1590: 1585: 1580: 1575: 1570: 1565: 1560: 1555: 1550: 1545: 1540: 1535: 1530: 1525: 1520: 1515: 1510: 1505: 1500: 1494: 1489: 1488: 1485: 1484: 1476: 1475: 1469: 1468: 1457: 1454: 1425: 1422: 1342: 1339: 1294: 1291: 1286:- David Hume, 1277: 1274: 1243: 1240: 1195: 1192: 1190: 1187: 1173: 1170: 1153: 1124: 1121: 1097: 1094: 1074: 1046: 1043: 1041: 1038: 1003:industrialised 997:, the rise of 963:specialisation 945: 944: 942: 941: 934: 927: 919: 916: 915: 914: 913: 901: 886: 885: 882: 881: 876: 866: 861: 855: 850: 849: 846: 845: 840: 839: 832: 827: 822: 817: 812: 807: 802: 797: 792: 787: 782: 777: 772: 767: 762: 757: 752: 747: 742: 737: 732: 727: 722: 717: 712: 707: 702: 697: 692: 687: 682: 677: 672: 667: 662: 657: 652: 647: 642: 637: 632: 627: 622: 617: 612: 607: 602: 597: 592: 587: 582: 577: 572: 567: 562: 557: 552: 547: 542: 537: 532: 527: 522: 517: 512: 507: 502: 496: 495: 494: 488: 487: 484: 483: 480: 479: 474: 469: 464: 459: 454: 449: 444: 439: 434: 425: 420: 415: 410: 405: 400: 398:Organizational 395: 390: 385: 380: 375: 370: 365: 360: 355: 350: 345: 340: 335: 330: 325: 320: 315: 310: 305: 300: 295: 290: 285: 280: 275: 270: 265: 260: 255: 250: 244: 242:By application 241: 240: 237: 236: 233: 232: 227: 222: 217: 212: 207: 202: 197: 192: 187: 181: 178: 177: 174: 173: 170: 169: 164: 159: 154: 149: 144: 135: 130: 125: 120: 114: 108: 107: 104: 103: 102: 101: 96: 91: 83: 82: 74: 73: 67: 66: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6706: 6695: 6692: 6690: 6687: 6685: 6682: 6680: 6677: 6675: 6674:Labor history 6672: 6670: 6667: 6665: 6662: 6661: 6659: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6640: 6637: 6634: 6633: 6629: 6624: 6620: 6618: 6614: 6612: 6608: 6604: 6603: 6598: 6595: 6592: 6588: 6584: 6582: 6579: 6578: 6573: 6569: 6566: 6562: 6559: 6556: 6555: 6550: 6546: 6543: 6538: 6534: 6530: 6529:Jan Fagerberg 6526: 6522: 6518: 6514: 6510: 6509: 6507: 6503: 6501: 6500: 6494: 6490: 6487: 6484: 6480: 6476: 6475: 6470: 6467: 6464: 6460: 6457: 6453: 6450: 6447: 6443: 6439: 6436: 6433: 6432: 6427: 6424: 6420: 6417: 6414: 6413:9780521709514 6410: 6409:9780521709514 6406: 6402: 6401: 6396: 6392: 6389: 6386: 6382: 6378: 6377:Samuel Bowles 6374: 6371: 6368: 6364: 6360: 6357: 6353: 6350: 6349: 6344: 6341: 6338: 6335: 6331: 6328: 6325: 6324: 6319: 6316: 6312: 6308: 6304: 6300: 6296: 6290: 6286: 6282: 6278: 6274: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6258: 6254: 6251: 6247: 6244: 6241: 6237: 6236: 6231: 6228: 6226: 6222: 6218: 6217: 6212: 6209: 6208:0-674-90698-5 6205: 6201: 6197: 6196: 6191: 6188: 6187: 6183: 6175: 6171: 6164: 6161: 6156: 6152: 6148: 6144: 6137: 6134: 6118: 6114: 6107: 6100: 6097: 6092: 6088: 6084: 6080: 6073: 6070: 6066: 6059: 6055: 6051: 6045: 6042: 6034: 6030: 6026: 6022: 6018: 6014: 6010: 6006: 6002: 5995: 5988: 5985: 5977: 5973: 5969: 5965: 5961: 5957: 5953: 5946: 5939: 5936: 5931: 5927: 5923: 5919: 5912: 5909: 5904: 5900: 5896: 5890: 5886: 5885: 5877: 5874: 5869: 5865: 5861: 5855: 5851: 5850: 5842: 5839: 5834: 5830: 5826: 5822: 5818: 5814: 5810: 5806: 5799: 5796: 5791: 5787: 5782: 5777: 5773: 5769: 5765: 5758: 5755: 5751: 5747: 5741: 5739: 5737: 5733: 5728: 5722: 5718: 5711: 5708: 5697: 5691: 5687: 5683: 5679: 5675: 5669: 5666: 5661: 5657: 5651: 5649: 5645: 5640: 5636: 5632: 5626: 5622: 5621: 5613: 5610: 5605: 5601: 5597: 5596: 5588: 5586: 5582: 5577: 5573: 5569: 5563: 5559: 5558: 5550: 5548: 5544: 5541:35(4):519–30. 5540: 5539: 5534: 5530: 5525: 5522: 5517: 5510: 5507: 5502: 5498: 5494: 5490: 5487:(4): 462–65. 5486: 5482: 5475: 5472: 5467: 5463: 5459: 5455: 5451: 5447: 5440: 5438: 5434: 5430: 5427: 5421: 5418: 5414: 5411:Belmont, CA: 5410: 5406: 5402: 5397: 5394: 5390: 5386: 5384: 5377: 5375: 5371: 5366: 5360: 5356: 5349: 5347: 5345: 5343: 5339: 5334: 5328: 5324: 5317: 5314: 5310: 5309: 5304: 5298: 5294: 5290: 5286: 5283:(4): 462–65. 5282: 5278: 5271: 5268: 5263: 5259: 5255: 5249: 5245: 5238: 5236: 5232: 5227: 5221: 5217: 5213: 5209: 5208: 5200: 5197: 5194:. pp. 781–94. 5193: 5192:Vintage Books 5189: 5187: 5182: 5177: 5174: 5170: 5164: 5161: 5157: 5153: 5149: 5145: 5139: 5136: 5124: 5123: 5116: 5113: 5100: 5096: 5089: 5086: 5074: 5070: 5064: 5061: 5056: 5054:9781843543893 5050: 5046: 5045: 5037: 5034: 5029: 5016: 4997: 4990: 4983: 4980: 4975: 4971: 4964: 4961: 4948: 4944: 4940: 4933: 4930: 4927: 4923: 4918: 4913: 4907: 4903: 4899: 4898: 4890: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4875: 4870: 4868: 4864: 4859: 4855: 4851: 4847: 4840: 4837: 4832: 4826: 4822: 4821: 4813: 4810: 4806: 4805: 4800: 4794: 4791: 4786: 4782: 4779:(4): 747–72. 4778: 4774: 4767: 4765: 4761: 4756: 4750: 4746: 4741: 4740: 4731: 4728: 4722: 4717: 4714: 4712: 4709: 4707: 4704: 4702: 4699: 4697: 4694: 4692: 4689: 4687: 4684: 4682: 4679: 4677: 4674: 4672: 4669: 4667: 4664: 4662: 4661:Mechanisation 4659: 4657: 4654: 4652: 4649: 4647: 4644: 4642: 4639: 4637: 4634: 4632: 4629: 4627: 4624: 4622: 4619: 4617: 4616:Asset poverty 4614: 4613: 4608: 4606: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4592: 4588: 4584: 4580: 4568: 4565: 4557: 4547: 4543: 4539: 4533: 4532: 4528: 4523:This section 4521: 4517: 4512: 4511: 4507: 4499: 4497: 4495: 4491: 4485: 4483: 4472: 4469: 4461: 4451: 4447: 4443: 4437: 4436: 4432: 4427:This section 4425: 4421: 4416: 4415: 4409: 4407: 4404: 4396: 4394: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4383:child rearing 4380: 4375: 4373: 4368: 4357: 4354: 4346: 4336: 4332: 4326: 4325: 4320:This section 4318: 4314: 4309: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4284: 4282: 4278: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4258: 4256: 4251: 4247: 4242: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4227: 4224: 4223: 4218: 4211: 4206: 4202: 4197: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4178: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4164: 4163: 4162: 4159: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4140: 4137: 4134: 4133: 4132: 4130: 4121: 4119: 4116: 4107: 4104: 4103:assembly-line 4100: 4097: 4096: 4095: 4089: 4087: 4085: 4081: 4076: 4074: 4070: 4059: 4056: 4048: 4038: 4032: 4030: 4023: 4014: 4013: 4004: 4001: 3993: 3983: 3979: 3973: 3972: 3967:This section 3965: 3961: 3956: 3955: 3949: 3946: 3941: 3939: 3930: 3927: 3924: 3923: 3922: 3920: 3916: 3910: 3905: 3903: 3898: 3896: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3878:globalisation 3871: 3868: 3859: 3855: 3853: 3849: 3841: 3839: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3828:mechanisation 3825: 3822:According to 3820: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3797: 3790: 3788: 3786: 3781: 3773: 3770:as promoting 3769: 3766: 3763: 3759: 3758:criminal laws 3756: 3755: 3754: 3752: 3743: 3739: 3737: 3733: 3728: 3725: 3724: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3706: 3704: 3700: 3699: 3690: 3688: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3673: 3671: 3667: 3666: 3661: 3654: 3652: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3637: 3633: 3631: 3619: 3614: 3612: 3607: 3605: 3600: 3599: 3597: 3596: 3591: 3586: 3581: 3579: 3569: 3567: 3557: 3555: 3552: 3551: 3550: 3549: 3542: 3539: 3537: 3534: 3530: 3527: 3526: 3525: 3522: 3520: 3517: 3515: 3512: 3508: 3505: 3503: 3500: 3498: 3497:Revolutionary 3495: 3493: 3490: 3488: 3485: 3483: 3480: 3478: 3477:Authoritarian 3475: 3474: 3473: 3470: 3468: 3465: 3463: 3460: 3456: 3453: 3451: 3448: 3447: 3446: 3443: 3441: 3438: 3436: 3433: 3431: 3428: 3426: 3423: 3421: 3418: 3416: 3413: 3411: 3408: 3406: 3403: 3401: 3398: 3396: 3393: 3392: 3386: 3385: 3378: 3375: 3373: 3370: 3368: 3365: 3363: 3360: 3358: 3355: 3353: 3350: 3348: 3345: 3343: 3340: 3338: 3335: 3333: 3330: 3328: 3325: 3323: 3320: 3318: 3315: 3314: 3308: 3307: 3300: 3297: 3295: 3292: 3290: 3287: 3285: 3282: 3280: 3279:Moufawad-Paul 3277: 3275: 3272: 3270: 3267: 3265: 3262: 3260: 3257: 3255: 3252: 3250: 3247: 3245: 3242: 3240: 3237: 3235: 3232: 3230: 3227: 3225: 3222: 3220: 3217: 3215: 3212: 3210: 3207: 3205: 3202: 3200: 3197: 3195: 3192: 3190: 3187: 3185: 3182: 3180: 3177: 3175: 3172: 3170: 3167: 3165: 3162: 3160: 3157: 3155: 3152: 3150: 3147: 3145: 3142: 3140: 3137: 3135: 3132: 3130: 3127: 3125: 3122: 3120: 3117: 3115: 3112: 3110: 3107: 3105: 3102: 3100: 3097: 3095: 3092: 3090: 3087: 3085: 3082: 3080: 3077: 3075: 3072: 3070: 3067: 3065: 3062: 3060: 3057: 3055: 3052: 3050: 3047: 3045: 3042: 3040: 3037: 3035: 3032: 3030: 3027: 3025: 3022: 3020: 3017: 3015: 3012: 3010: 3007: 3005: 3002: 3000: 2997: 2995: 2992: 2990: 2987: 2985: 2982: 2980: 2977: 2975: 2972: 2970: 2967: 2965: 2962: 2960: 2957: 2955: 2952: 2950: 2947: 2945: 2942: 2940: 2937: 2935: 2932: 2930: 2927: 2925: 2922: 2920: 2917: 2915: 2912: 2910: 2907: 2905: 2902: 2900: 2897: 2895: 2892: 2890: 2887: 2885: 2882: 2880: 2877: 2875: 2872: 2870: 2867: 2865: 2862: 2860: 2857: 2855: 2852: 2850: 2847: 2845: 2842: 2840: 2837: 2835: 2832: 2830: 2827: 2825: 2822: 2820: 2817: 2815: 2812: 2810: 2807: 2805: 2802: 2800: 2797: 2795: 2792: 2790: 2787: 2785: 2782: 2780: 2777: 2775: 2772: 2770: 2767: 2765: 2762: 2760: 2757: 2755: 2752: 2750: 2747: 2745: 2742: 2740: 2737: 2735: 2732: 2730: 2727: 2725: 2722: 2720: 2717: 2715: 2712: 2710: 2707: 2705: 2702: 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2294:Praxis School 2292: 2290: 2287: 2285: 2282: 2280: 2277: 2275: 2272: 2270: 2267: 2265: 2262: 2261: 2260: 2259: 2256: 2252: 2247: 2244: 2242: 2239: 2237: 2234: 2230: 2227: 2225: 2222: 2220: 2217: 2215: 2212: 2211: 2210: 2207: 2205: 2202: 2201: 2200: 2199: 2196: 2192: 2184: 2183: 2176: 2173: 2171: 2168: 2166: 2163: 2161: 2158: 2156: 2153: 2151: 2148: 2146: 2143: 2141: 2138: 2136: 2133: 2131: 2128: 2126: 2123: 2121: 2118: 2116: 2113: 2112: 2106: 2105: 2098: 2095: 2093: 2090: 2088: 2085: 2083: 2080: 2078: 2075: 2073: 2070: 2069: 2066: 2061: 2060: 2053: 2052:Working class 2050: 2048: 2045: 2043: 2040: 2038: 2035: 2033: 2030: 2028: 2025: 2023: 2020: 2018: 2015: 2013: 2010: 2008: 2005: 2003: 2000: 1998: 1995: 1991: 1988: 1986: 1983: 1981: 1978: 1976: 1973: 1972: 1971: 1968: 1966: 1963: 1961: 1958: 1956: 1953: 1951: 1948: 1946: 1943: 1941: 1938: 1936: 1933: 1931: 1928: 1926: 1923: 1922: 1919: 1914: 1913: 1906: 1903: 1901: 1898: 1896: 1893: 1891: 1888: 1886: 1883: 1881: 1878: 1874: 1871: 1869: 1866: 1865: 1864: 1861: 1859: 1856: 1854: 1851: 1849: 1846: 1844: 1841: 1839: 1836: 1834: 1833:Crisis theory 1831: 1828: 1824: 1821: 1820: 1817: 1812: 1811: 1804: 1801: 1799: 1796: 1794: 1791: 1789: 1786: 1784: 1781: 1779: 1776: 1774: 1771: 1770: 1767: 1762: 1761: 1754: 1751: 1749: 1746: 1744: 1741: 1739: 1736: 1734: 1731: 1729: 1726: 1724: 1721: 1719: 1716: 1714: 1711: 1709: 1706: 1704: 1701: 1699: 1696: 1694: 1691: 1689: 1686: 1684: 1681: 1679: 1676: 1674: 1671: 1669: 1666: 1664: 1661: 1659: 1656: 1654: 1651: 1649: 1646: 1644: 1641: 1639: 1636: 1634: 1631: 1629: 1626: 1624: 1621: 1619: 1616: 1614: 1611: 1609: 1606: 1604: 1601: 1599: 1596: 1594: 1591: 1589: 1586: 1584: 1581: 1579: 1576: 1574: 1571: 1569: 1566: 1564: 1561: 1559: 1556: 1554: 1551: 1549: 1546: 1544: 1541: 1539: 1536: 1534: 1531: 1529: 1526: 1524: 1521: 1519: 1516: 1514: 1511: 1509: 1506: 1504: 1501: 1499: 1496: 1495: 1492: 1487: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1477: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1461: 1455: 1452: 1447: 1445: 1444:Immanuel Kant 1441: 1440: 1430: 1424:Immanuel Kant 1423: 1421: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1406: 1405:human capital 1400: 1398: 1392: 1387: 1384: 1379: 1377: 1376:Adam Ferguson 1373: 1369: 1364: 1362: 1358: 1357: 1347: 1340: 1338: 1333: 1331: 1325: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1292: 1290: 1289: 1283: 1275: 1272: 1267: 1265: 1264: 1259: 1252: 1248: 1241: 1239: 1237: 1232: 1230: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1216:William Petty 1208: 1200: 1194:William Petty 1193: 1188: 1186: 1183: 1179: 1171: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1152: 1148: 1146: 1142: 1141: 1136: 1135: 1130: 1122: 1119: 1114: 1112: 1108: 1107: 1102: 1095: 1093: 1085: 1081: 1080: 1073: 1068: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1057: 1052: 1044: 1039: 1037: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1014: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 996: 992: 983: 979: 977: 973: 968: 964: 960: 956: 952: 940: 935: 933: 928: 926: 921: 920: 918: 917: 912: 902: 900: 895: 890: 889: 888: 887: 880: 877: 874: 870: 867: 865: 862: 860: 857: 856: 853: 848: 847: 838: 837: 833: 831: 828: 826: 823: 821: 818: 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344: 341: 339: 336: 334: 331: 329: 326: 324: 321: 319: 316: 314: 313:Expeditionary 311: 309: 306: 304: 303:Environmental 301: 299: 296: 294: 291: 289: 286: 284: 281: 279: 276: 274: 271: 269: 266: 264: 261: 259: 256: 254: 251: 249: 246: 245: 239: 238: 231: 228: 226: 223: 221: 218: 216: 213: 211: 208: 206: 203: 201: 198: 196: 193: 191: 188: 186: 183: 182: 176: 175: 168: 165: 163: 160: 158: 155: 153: 150: 148: 145: 143: 139: 136: 134: 133:International 131: 129: 126: 124: 121: 119: 116: 115: 112: 109:Branches and 106: 105: 100: 97: 95: 92: 90: 87: 86: 85: 84: 80: 76: 75: 72: 68: 64: 60: 59: 53: 49: 45: 39: 35: 30: 19: 6615: 6600: 6590: 6580: 6576: 6552: 6517:Martin Baily 6513:Bina Agarwal 6506:Edward Elgar 6495: 6492: 6473: 6462: 6455: 6448:43/44:155–59 6445: 6429: 6422: 6398: 6384: 6362: 6355: 6346: 6321: 6268: 6257:Cowen, Tyler 6249: 6233: 6214: 6193: 6173: 6163: 6149:(12): 1–32. 6146: 6142: 6136: 6124:. Retrieved 6117:the original 6112: 6099: 6082: 6078: 6072: 6044: 6033:the original 6004: 6000: 5987: 5976:the original 5955: 5951: 5938: 5921: 5917: 5911: 5883: 5876: 5848: 5841: 5808: 5798: 5771: 5767: 5757: 5745: 5716: 5710: 5699:, retrieved 5677: 5668: 5660:the original 5619: 5612: 5594: 5556: 5536: 5524: 5515: 5509: 5484: 5480: 5474: 5452:(1): 17–25. 5449: 5445: 5425: 5420: 5408: 5396: 5381: 5354: 5322: 5316: 5306: 5280: 5276: 5270: 5243: 5206: 5199: 5184: 5176: 5163: 5150:, edited by 5147: 5138: 5126:. Retrieved 5121: 5115: 5103:. Retrieved 5099:the original 5088: 5076:. Retrieved 5072: 5063: 5043: 5036: 5015:cite journal 5003:. Retrieved 4996:the original 4982: 4969: 4963: 4951:. Retrieved 4947:the original 4942: 4932: 4925: 4915: 4896: 4889: 4881: 4878:Introduction 4849: 4845: 4839: 4819: 4812: 4802: 4793: 4776: 4772: 4754:0-521-459559 4738: 4730: 4711:Urbanisation 4696:Role suction 4691:Price system 4575: 4560: 4551: 4536:Please help 4524: 4486: 4481: 4479: 4464: 4455: 4440:Please help 4428: 4400: 4391:ethnographic 4376: 4366: 4364: 4349: 4340: 4329:Please help 4324:verification 4321: 4295:Women's work 4279: 4261: 4259: 4243: 4228: 4220: 4215: 4160: 4145: 4125: 4112: 4093: 4077: 4073:organisation 4066: 4051: 4045:January 2020 4042: 4026: 3996: 3987: 3976:Please help 3971:verification 3968: 3943: 3934: 3919:labour force 3912: 3907: 3899: 3875: 3865: 3845: 3821: 3802: 3777: 3771: 3761: 3748: 3729: 3721: 3713: 3707: 3696: 3694: 3674: 3663: 3658: 3638: 3634: 3627: 3462:Municipalism 3274:Bhattacharya 2419:Situationist 2394:Instrumental 2047:State theory 2012:Immiseration 2007:Human nature 1997:Exploitation 1827:accumulation 1449: 1437: 1435: 1403: 1401: 1397:organisation 1394: 1389: 1380: 1365: 1354: 1352: 1335: 1327: 1317: 1313: 1311: 1305: 1285: 1280: 1269: 1261: 1256: 1250: 1233: 1213: 1175: 1156: 1150: 1144: 1139: 1132: 1126: 1116: 1110: 1104: 1099: 1090: 1086:ed.), p. 103 1077: 1070: 1054: 1048: 1015: 1011:Mesopotamian 988: 959:organisation 950: 948: 869:Publications 834: 457:Sociological 430: / 328:Geographical 308:Evolutionary 283:Digitisation 248:Agricultural 152:Mathematical 123:Econometrics 47: 29: 6419:Gorz, André 6381:Ernst Feghr 5887:. Penguin. 4900:. Chicago: 4801:, cited in 4583:freelancers 4579:contractors 4291:Gender role 4268:as project 4212:Limitations 4188:third world 4184:first world 4156:explanation 4152:meritocracy 3945:employment. 3732:natural law 3425:Communalism 2824:Wallerstein 2414:Revisionist 2145:Film theory 2125:Criminology 2120:Archaeology 2032:Proletariat 2017:Imperialism 1930:Bourgeoisie 1905:Wage labour 1798:Reification 1593:On Practice 1161:Marcus Dods 705:von Neumann 358:Information 298:Engineering 278:Development 273:Demographic 215:Game theory 157:Methodology 6658:Categories 6623:World Bank 6303:2008009151 6007:(2): 253. 5604:1151842795 5387:New York: 5190:New York: 5181:Marx, Karl 5154:. London: 4723:References 4492:within an 4379:entailment 4217:Adam Smith 4174:Anarchists 4148:competency 4069:management 3895:commercial 3817:alienation 3813:capitalism 3807:, notably 3768:civil laws 3710:Adam Smith 3630:alienation 3482:Democratic 3347:Mediations 2959:Przeworski 2899:Poulantzas 2749:Sivanandan 2704:Bettelheim 2604:Horkheimer 2599:Mariátegui 2574:Pashukanis 2499:Liebknecht 2429:Wertkritik 2369:Analytical 2229:Trotskyism 2204:Autonomist 2195:Structural 2175:Philosophy 2115:Aesthetics 1900:Value-form 1868:Capitalist 1773:Alienation 1766:Philosophy 1523:Grundrisse 1410:technology 1361:Adam Smith 1341:Adam Smith 1276:David Hume 1182:al-Ghazali 1106:Cyropaedia 1065:inequality 1016:After the 999:capitalism 864:Economists 735:Schumacher 640:Schumpeter 610:von Wieser 530:von Thünen 491:economists 467:Statistics 462:Solidarity 383:Managerial 348:Humanistic 343:Historical 288:Ecological 253:Behavioral 147:Mainstream 6471:. 1998. 6440:. 2001. 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