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in wage rates. As noted above, that theorem is sometimes taken to mean that trade between an industrialised country and a developing country would lower the wages of the unskilled in the industrialised country. However, it is unreasonable to assume that productivity would be the same in a low-wage developing country as in a high-wage developed country. A 1999 study has found international differences in wage rates to be approximately matched by corresponding differences in productivity. (Such discrepancies that remained were probably the result of over-valuation or under-valuation of exchange rates, or of inflexibilities in labour markets.) It has been argued that, although there may sometimes be short-term pressures on wage rates in the developed countries, competition between employers in developing countries can be expected eventually to bring wages into line with their employees'
1466:), leaving the remaining workforce without the benefit of their support. That effect upon the welfare of the parent country is to some extent offset by the remittances that are sent home by the emigrants, and by the increased skill and education with which some of them return. One study introduces a further offsetting factor to suggest that the opportunity to migrate fosters enrolment in education thus promoting a "brain gain" that can counteract the lost human capital associated with emigration. However, these factors can be counterweighed on their turn depending on the intentions that remittances are used for. As evidence from Armenia suggests, instead of acting as a contractual tool, remittances have a potential for recipients to further incentivize emigration by serving as a resource to alleviate the migration process.
1055:(H-O) depends upon the assumptions of no international differences of technology, productivity, or consumer preferences; no obstacles to pure competition or free trade and no scale economies. On those assumptions, it derives a model of the trade patterns that would arise solely from international differences in the relative abundance of labour and capital (referred to as factor endowments). The resulting theorem states that, on those assumptions, a country with a relative abundance of capital would export capital-intensive products and import labour-intensive products. The theorem proved to be of very limited predictive value, as was demonstrated by what came to be known as the "
1075:
trade between an industrialised country and a developing country would lower the wages of the unskilled in the industrialised country. (But, as noted below, that conclusion depends upon the unlikely assumption that productivity is the same in the two countries). Large numbers of learned papers have been produced in attempts to elaborate on the H–O and
Stolper–Samuelson theorems, and while many of them are considered to provide valuable insights, they have seldom proved to be directly applicable to the task of explaining trade patterns.
1253:(VRAs) or voluntary export restraints (VERs) which were negotiated with the governments of exporting countries (mainly Japan)—until they too were banned. Tariffs have been considered to be less harmful than quotas, although it can be shown that their welfare effects differ only when there are significant upward or downward trends in imports. Governments also impose a wide range of non-tariff barriers that are similar in effect to quotas, some of which are subject to WTO agreements. A recent example has been the application of the
1418:
there are many possible failure sequences. The internationally systemic crises that followed included the equity crash of
October 1987, the Japanese asset price collapse of the 1990s the Asian financial crisis of 1997 the Russian government default of 1998(which brought down the Long-Term Capital Management hedge fund) and the 2007-8 sub-prime mortgages crisis. The symptoms have generally included collapses in asset prices, increases in risk premiums, and general reductions in liquidity.
1203:". Whether such policies succeed depends upon the governments’ skills in picking winners, with reasonably expectations of both successes and failures. It has been claimed that South Korea's automobile industry owes its existence to initial protection against imports, but a study of infant industry protection in Turkey reveals the absence of any association between productivity gains and degree of protection, such as might be expected of a successful import substitution policy.
1518:). Part of the increase in income inequality that has taken place within countries is attributable - in some cases - to globalisation. A recent IMF report demonstrates that the increase in inequality in the developing countries in the period 1981 to 2004 was due entirely to technological change, with globalisation making a partially offsetting negative contribution, and that in the developed countries globalisation and technological change were equally responsible.
1470:
concentrated in specific highly skilled sectors, such as medicine, the consequences are severe and even catastrophic in cases where 50% or so of trained doctors have emigrated. The crucial issues, as recently acknowledged by the OECD, is the matter of return and reinvestment in their countries of origin by the migrants themselves: thus, government policies in Europe are increasingly focused upon facilitating temporary skilled migration alongside migrant remittances.
51:
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wage earners and corporate and personal taxpayers threatened to migrate in search of better terms. In fact, there are few signs of international convergence of interest rates, wage rates or tax rates. Although the world is more integrated in some respects, it is possible to argue that on the whole it is now less integrated than it was before the first world war, and that many middle-east countries are less globalised than they were 25 years ago.
1119:
cent increase in openness to trade increases the level of GDP per capita by between 0.9 per cent and 2.0 per cent. They suggested that much of the gain arises from the growth of the most productive firms at the expense of the less productive. Those findings and others have contributed to a broad consensus among economists that trade confers very substantial net benefits, and that government restrictions upon trade are generally damaging.
1635:
1478:. Since such migrants work in unskilled industries for lower wages and often zero social insurance costs, the gain from labour migration flows is actually higher than the minimal gains calculated for legal flows; accompanying side-effects are significant, however, and include political damage to the idea of immigration, lower unskilled wages for the host population, and increased policing costs alongside lower tax receipts.
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by reducing their costs of capital, and the direct investment of physical capital would tend to promote specialisation and the transfer of skills and technology. However, the eventual outcome of these policies was not what had been expected. Theoretical considerations alone cannot determine the balance between those benefits and the costs of volatility, and the question has had to be tackled by empirical analysis.
1093:
export hi-tech products to others and receive imports of more standard products from them. Another econometric study also established a correlation between country size and the share of exports made up of goods in the production of which there are scale economies. The study further suggested that internationally traded goods fall into three categories, each with a different type of comparative advantage:
1236:(WTO), average tariff levels were progressively reduced to about 7 per cent during the second half of the 20th century, and some other trade restrictions were also removed. The restrictions that remain are nevertheless of major economic importance: among other estimates, the World Bank estimated in 2004 that the removal of all trade restrictions would yield benefits of over $ 500 billion a year by 2015.
878:
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international trade economics differs little from that of the remainder of economics. However, the direction of academic research on the subject has been influenced by the fact that governments have often sought to impose restrictions upon international trade, and the motive for the development of trade theory has often been a wish to determine the consequences of such restrictions.
866:
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years into the future. Markets in financial assets tend to be more volatile than markets in goods and services because decisions are more often revised and more rapidly put into effect. There is the share presumption that a transaction that is freely undertaken will benefit both parties, but there is a much greater danger that it will be harmful to others.
1393:") and have often included the removal of all restrictions upon incoming investment. The Fund has been severely criticised by Joseph Stiglitz and others for what they consider to be the inappropriate enforcement of those policies and for failing to warn recipient countries of the dangers that can arise from the volatility of capital movements.
1323:
an extended series of damaging financial crises. One study estimated that by the end of the twentieth century there had been 112 banking crises in 93 countries, another that there had been 26 banking crises, 86 currency crises and 27 mixed banking and currency crises, many times more than in the previous post-war years.
1059:" (the discovery that, despite its capital-rich factor endowment, America was exporting labour-intensive products and importing capital-intensive products) Nevertheless, the theoretical techniques (and many of the assumptions) used in deriving the H–O model were subsequently used to derive further theorems.
1538:
of
Harvard has noted that the benefits of globalisation are unevenly spread, and that it has led to income inequalities, and to damaging losses of social capital in the parent countries and to social stresses resulting from immigration in the receiving countries. An extensive critical analysis of
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It is a process that has ancient origins, which has gathered pace in the last fifty years, but which is very far from complete. In its concluding stages, interest rates, wage rates and corporate and income tax rates would become the same everywhere, driven to equality by competition, as investors,
1458:
committee to conclude that any economic benefits of immigration to the United
Kingdom are relatively small. Evidence from the United States also suggests that the economic benefits to the receiving country are relatively small, and that the presence of immigrants in its labour market results in only
1333:
Neoclassical theory had led them to expect capital to flow from the capital-rich developed economies to the capital-poor developing countries - because the returns to capital there would be higher. Flows of financial capital would tend to increase the level of investment in the developing countries
1322:
in which most governments no longer attempt to control their exchange rates or to impose controls upon access to foreign currencies or upon access to international financial markets. The behaviour of the international financial system was transformed. Exchange rates became very volatile and there was
1313:($ ), and the United States government had undertaken to buy gold on demand at a fixed rate of $ 35 per ounce. In support of those commitments, most signatory nations had maintained strict control over their nationals’ use of foreign exchange and upon their dealings in international financial assets.
1239:
The largest of the remaining trade-distorting policies are those concerning agriculture. In the OECD countries government payments account for 30 per cent of farmers’ receipts and tariffs of over 100 per cent are common. OECD economists estimate that cutting all agricultural tariffs and subsidies by
1165:
by manufacturers. The
Prebisch/Singer findings remain controversial, but they were used at the time—and have been used subsequently—to suggest that the developing countries should erect barriers against manufactured imports in order to nurture their own "infant industries" and so reduce their need
1021:
differs from the remainder of economic theory mainly because of the comparatively limited international mobility of the capital and labour. In that respect, it would appear to differ in degree rather than in principle from the trade between remote regions in one country. Thus the methodology of
1498:
Of the moves toward integration that have occurred, the strongest has been in financial markets, in which globalisation is estimated to have tripled since the mid-1970s. Recent research has shown that it has improved risk-sharing, but only in developed countries, and that in the developing countries
1243:
Quotas prompt foreign suppliers to raise their prices toward the domestic level of the importing country. That relieves some of the competitive pressure on domestic suppliers, and both they and the foreign suppliers gain at the expense of a loss to consumers, and to the domestic economy, in addition
924:
is concerned with the effects upon economic activity from international differences in productive resources and consumer preferences and the international institutions that affect them. It seeks to explain the patterns and consequences of transactions and interactions between the inhabitants of
1490:
has a variety of meanings, but in economic terms it refers to the move that is taking place in the direction of complete mobility of capital and labour and their products, so that the world's economies are on the way to becoming totally integrated. The driving forces of the process are reductions
1127:
Nevertheless, there have been widespread misgivings about the effects of international trade upon wage earners in developed countries. Samuelson's factor price equalisation theorem indicates that, if productivity were the same in both countries, the effect of trade would be to bring about equality
1109:
There is a strong presumption that any exchange that is freely undertaken will benefit both parties, but that does not exclude the possibility that it may be harmful to others. However (on assumptions that included constant returns and competitive conditions) Paul
Samuelson has proved that it will
1047:
provides a logical explanation of international trade as the rational consequence of the comparative advantages that arise from inter-regional differences - regardless of how those differences arise. Since its exposition by David
Ricardo the techniques of neo-classical economics have been applied
1417:
One of their effects has been greatly to increase the international inter-connectedness of the financial markets and to create an international financial system with the characteristics known in control theory as "complex-interactive". The stability of such a system is difficult to analyse because
1341:
offers a summary of the empirical evidence. The authors found little evidence either of the benefits of the liberalisation of capital movements, or of claims that it is responsible for the spate of financial crises. They suggest that net benefits can be achieved by countries that are able to
1276:
does not differ in principle from the economics of international trade, but there are significant differences of emphasis. The practice of international finance tends to involve greater uncertainties and risks because the assets that are traded are claims to flows of returns that often extend many
1207:
industrialisation is not that it is bound to fail, but that subsidies and tax incentives do the job better. It has also been pointed out that, in any case, trade restrictions could not be expected to correct the domestic market imperfections that often hamper the development of infant industries.
1118:
study has suggested that there are further dynamic gains resulting from better resource allocation, deepening specialisation, increasing returns to R&D, and technology spillover. The authors found the evidence concerning growth rates to be mixed, but that there is strong evidence that a 1 per
1088:
to identify from the available statistics, the contribution of particular factors among the many different factors that affect trade. One example of such an econometric model is the gravity equation. The contributions of differences of technology have been evaluated in several such studies. The
1074:
Another corollary of the H–O theorem is
Samuelson's factor price equalisation theorem which states that as trade between countries tends to equalise their product prices, it tends also to equalise the prices paid to their factors of production. Those theories have sometimes been taken to mean that
1502:
Increased globalisation has also made it easier for recessions to spread from country to country. A reduction in economic activity in one country can lead to a reduction in activity in its trading partners as a result of its consequent reduction in demand for their exports, which is one of the
1092:
Other researchers have found research and development expenditure, patents issued, and the availability of skilled labor, to be indicators of the technological leadership that enables some countries to produce a flow of such technological innovations and have found that technology leaders tend to
1070:
of the H–O theorem, was an early example. In its most general form it states that if the price of a good rises (falls) then the price of the factor used intensively in that industry will also rise (fall) while the price of the other factor will fall (rise). In the international trade context for
1405:
onwards, regulators and their economic advisors have been aware that economic and financial crises can spread rapidly from country to country, and that financial crises can have serious economic consequences. For many decades, that awareness led governments to impose strict controls over the
1280:
For example, mismanagement of mortgage lending in the United States led in 2008 to banking failures and credit shortages in other developed countries, and sudden reversals of international flows of capital have often led to damaging financial crises in developing countries. And, because of the
1469:
Whereas some studies suggest that parent countries can benefit from the emigration of skilled workers, generally it is emigration of unskilled and semi-skilled workers that is of economic benefit to countries of origin, by reducing pressure for employment creation. Where skilled emigration is
1206:
Another study provides descriptive evidence suggesting that attempts at import substitution industrialisation since the 1970s have usually failed, but the empirical evidence on the question has been contradictory and inconclusive. It has been argued that the case against import substitution
1446:. Economic theory indicates that the movement of a skilled worker from a place where the returns to skill are relatively low to a place where they are relatively high should produce a net gain, although it would tend to depress the wages of skilled workers in the recipient country).
1473:
Unlike movement of capital and goods, since 1973 government policies have tried to restrict migration flows, often without any economic rationale. Such restrictions have had diversionary effects, channeling the great majority of migration flows into illegal migration and "false"
1132:. Any remaining international wage differences would then be the result of productivity differences, so that there would be no difference between unit labour costs in developing and developed countries, and no downward pressure on wages in the developed countries.
1048:
to it to model the patterns of trade that would result from various postulated sources of comparative advantage. However, extremely restrictive (and often unrealistic) assumptions have had to be adopted in order to make the problem amenable to theoretical analysis.
1441:
results in a net gain in economic welfare. Wage differences between developed and developing countries have been found to be mainly due to productivity differences which may be assumed to arise mostly from differences in the availability of physical, social and
1097:
goods that are produced by the extraction and routine processing of available natural resources—such as coal, oil and wheat, for which developing countries often have an advantage compared with other types of production—which might be referred to as "Ricardo
1384:, mainly by restoring their depleted currency reserves. Their loans are, however, conditional upon the introduction of economic measures by recipient governments that are considered by the Fund's economists to provide conditions favourable to recovery.
1376:
The IMF was set up in 1944 to encourage international cooperation on monetary matters, to stabilise exchange rates and create an international payments system. Its principal activity is the payment of loans to help member countries to overcome
3076:
1104:
high-technology goods and high scale-economy goods, such as computers and aeroplanes, for which the comparative advantage arises from the availability of R&D resources and specific skills and the proximity to large sophisticated
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economies. Successful identification of such a situation, followed by the temporary imposition of a barrier against imports can, in principle, produce substantial benefits to the country that applies it—a policy known as
1215:
Economists’ findings about the benefits of trade have often been rejected by government policy-makers, who have frequently sought to protect domestic industries against foreign competition by erecting barriers, such as
1083:
Modern trade analysis moves away from the restrictive assumptions of the H-O theorem and explores the effects upon trade of a range of factors, including technology and scale economies. It makes extensive use of
1248:
to the world economy. When quotas were banned under the rules of the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the United States, Britain and the European Union made use of equivalent arrangements known as
1453:
study suggests that if the share of foreign workers grew to 3% of the labour force in the rich countries there would be global benefits of $ 675 billion a year by 2025. However, a survey of the evidence led a
1503:
mechanisms by which the business cycle is transmitted from country to country. Empirical research confirms that the greater the trade linkage between countries the more coordinated are their business cycles.
1630:
1369:" and some, such as Denmark, have retained their national currencies but have pegged them at a fixed rate to an adjacent common currency. On an international scale, the economic policies promoted by the
2787:
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activities and conduct of banks and other credit agencies, but in the 1980s many governments pursued a policy of deregulation in the belief that the resulting efficiency gains would outweigh any
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meet threshold conditions of financial competence but that for others, the benefits are likely to be delayed, and vulnerability to interruptions of capital flows is likely to be increased.
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1354:, some of them – together with many developing countries – maintain exchange rates that are nominally "fixed", usually with the US dollar or the euro. The adoption of a fixed rate requires
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had claimed that if there were any resulting instability, it would mainly be the consequence of macroeconomic instability, but an empirical analysis in 1999 found no apparent connection.
1110:
always be possible for the gainers from international trade to compensate the losers. Moreover, in that proof, Samuelson did not take account of the gains to others resulting from wider
2487:
1297:
A major change in the organisation of international finance occurred in the latter years of the twentieth century, and economists are still debating its implications. At the end of the
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is more widely employed. Also, the consensus among economists concerning its principal issues is narrower and more open to controversy than is the consensus about international trade.
1029:
and developing into a range of theorems that depend for their practical value upon the realism of their postulates. "Modern" trade analysis, on the other hand, depends mainly upon
1140:
There has also been concern that international trade could operate against the interests of developing countries. Influential studies published in 1950 by the
Argentine economist
1114:, from the international specialisation of productive activities - and consequent economies of scale, and from the transmission of the benefits of technological innovation. An
1224:, against imports. Average tariff levels of around 15 per cent in the late 19th century rose to about 30 percent in the 1930s, following the passage in the United States of the
1101:
low-technology goods, such as textiles and steel, that tend to migrate to countries with appropriate factor endowments—which might be referred to as "Heckscher-Ohlin goods"; and,
1316:
But in 1971 the United States government announced that it was suspending the convertibility of the dollar, and there followed a progressive transition to the current regime of
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in the long-term, but which would be unable to survive in the face of competition from imported goods. This situation can occur when time is needed either to achieve potential
1025:
The branch of trade theory which is conventionally categorized as "classical" consists mainly of the application of deductive logic, originating with Ricardo's Theory of
1534:
has advanced the infant industry case for protection in developing countries and criticised the conditions imposed for help by the International Monetary Fund. Professor
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made two successive recommendations (Basel I and Basel II) concerning the regulation of banks, and a coordinating group of regulating authorities, and the
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Gary Hufbauer: "The Impact of National Characteristics and Technology on the Commodity Composition of Trade in Manufactured Goods" in Vernon op cit 1970
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Their recommended economic policies are broadly those that have been adopted in the United States and the other major developed countries (known as the "
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50% would set off a chain reaction in realignments of production and consumption patterns that would add an extra $ 26 billion to annual world income.
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Measures designed to reduce the vulnerability of the international financial system have been put forward by several international institutions. The
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it has increased macroeconomic volatility. It is estimated to have resulted in net welfare gains worldwide, but with losers as well as gainers. .
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suggested that there is a tendency for the prices of agricultural products to fall relative to the prices of manufactured goods; turning the
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Blattman, Christopher; Clemens, Michael A.; Williamson, Jeffrey G. (June 2003). "Who Protected and Why? Tariffs the World Around 1870–1938".
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Core Principles of Effective Banking Supervision Basel Committee on Banking Supervision, Bank for International Settlements 2006(Basel 2)
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Jagdish Bhagwati The Consensus for Free Trade Among economists — has it frayed? Lecture to the World Trade Organization October 8th 2007
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which it was devised it means that trade lowers the real wage of the scarce factor of production, and protection from trade raises it.
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by the country's central bank, and is usually accompanied by a degree of control over its citizens’ access to international markets.
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Subir Lall, Chris Papageorgiou and Petia Topalva Globalization and Inequality in IMF World Economic Outlook October 2007 Chapter 4
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Their findings have been confirmed by a number of subsequent studies, although it has been suggested that the effect may be due to
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2788:"Catia Batista, Pedro Vicente and Aitor Lacuesta: "Brain Drain or Brain Gain?Micro: Evidence from an African Success Story",
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Hallak, Juan Carlos; Levisohn, James (2008). "Fooling Ourselves: The Globalization and Growth Debate". In Zedillo, E. (ed.).
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From the standpoint of a developing country, the emigration of skilled workers represents a loss of human capital (known as
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temporary advantage arising from a country's development of a new technology is seen as contributory factor in one study.
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The essential guide to understanding why domestic companies will soon change their outsourcing focus from China to Mexico.
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against the developing countries and producing an unintended transfer of wealth from them to the developed countries.
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to export agricultural products. The arguments for and against such a policy are similar to those concerning the
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Frenkel, Jacob; Razin, Assaf (1987). "The Mundell–Fleming Model A Quarter Century Later: A Unified Exposition".
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House of Lords Select Committee on Economic Affairs Session 2007-8 HL paper 82, The Stationery Office, London
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and its extensions are often used to analyse the role of capital mobility (and it was also used by
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Globalisation is seen as contributing to economic welfare by most economists – but not all. Professor
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Kym Anderson and Alan Winter: "The Challenge of Reducing International Trade and Migration Barriers",
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Globalisation can also have a significant influence upon the conduct of macroeconomic policy. The
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Henry Thompson (2011). "International Economics: Global Markets and Competition (3rd Edition)"
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study flows of money across countries and the resulting effects on their economies as a whole.
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Singer, Hans (1950). "The Distribution of Gains between Investing and Borrowing Countries".
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Krueger, Anne; Tuncer, Bilge (1982). "An Empirical Test of the Infant Industry Argument".
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Samuelson, Paul (June 1949). "International Trade and the Equalization of Factor Prices".
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1327:
1179:
1111:
1003:; national security and economic nationalism; and international agreements and observance.
870:
781:
746:
711:
646:
571:
556:
443:
418:
413:
389:
161:
156:
2685:
2868:
2247:"Domestic Distortions, Tariffs, and the Theory of Optimum Subsidy: Some Further Results"
4229:
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2017:
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s. The extensive financial innovations that followed are described in the article on
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631:
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591:
496:
399:
3159:
1675: • Reuven Glick (2008). "macroeconomic effects of international trade,"
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94:
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2020:
The Gains from Trade and the Gains from Aid: Essays in International Trade Theory
1791:
Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, vol. XCVII p332 September 1953
4199:
4189:
3979:
3858:
3802:
3277:
3068:
2553:
Understanding Exchange Rate Volatility Without the Contrivance of Macroeconomics
2510:"Crises Now and Then: What Lessons from the Last Era of Financial Globalization"
1876:
Rybczyinski, Tadeusz (1955). "Factor Endowments and Relative Commodity Prices".
1789:
Domestic Production and Foreign Trade: The American Capital Position Re-examined
1628: • A. Venables (2001), "International Trade: Economic Integration,"
1576:
1540:
1535:
1463:
1145:
771:
761:
551:
186:
1228:. Mainly as the result of international agreements under the auspices of the
4109:
3909:
3686:
2947:
2287:
Baldwin, Robert (1969). "The Case against Infant-Industry Tariff Protection".
966:
across international financial markets, and the effects of these movements on
681:
481:
3204:
3200:
1619: • Devashish Mitra, 2008. "trade policy, political economy of,"
1449:
There have been many econometric studies intended to quantify those gains. A
3959:
3889:
3336:
3254:
3246:
2136:
1596:"International Economics - London School of Economics and Political Science"
1561:
1373:(IMF) have had a major influence, especially upon the developing countries.
1067:
531:
462:
42:
2772:
1989:
NordĂĄs, Hildegunn Kyvik; Miroudot, SĂ©bastien; Kowalski, Przemyslaw (2006).
2758:
2673:
Interim Report of the Working Group on Market and Institutional Resilience
1739:
865:
3738:
1366:
2650:
Global Financial Stability Report International Monetary Fund April 2008
2580:
1801:
Stolper, Wolfgang; Samuelson, Paul (1941). "Protection and Real Wages".
1326:
In making an influential case for flexible exchange rates in the 1950s,
2934:
2716:
2509:
2216:
The Future of Globalization: Explorations in Light of Recent Turbulence
2198:
2171:
2099:
1897:
1857:
1822:
1285:
has fewer applications than in the theory of international trade, and
2737:
2660:
2115:"The Terms of Trade Debate and its Implications for Primary Producers"
1975:
934:
studies goods and services flows across international boundaries from
2816:
Paul Streeten "Integration, Interdependence, and Globalization" in
2710:
2708:
2185:
Bruton, Henry J. (1998). "A Reconsideration of Import Substitution".
2003:
1990:
1437:
Elementary considerations lead to a presumption that international
1217:
947:
2926:
2067:
The Economic Development of Latin America and Its Principal Problems
1889:
1849:
1814:
2901:
2302:
2265:
1967:
1767:
Chapter 7 John Murray, 1821. Third edition.(First published: 1817)
2524:
1631:
International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences
1182:" is used to denote a new industry which has prospects of gaining
925:
different countries, including trade, investment and transaction.
2610:
Timothy Lane: "The Asian Financial Crisis; What Have We Learned"
1925:• Luc Soete: "A General Test of Technological Gap Trade Theory",
1350:
Although the majority of developed countries now have "floating"
3099:
M. June Flanders (2008). "international economics, history of,"
3087:
Stanley W. Black (2008). "international monetary institutions,"
2326:
Harvard Institute of Economic Research Discussion Paper No. 2010
1665:• Giancarlo Corsetti (2008). "new open economy macroeconomics,"
1115:
3219:
2245:
Bhagwati, Jagdish; Ramaswami, V. K.; Srinivasan, T. N. (1969).
1547:
has surveyed the debate that has taken place among economists.
1532:
School of International and Public Affairs, Columbia University
1491:
in politically imposed barriers and in the costs of transport.
2761:
Skilled Migration: the Perspective of the Developing Countries
1954:
Samuelson, Paul (1939). "The Gains from International Trade".
2597:
The Japanese Banking Crisis of the 1990s: Sources and Lessons
3215:
3077:
Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License
3015:
2894:
The Trade Comovement Problem in International Macroeconomics
2775:
Remittances and Emigration Intentions: Evidence from Armenia
2566:
Ayhan Kose, Eswar Prasad, Kenneth Rogoff, and Shang-Jin Wei
2648:
Containing Systemic Risks and Restoring Financial Soundness
2400:
2537:
Milton Friedman "The Case for Flexible Exchange Rates" in
2351:
HM Treasury (Annex A of Trade and the Global Economy 2004)
1608:• James E. Anderson (2008). "international trade theory,"
3211:
Organization for International Economic Relations (OiER)
2880:
International Financial Integration and the Real Economy
1688:(2008). "monetary approach to the balance of payments,"
3186:
International Economics: The Great Outsourcing Shift. "
3109:
James Rauch (2008). "growth and international trade,"
2896:(December 2002). FRB of New York Staff Report No. 155
2482:
Finance for Growth: Policy Choices in a Volatile World
2468:
WTO agreements concerning non-tariff barriers WTO 2007
2642:"Global Risks 2008" World Economic Forum January 2008
1651:
The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition
4245:
3887:
3621:
3370:
3335:
3253:
2508:Eichengreen, Barry; Bordo, Michael (January 2002).
1956:
Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science
1765:
On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation
1161:in the index numbers used or to the possession of
3210:
3125:International Trade and Globalisation, 3rd edition
2830:Fred Bergsten “The G-20 and the World Economy” in
1305:had agreed to maintain their currencies each at a
2871:Reaping the Benefits of Financial Globalisation
1281:incidence of rapid change, the methodology of
3005:Globalization and its Discontents" Norton 2002
2873:IMF Research Department Discussion Paper 2007
2031:
2029:
3231:
902:
8:
3067:This article incorporates material from the
2950:Analytical Afterthoughts on The Asian Crisis
1933:The Technology Factor in International Trade
1752:Studies in the Theory of International Trade
1051:The best-known of the resulting models, the
2834:Vol 5 Number 3 Page 28 July/September 2004
2628:The Russian Default and Contagion to Brazil
2220:. London and New York: Routledge. pp.
1709:Foundations of International Macroeconomics
1694: • Bennett T. McCallum (1996).
1356:intervention in the foreign exchange market
3238:
3224:
3216:
3167:Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
3030:Institute for International Economics 1997
2675:, Financial Stability Forum, February 2008
909:
895:
29:
2773:Aleksandr Grigoryan and Knar Khachatryan
2361:World Bank Global Economic Prospects 2004
2002:
1935:National Bureau of Economic Research 1970
3181:IIGG Interactive Guide to Global Finance
3163:Links for A-Z with much micro/macro too.
3111:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics
3101:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics
3090:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics
2915:International Monetary Fund Staff Papers
2717:"The Economic Benefits from Immigration"
2122:California School of Mines Working Paper
1914:International Trade and Technical Change
1690:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics
1677:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics
1667:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics
1621:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics
1611:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics
2759:Frederic Docquier and Hillel Rapoport
2436:Tariff and Non-tariff Barriers to Trade
1587:
41:
2878:Martin Evans and Viktoria Hnatkovska
2855:Who's Driving Financial Globalization?
2568:Financial Globalization: A Reappraisal
1995:OECD Trade Policy Working Paper No. 43
1230:General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
2420:International Trade Theory and Policy
1931: • Raymond Vernon (Ed):
1201:import substitution industrialization
7:
3160:Glossary of International Economics.
2054:pages 176 to 180 Yale Nota Bene 2005
1703: • Maurice Obstfeld and
3315:Agent-based computational economics
2040:American Enterprise Institute: 1999
2038:Labor Costs and International Trade
1684: • Mario I. Blejer and
1539:these contentions has been made by
1293:Exchange rates and capital mobility
1754: : Harper and Brothers 1937]
1557:List of international trade topics
1459:a small reduction in local wages.
1423:Bank for International Settlements
1301:, the national signatories to the
25:
3173:" Analysis on the Global Economy.
3171:International Economics Bulletin.
2882:IMF Staff Papers Vol 54 No 2 2007
2570:IMF Working Paper WP/06/189 2006
2135:Chang, Ha-Joon (September 2002).
1649:(2008). "international finance,"
1397:International financial stability
1170:of infant industries in general.
3773:neoclassical–Keynesian synthesis
3028:Has Globalization Gone Too Far?.
2853:Paolo Mauro and Jonathan Ostry
2725:Journal of Economic Perspectives
2599:, IMF Working Paper WP/00/7 2000
2348:Assessing the Cost of Protection
1696:International Monetary Economics
1514:to give a simple account of the
1259:to exclude innovatory products.
1066:, which is often described as a
876:
864:
49:
18:International economic relations
3075:", which is licensed under the
2892:Kose, M. Ayhan and Yi, Kei-Mu,
2630:IMF Working Paper WP/00/160 200
2626:Taimur Baig and Ilan Goldfajn:
990:International political economy
946:, and policy variables such as
151:Concepts, theory and techniques
27:Economics between nation states
2986:Interview with Joseph Stiglitz
2187:Journal of Economic Literature
2141:Post-Autistic Economics Review
1916:Oxford Economic Papers 13 1961
1337:A 2006 working paper from the
1251:voluntary restraint agreements
944:international factor movements
1:
3709:Critique of political economy
2555:IMF/Haas Business School 1999
2551:Robert Flood and Andrew Rose
1543:, and a lecture by Professor
3177:Council on Foreign Relations
2857:IMF Research Department 2007
2539:Essays in Positive Economics
2401:"The Doha Development Round"
2290:Journal of Political Economy
2254:Journal of Political Economy
1997:. OECD Trade Policy Papers.
1232:(GATT) and subsequently the
2582:The 1987 Stock Market Crash
2517:NBER Working Paper No. 8716
2373:"Trends in Market Openness"
1777:The Heckscher-Ohlin Theorem
1371:International Monetary Fund
1339:International Monetary Fund
1192:, or to acquire potential
1144:and the British economist
4352:
3847:Real business-cycle theory
2715:Borjas, George J. (1995).
1991:"Dynamic Gains from Trade"
1803:Review of Economic Studies
4287:
2869:IMF Research Department
2137:"Kicking Away the Ladder"
1927:Review of World Economics
1427:Financial Stability Forum
1346:Policies and institutions
1123:Factor price equalisation
1064:Stolper–Samuelson theorem
3199:Historical documents on
3127:. Stocksfield: Anforme.
2160:American Economic Review
2087:American Economic Review
1732:JEL classification codes
1234:World Trade Organization
139:JEL classification codes
4336:International economics
3487:Industrial organization
3310:Computational economics
3073:International economics
3041:Why Globalization Works
2974:Joseph Stiglitz website
2818:Finance and Development
2790:Oxford Economics Papers
2612:Finance and development
2541:p173 Phoenix Books 1966
2064:Prebisch, Raul (1950).
2052:Why Globalization Works
1319:floating exchange rates
1303:Bretton Woods Agreement
1256:precautionary principle
1226:Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act
1053:Heckscher-Ohlin theorem
1017:The economic theory of
1001:international sanctions
996:international relations
922:International economics
325:Industrial organization
182:Computational economics
3692:Modern monetary theory
3357:Experimental economics
3327:Pluralism in economics
3300:Mathematical economics
2595:Akihiro and David Woo
2389:on September 10, 2006.
2382:. 1999. Archived from
1516:Asian financial crisis
177:Experimental economics
3205:international finance
3016:Dani Rodrik's website
2484:World Bank May, 2001"
2438:Farm Foundation 2002"
1567:Comparative advantage
1508:Mundell–Fleming model
1401:From the time of the
1274:international finance
1268:Scope and methodology
1263:International finance
1184:comparative advantage
1044:comparative advantage
1027:Comparative Advantage
1013:Scope and methodology
962:studies the flow of
959:International finance
3566:Social choice theory
3322:Behavioral economics
3305:Complexity economics
2688:Copenhagen Consensus
2434:"David Sumner et al
2380:OECD Economic Review
1838:The Economic Journal
1451:Copenhagen Consensus
1390:Washington Consensus
1311:United States dollar
1244:to which there is a
993:, a sub-category of
940:economic integration
404:Social choice theory
3650:American (National)
3350:Economic statistics
3207:available on FRASER
3201:international trade
3043:Yale Nota Bene 2005
2073:. Santiago: UNECLA.
1787:Wassily Leontief,
1412:financial economics
1380:balance of payments
1307:fixed exchange rate
1283:comparative statics
1019:international trade
1008:International trade
931:International trade
871:Business portal
192:Operations research
172:National accounting
3193:2013-05-22 at the
3079:but not under the
2991:2006-09-27 at the
2979:2008-05-09 at the
2840:2007-07-17 at the
2614:September 1999 IMF
1872:Rybczynski theorem
1718:2010-08-09 at the
1287:empirical analysis
1189:economies of scale
1031:empirical analysis
979:and international
976:monetary economics
202:Industrial complex
197:Middle income trap
4323:
4322:
3854:New institutional
3134:978-1-905504-10-7
2738:10.1257/jep.9.2.3
2231:978-0-415-77184-9
1705:Kenneth S. Rogoff
1634:, pp. 7843-7848.
1272:The economics of
1174:Infant industries
1130:marginal products
936:supply-and-demand
919:
918:
16:(Redirected from
4343:
3527:Natural resource
3362:Economic history
3288:Mechanism design
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2443:. Archived from
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2022:: Routledge 1995
2015:
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2004:10.1787/18166873
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1623:, 2nd Edition.
1606:
1600:
1599:
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1572:Gains from trade
1545:Jagdish Bhagwati
1403:Great Depression
1299:Second World War
1057:Leontief Paradox
1037:Classical theory
911:
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365:Natural resource
157:Economic systems
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3268:Decision theory
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3195:Wayback Machine
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3113:. 2nd Edition.
3103:. 2nd Edition.
3093:. 2nd Edition.
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4032:
4027:
4022:
4017:
4012:
4007:
4002:
3997:
3992:
3987:
3982:
3977:
3972:
3967:
3962:
3957:
3952:
3947:
3942:
3937:
3932:
3927:
3922:
3917:
3912:
3907:
3902:
3896:
3894:
3888:
3885:
3884:
3882:
3881:
3876:
3871:
3866:
3861:
3856:
3851:
3850:
3849:
3839:
3838:
3837:
3827:
3822:
3817:
3816:
3815:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3794:
3793:
3792:
3791:
3781:
3776:
3761:
3756:
3751:
3746:
3741:
3736:
3731:
3726:
3721:
3719:Disequilibrium
3716:
3711:
3706:
3701:
3696:
3695:
3694:
3684:
3679:
3674:
3669:
3668:
3667:
3657:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3636:
3634:
3622:
3619:
3618:
3614:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3568:
3559:
3554:
3549:
3544:
3539:
3534:
3532:Organizational
3529:
3524:
3519:
3514:
3509:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3489:
3484:
3479:
3474:
3469:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3378:
3377:
3376:
3374:
3368:
3367:
3365:
3364:
3359:
3354:
3353:
3352:
3341:
3339:
3333:
3332:
3330:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3318:
3317:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3295:Macroeconomics
3292:
3291:
3290:
3285:
3280:
3275:
3270:
3263:Microeconomics
3259:
3257:
3251:
3250:
3245:
3243:
3242:
3235:
3228:
3220:
3214:
3213:
3208:
3197:
3184:
3174:
3164:
3155:Alan Deardorff
3150:
3149:External links
3147:
3146:
3145:
3139:
3133:
3121:Smith, Charles
3117:
3107:
3097:
3085:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3056:
3045:
3032:
3019:
3008:
2996:
2965:
2954:
2940:
2921:(4): 567–620.
2905:
2885:
2860:
2845:
2823:
2808:
2792:, August 2007"
2779:
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2500:
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2410:
2392:
2364:
2353:
2339:
2316:
2303:10.1086/259517
2297:(3): 295–305.
2279:
2266:10.1086/259587
2237:
2230:
2204:
2193:(2): 903–936.
2177:
2150:
2127:
2113:Tilton, John.
2105:
2094:(2): 473–485.
2076:
2056:
2043:
2025:
2010:
1981:
1968:10.2307/137133
1962:(2): 195–205.
1946:
1937:
1918:
1911:Michael Posner
1903:
1880:. New Series.
1863:
1828:
1793:
1780:
1769:
1763:David Ricardo
1756:
1743:
1723:
1692:, 2nd Edition.
1658:
1639:
1614:, 2nd Edition.
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1352:exchange rates
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1344:
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1211:Trade policies
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1195:learning curve
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1172:
1151:terms of trade
1137:
1136:Terms of trade
1134:
1124:
1121:
1107:
1106:
1102:
1099:
1080:
1077:
1041:The theory of
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1005:
1004:
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982:macroeconomics
974:International
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370:Organizational
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216:
214:By application
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174:
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159:
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10:
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4:
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2:
4348:
4337:
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4331:
4317:
4314:
4312:
4309:
4307:
4304:
4302:
4299:
4297:
4294:
4292:
4289:
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4278:
4275:
4272:
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4260:
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4111:
4108:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4098:
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4043:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4013:
4011:
4008:
4006:
4003:
4001:
3998:
3996:
3993:
3991:
3988:
3986:
3983:
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3926:
3923:
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3913:
3911:
3908:
3906:
3903:
3901:
3900:de Mandeville
3898:
3897:
3895:
3891:
3886:
3880:
3877:
3875:
3872:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3848:
3845:
3844:
3843:
3842:New classical
3840:
3836:
3833:
3832:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3818:
3814:
3811:
3810:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3798:Malthusianism
3796:
3790:
3787:
3786:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3774:
3770:
3767:
3766:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3759:Institutional
3757:
3755:
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3747:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
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3700:
3697:
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3670:
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3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
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3612:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3602:
3599:
3597:
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3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3563:
3562:Public choice
3560:
3558:
3555:
3553:
3550:
3548:
3545:
3543:
3540:
3538:
3537:Participation
3535:
3533:
3530:
3528:
3525:
3523:
3520:
3518:
3515:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3505:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3497:Institutional
3495:
3493:
3490:
3488:
3485:
3483:
3480:
3478:
3475:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3447:Expeditionary
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3437:Environmental
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
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3348:
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3311:
3308:
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3256:
3252:
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3212:
3209:
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3130:
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3098:
3096:
3092:
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3082:
3078:
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3054:
3049:
3046:
3042:
3036:
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3029:
3023:
3020:
3017:
3012:
3009:
3006:
3000:
2997:
2994:
2990:
2987:
2982:
2978:
2975:
2969:
2966:
2963:
2958:
2955:
2952:
2951:
2948:Paul Krugman
2944:
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2858:
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2839:
2836:
2833:
2827:
2824:
2821:
2820:IMF June 2001
2819:
2812:
2809:
2798:on 2011-09-26
2797:
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2777:
2776:
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2697:
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2654:
2651:
2649:
2643:
2637:
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2569:
2562:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2547:
2544:
2540:
2534:
2531:
2526:
2525:10.3386/w8716
2522:
2518:
2511:
2504:
2501:
2490:on 2009-01-23
2489:
2485:
2483:
2475:
2472:
2469:
2464:
2461:
2450:on 2007-04-23
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1961:
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1929:December 1981
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1919:
1915:
1912:
1907:
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1870:See also the
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1744:
1741:
1740:JEL:F5 links.
1737:
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1488:globalization
1482:Globalization
1481:
1479:
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1471:
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1445:
1444:human capital
1440:
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1415:
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1409:
1408:systemic risk
1404:
1396:
1394:
1392:
1391:
1385:
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1381:
1374:
1372:
1368:
1365:such as the "
1364:
1363:currency area
1359:
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1227:
1223:
1222:import quotas
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1190:
1185:
1181:
1173:
1171:
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1147:
1143:
1142:Raul Prebisch
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4267:Publications
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3830:Neoclassical
3820:Mercantilism
3729:Evolutionary
3591:Sociological
3564: /
3462:Geographical
3442:Evolutionary
3417:Digitization
3382:Agricultural
3345:Econometrics
3273:Price theory
3158:
3124:
3110:
3100:
3088:
3066:
3048:
3040:
3039:Martin Wolf
3035:
3027:
3026:Dani Rodrik
3022:
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2800:. Retrieved
2796:the original
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2546:
2538:
2533:
2516:
2503:
2492:. Retrieved
2488:the original
2481:
2474:
2463:
2452:. Retrieved
2445:the original
2435:
2428:
2419:
2413:
2404:
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2147:. Article 3.
2144:
2140:
2130:
2121:
2108:
2091:
2085:
2079:
2066:
2059:
2051:
2050:Martin Wolf
2046:
2037:
2019:
2018:Murray Kemp
2013:
1994:
1984:
1959:
1955:
1949:
1940:
1932:
1926:
1921:
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1809:(1): 58–73.
1806:
1802:
1796:
1788:
1783:
1772:
1764:
1759:
1751:
1746:
1736:JEL: F51-F55
1726:
1713:Description.
1708:
1700:Description.
1695:
1689:
1676:
1666:
1661:
1650:
1642:
1629:
1620:
1609:
1604:
1590:
1525:
1512:Paul Krugman
1505:
1501:
1497:
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1461:
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1205:
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1187:
1177:
1167:
1163:market power
1162:
1159:quality bias
1158:
1156:
1149:
1139:
1129:
1126:
1108:
1091:
1086:econometrics
1082:
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1026:
1024:
1018:
1016:
994:
988:
980:
973:
957:
952:trade quotas
929:
921:
920:
841:Publications
806:
429:Sociological
402: /
300:Geographical
280:Evolutionary
255:Digitization
220:Agricultural
124:Mathematical
104:
95:Econometrics
4105:von Neumann
3874:Supply-side
3859:Physiocracy
3803:Marginalism
3492:Information
3432:Engineering
3412:Development
3407:Demographic
3278:Game theory
3255:Theoretical
3069:Citizendium
2732:(2): 3–22.
1698:. Oxford.
1577:Geopolitics
1541:Martin Wolf
1536:Dani Rodrik
1464:brain drain
1146:Hans Singer
677:von Neumann
330:Information
270:Engineering
250:Development
245:Demographic
187:Game theory
129:Methodology
4262:Economists
4135:Schumacher
4040:Schumpeter
4010:von Wieser
3930:von ThĂĽnen
3890:Economists
3789:Circuitism
3754:Humanistic
3749:Historical
3724:Ecological
3714:Democratic
3687:Chartalism
3677:Behavioral
3640:Mainstream
3601:Statistics
3596:Solidarity
3517:Managerial
3482:Humanistic
3477:Historical
3422:Ecological
3387:Behavioral
3061:References
2802:2009-06-27
2494:2009-06-27
2454:2009-06-27
2422:Chap 110-4
1730:As at the
1522:Opposition
1178:The term "
1168:protection
950:rates and
836:Economists
707:Schumacher
612:Schumpeter
582:von Wieser
502:von ThĂĽnen
463:economists
439:Statistics
434:Solidarity
355:Managerial
320:Humanistic
315:Historical
260:Ecological
225:Behavioral
119:Mainstream
4180:Greenspan
4145:Samuelson
4125:Galbraith
4095:Tinbergen
4035:von Mises
4030:Heckscher
3990:Edgeworth
3869:Stockholm
3864:Socialist
3764:Keynesian
3744:Happiness
3704:Classical
3665:Mutualism
3660:Anarchist
3645:Heterodox
3542:Personnel
3502:Knowledge
3467:Happiness
3457:Financial
3427:Education
3402:Democracy
3337:Empirical
3247:Economics
3143:Abstract.
3115:Abstract.
3105:Abstract.
3095:Abstract.
3071:article "
2311:154784307
2274:154714998
1878:Economica
1681:Abstract.
1655:Abstract.
1636:Abstract.
1625:Abstract.
1616:Abstract.
1562:Arbitrage
1486:The term
1439:migration
1433:Migration
1309:with the
1068:corollary
938:factors,
752:Greenspan
717:Samuelson
697:Galbraith
667:Tinbergen
607:von Mises
602:Heckscher
562:Edgeworth
380:Personnel
340:Knowledge
305:Happiness
295:Financial
265:Education
240:Democracy
134:Political
100:Heterodox
43:Economics
4330:Category
4291:Category
4271:journals
4257:Glossary
4210:Stiglitz
4175:Rothbard
4155:Buchanan
4140:Friedman
4130:Koopmans
4120:Leontief
4100:Robinson
3985:Marshall
3835:Lausanne
3739:Georgism
3734:Feminist
3682:Buddhist
3672:Austrian
3571:Regional
3547:Planning
3522:Monetary
3452:Feminist
3397:Cultural
3392:Business
3191:Archived
3123:(2007).
2989:Archived
2977:Archived
2838:Archived
1716:Archived
1707:(1996).
1671:Abstract
1551:See also
1382:problems
1367:Eurozone
1105:markets.
845:journals
831:Glossary
782:Stiglitz
747:Rothbard
727:Buchanan
712:Friedman
702:Koopmans
692:Leontief
672:Robinson
557:Marshall
461:Notable
409:Regional
385:Planning
360:Monetary
290:Feminist
235:Cultural
230:Business
35:a series
33:Part of
4306:Outline
4277:Schools
4269: (
4230:Piketty
4225:Krugman
4090:Kuznets
4080:Kalecki
4055:Polanyi
3945:Cournot
3940:Bastiat
3925:Ricardo
3915:Malthus
3905:Quesnay
3808:Marxian
3699:Chicago
3629:history
3624:Schools
3611:Welfare
3581:Service
3372:Applied
2935:3867191
2746:9506404
2407:. 2006.
2199:2565125
2172:1812029
2100:1818065
1898:2551188
1858:2225933
1823:2967638
1530:of the
1218:tariffs
1098:goods";
964:capital
851:Schools
843: (
802:Piketty
797:Krugman
662:Kuznets
652:Kalecki
627:Polanyi
517:Cournot
512:Bastiat
497:Ricardo
487:Malthus
477:Quesnay
449:Welfare
419:Service
90:Applied
66:Outline
61:History
4215:Thaler
4195:Ostrom
4190:Becker
4185:Sowell
4165:Baumol
4070:Myrdal
4065:Sraffa
4060:Frisch
4050:Knight
4045:Keynes
4020:Fisher
4015:Veblen
4000:Pareto
3980:Menger
3975:George
3970:Jevons
3965:Walras
3955:Gossen
3879:Thermo
3557:Public
3552:Policy
3507:Labour
3472:Health
3131:
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948:tariff
787:Thaler
767:Ostrom
762:Becker
757:Sowell
737:Baumol
642:Myrdal
637:Sraffa
632:Frisch
622:Knight
617:Keynes
592:Fisher
587:Veblen
572:Pareto
552:Menger
547:George
542:Jevons
537:Walras
527:Gossen
395:Public
390:Policy
345:Labour
310:Health
167:Market
4301:Lists
4296:Index
4247:Lists
4220:Hoppe
4205:Lucas
4170:Solow
4160:Arrow
4150:Simon
4115:Lange
4110:Hicks
4085:Röpke
4075:Hayek
4025:Pigou
3995:Clark
3910:Smith
3825:Mixed
3784:Post-
3606:Urban
3586:Socio
3576:Rural
2931:JSTOR
2742:S2CID
2720:(PDF)
2513:(PDF)
2448:(PDF)
2441:(PDF)
2387:(PDF)
2376:(PDF)
2307:S2CID
2270:S2CID
2250:(PDF)
2195:JSTOR
2168:JSTOR
2118:(PDF)
2096:JSTOR
2071:(PDF)
1972:JSTOR
1894:JSTOR
1874:, in
1854:JSTOR
1819:JSTOR
1583:Notes
824:Lists
792:Hoppe
777:Lucas
742:Solow
732:Arrow
722:Simon
687:Lange
682:Hicks
657:Röpke
647:Hayek
597:Pigou
567:Clark
482:Smith
444:Urban
424:Socio
414:Rural
114:Macro
110:Micro
71:Index
4236:more
3960:Marx
3950:Mill
3935:List
3813:Neo-
3769:Neo-
3203:and
3129:ISBN
3081:GFDL
2898:SSRN
2405:OECD
2330:SSRN
2226:ISBN
1220:and
1116:OECD
1062:The
808:more
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3779:New
3512:Law
3179:. "
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