1329:
1545:
2087:). In the Bessemer process, molten pig iron from the blast furnace was charged into a large crucible, and then air was blown through the molten iron from below, igniting the dissolved carbon from the coke. As the carbon burned off, the melting point of the mixture increased, but the heat from the burning carbon provided the extra energy needed to keep the mixture molten. After the carbon content in the melt had dropped to the desired level, the air draft was cut off: a typical Bessemer converter could convert a 25-ton batch of pig iron to steel in half an hour.
713:
1223:
901:, who invaded the Eastern Mediterranean and destroyed the Hittite empire at the end of the Late Bronze Age, were responsible for spreading the knowledge through that region. This theory is no longer held in the mainstream of scholarship, since there is no archaeological evidence of the alleged Hittite monopoly. While there are some iron objects from Bronze Age Anatolia, the number is comparable to iron objects found in Egypt and other places of the same time period, and only a small number of those objects were weapons.
1150:
2162:
1423:
1015:
187:
7011:
2061:
1448:; consequently, as these origin centers are located within inner Africa, these archaeometallurgical developments are thus native African technologies. Iron metallurgical development occurred 2631 BCE – 2458 BCE at Lejja, in Nigeria, 2136 BCE – 1921 BCE at Obui, in Central Africa Republic, 1895 BCE – 1370 BCE at Tchire Ouma 147, in Niger, and 1297 BCE – 1051 BCE at Dekpassanware, in Togo.
1993:
202:
922:
31:
1748:
299:. Typically pea-size bits of metal were cold-hammered into disks and fitted to a bone handle. These artifacts were also used as trade goods with other Arctic peoples: tools made from the Cape York meteorite have been found in archaeological sites more than 1,000 miles (1,600 km) distant. When the
3438:
One unappreciated aspect of Early Bronze Age and Middle Bronze Age steppe metallurgy was its experimentation with iron. … A Catacomb-period grave at
Gerasimovka on the Donets (western Russia/Ukraine), probably dated around 2500 BCE, contained a knife with a handle made of arsenical bronze and a blade
1218:
province, dated to the early 3rd century BC, contains several soldiers buried with their weapons and other equipment. The artifacts recovered from this grave are variously made of wrought iron, cast iron, malleabilized cast iron, and quench-hardened steel, with only a few, probably ornamental, bronze
1632:
to precipitate out as micro particles arranged in sheets or bands within the body of a blade. Carbides are far harder than the surrounding low carbon steel, so swordsmiths could produce an edge that cut hard materials with the precipitated carbides, while the bands of softer steel let the sword as a
1103:
by long trenches. This arrangement created a zone of high pressure at the entrance, and a zone of low pressure at the top of the furnace. The flow is believed to have allowed higher temperatures than bellows-driven furnaces could produce, resulting in better-quality iron. Steel made in Sri Lanka was
699:
weapons and tools with those of iron and steel. That transition happened at different times in different places, as the technology spread. Mesopotamia was fully into the Iron Age by 900 BC. Although Egypt produced iron artifacts, bronze remained dominant until its conquest by
Assyria in 663 BC. The
2212:
The large production capacity of steel results in a significant amount of carbon dioxide emissions inherent related to the main production route. In 2019, it was estimated that 7 to 9% of the global carbon dioxide emissions resulted from the steel industry. Reduction of these emissions are expected
1965:
patented a method of making cast iron pots. His pots were thinner and hence cheaper than those of his rivals. Needing a larger supply of pig iron he leased the blast furnace at
Coalbrookdale in 1709. There, he made iron using coke, thus establishing the first successful business in Europe to do
1763:
in 1783–84. Cast iron development lagged in Europe because wrought iron was the desired product and the intermediate step of producing cast iron involved an expensive blast furnace and further refining of pig iron to cast iron, which then required a labor and capital intensive conversion to wrought
2045:
in
Scotland in 1828. This further reduced production costs. Within a few decades, the practice was to have a 'stove' as large as the furnace next to it into which the waste gas (containing CO) from the furnace was directed and burnt. The resultant heat was used to preheat the air blown into the
1347:
in present-day
Ukraine, dated to c. 2500 BC. During most of the Middle and Late Bronze Age in Europe, iron was present, though scarce. It was used for personal ornaments and small knives, for repairs on bronzes, and for bimetallic items. Early smelted iron finds from central Europe include an iron
1309:
using two techniques: a "berganesque" method that produced inferior, heterogeneous steel and a precursor to the modern
Bessemer process that utilized partial decarbonization via repeated forging under a cold blast. By the 11th century, there was a large amount of deforestation in China due to the
1780:
to these sites, but there is no clear proof of this hypothesis, and it would certainly not explain the pre-Mongol datings of many of these iron-production centres. In any event, by the late 14th century, a market for cast iron goods began to form, as a demand developed for cast iron cannonballs.
2109:
was introduced at the Voest-Alpine works in 1952; a modification of the basic
Bessemer process, it lances oxygen from above the steel (instead of bubbling air from below), reducing the amount of nitrogen uptake into the steel. The basic oxygen process is used in all modern steelworks; the last
1870:. Wrought iron bars and charcoal were packed into stone boxes, then sealed with clay to be held at a red heat continually tended in an oxygen-free state immersed in nearly pure carbon (charcoal) for up to a week. During this time, carbon diffused into the surface layers of the iron, producing
912:
trade routes, due to the collapse of the empires at the end of the Late Bronze Age. These metals, especially tin, were not widely available and metal workers had to transport them over long distances, whereas iron ores were widely available. However, no known archaeological evidence suggests a
1926:
Early iron smelting used charcoal as both the heat source and the reducing agent. By the 18th century, the availability of wood for making charcoal was limiting the expansion of iron production, so that
England became increasingly dependent for a considerable part of the iron required by its
1878:—also known as case hardened, where the portions wrapped in iron (the pick or axe blade) became harder, than say an axe hammer-head or shaft socket which might be insulated by clay to keep them from the carbon source. The earliest place where this process was used in England was at
2117:
Until these 19th-century developments, steel was an expensive commodity and only used for a limited number of purposes where a particularly hard or flexible metal was needed, as in the cutting edges of tools and springs. The widespread availability of inexpensive steel powered the
1492:(Holl 2009). The site of Gbabiri (in the Central African Republic) has yielded evidence of iron metallurgy, from a reduction furnace and blacksmith workshop; with earliest dates of 896–773 BC and 907–796 BC respectively. Similarly, smelting in bloomery-type furnaces appear in the
1364:
there is a significant increase in iron finds dating from the 10th century BC onwards, with some finds possibly dating as early as the 12th century BC. Iron swords have been found in central Europe dating from the 10th century BC; however, the Iron Age began in earnest with the
679:
The place and time for the discovery of iron smelting is not known, partly because of the difficulty of distinguishing metal extracted from nickel-containing ores from hot-worked meteoritic iron. The archaeological evidence seems to point to the Middle East area, during the
2097:
The acidic refractory lining of
Bessemer converters and early open hearths didn't allow to remove phosphorus from steel with lime, which prolonged the life of puddling furnaces in order to utilize phosphorous iron ores abundant in Continental Europe. However, in the 1870s
3439:
made of iron. The iron did not contain magnetite or nickel, as would be expected in meteoric iron, so it is thought to have been forged. Iron objects were rare, but they were part of the experiments conducted by steppe metalsmiths during the Early and Middle Bronze Ages
1278:) from the Han period forward was a major center of the iron and steel industry. Along with their original methods of forging steel, the Chinese had also adopted the production methods of creating Wootz steel, an idea imported from India to China by the 5th century AD.
1267:. Pig iron is known as 'raw iron', while wrought iron is known as 'cooked iron'. By the 1st century BC, Chinese metallurgists had found that wrought iron and cast iron could be melted together to yield an alloy of intermediate carbon content, that is, steel.
806:
have been found across the
Eastern Mediterranean, bronzework appears to have greatly predominated during this period. As the technology spread, iron came to replace bronze as the dominant metal used for tools and weapons across the Eastern Mediterranean (the
1376:
saw a significant increase in iron production, with iron metallurgy also becoming common in southern Scandinavia. North of Sweden saw steel manufacturing dating back to around 0 AD through the eastern-western migration of hunter-gatherers in the
2122:
and modern society as we know it. Mild steel ultimately replaced wrought iron for almost all purposes, and wrought iron is no longer commercially produced. With minor exceptions, alloy steels only began to be made in the late 19th century.
2012:'s puddling process, patented in 1784, but probably only made to work with grey pig iron in about 1790. These processes permitted the great expansion in the production of iron that constitutes the Industrial Revolution for the iron industry.
1254:
province, each capable of producing several tons of iron per day. By this time, Chinese metallurgists had discovered how to fine molten pig iron, stirring it in the open air until it lost its carbon and could be hammered (wrought). In modern
1348:
knife or sickle from Ganovce in Slovakia, possibly dating from the 18th century BC, an iron ring from Vorwohlde in Germany dating from circa the 15th century BC, and an iron chisel from Heegermühle in Germany dating from circa 1000 BC.
2072:, English steel continued to be made by the cementation process, sometimes followed by remelting to produce crucible steel. These were batch-based processes whose raw material was bar iron, particularly Swedish oregrounds iron.
1213:
to steel or wrought iron by heating it in air for several days. In China, these iron working methods spread northward, and by 300 BC, iron was the material of choice throughout China for most tools and weapons. A mass grave in
1297:
of Nanyang. Although Du Shi was the first to apply water power to bellows in metallurgy, the first drawn and printed illustration of its operation with water power appeared in 1313 AD, in the Yuan dynasty era text called the
4656:
1174:
Historians debate whether bloomery-based ironworking ever spread to China from the Middle East. One theory suggests that metallurgy was introduced through Central Asia. In 2008, two iron fragments were excavated at the
1767:
Through a good portion of the Middle Ages, in Western Europe, iron was still being made by the working of iron blooms into wrought iron. Some of the earliest casting of iron in Europe occurred in Sweden, in two sites,
1882:
from 1619, where Sir Basil Brooke had two cementation furnaces (recently excavated in 2001–2005). For a time in the 1610s, he owned a patent on the process, but had to surrender this in 1619. He probably used
4383:
2180:
in China and India caused a massive increase in the demand for steel. Between 2000 and 2005, world steel demand increased by 6%. Since 2000, several Indian and Chinese steel firms have risen to prominence, such as
1274:, the first Han emperor, was made in this fashion. Some texts of the era mention "harmonizing the hard and the soft" in the context of ironworking; the phrase may refer to this process. The ancient city of Wan (
1359:
from at least the 9th century BC. In the 11th century BC iron swords replaced bronze swords in Southern Europe, especially in Greece, and in the 10th century BC iron became the prevailing metal in use. In the
4624:
205:
Iron meteorites consist overwhelmingly of nickel-iron alloys. The metal taken from these meteorites is known as meteoric iron and was one of the earliest sources of usable iron available to humans.
668:) and cast into molds, smelted iron requires hot-working and can be melted only in specially designed furnaces. Iron is a common impurity in copper ores and iron ore was sometimes used as a
1469:
there are also signs of independent copper smelting between 2500 and 1500 BC. The process was not in a developed state, indicating smelting was not foreign. It became mature about 1500 BC.
2110:
Bessemer converter in the U.S. was retired in 1968. Furthermore, the last three decades have seen a massive increase in the mini-mill business, where scrap steel only is melted with an
2213:
to come from a shift in the main production route using cokes, more recycling of steel and the application of carbon capture and storage or carbon capture and utilization technology.
1526:. The technologically superior Bantu-speakers spread across southern Africa and became wealthy and powerful, producing iron for tools and weapons in large, industrial quantities.
1672:
There was no fundamental change in the technology of iron production in Europe for many centuries. European metal workers continued to produce iron in bloomeries. However, the
1030:. In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon. Iron chain was used in Indian
168:
which involved blowing air through molten pig-iron to burn off carbon, and so producing mild steel. This and other 19th-century and later steel-making processes have displaced
1522:-speaking farming communities who adopted it, driving out and absorbing the rock tool using hunter-gatherer societies they encountered as they expanded to farm wider areas of
6853:
3509:
1752:
1511:
as early as 2,300 to 2,000 years ago (about 300 BC or soon after) by a complex process of "pre-heating" allowing temperatures inside a furnace to reach 1300 to 1400 °C.
4380:
3832:
1385:
expansion. Celtic smiths produced steel from circa 800 BC as part of the production of swords, and evidence for the production of high-carbon steel is found in Britain at
869:
most of it. Smiths in the Middle East discovered that wrought iron could be turned into a much harder product by heating the finished piece in a bed of charcoal, and then
248:
These early uses appear to have been largely ceremonial or decorative. Meteoric iron is very rare, and the metal was probably very expensive, perhaps more expensive than
4200:
Kochmann, W.; Reibold M.; Goldberg R.; Hauffe W.; Levin A. A.; Meyer D. C.; Stephan T.; MĂĽller H.; Belger A.; Paufler P. (2004). "Nanowires in ancient Damascus steel".
2144:
913:
shortage of bronze or tin in the Early Iron Age. Bronze objects remained abundant, and these objects have the same percentage of tin as those from the Late Bronze Age.
4986:
2015:
In the early 19th century, Hall discovered that the addition of iron oxide to the charge of the puddling furnace caused a violent reaction, in which the pig iron was
6744:
6485:
6081:
846:
from the ore to metallic iron. The bloomery, however, was not hot enough to melt the iron, so the metal collected in the bottom of the furnace as a spongy mass, or
3621:
1676:
period brought two developments—the use of water power in the bloomery process in various places (outlined above), and the first European production in cast iron.
2140:
2114:. These mills only produced bar products at first, but have since expanded into flat and heavy products, once the exclusive domain of the integrated steelworks.
897:. It was believed that they maintained a monopoly on iron working, and that their empire had been based on that advantage. According to that theory, the ancient
1935:
around 1619, and with a mixed fuel made from coal and wood again in the 1670s. However this was probably only a technological rather than a commercial success.
1451:
Though there is some uncertainty, some archaeologists believe that iron metallurgy was developed independently in sub-Saharan Africa (possibly in West Africa).
4802:
Lucas, Adam Robert (2005). "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe".
7359:
6700:
6209:
4631:
4418:
3375:
Hartwell, Robert (1966). "Markets, Technology and the Structure of Enterprise in the Development of the Eleventh Century Chinese Iron and Steel Industry".
1433:
3216:
6532:
5983:
4337:
4038:
Schmidt, Peter (2019). "Science in Africa: A history of ingenuity and invention in African iron technology". In Worger, W; Ambler, C; Achebe, N (eds.).
1289:) in working the bellows of the blast furnace. This was recorded in the year 31 AD, as an innovation by the Chinese mechanical engineer and politician
7380:
2169:
The steel industry is often considered an indicator of economic progress, because of the critical role played by steel in infrastructural and overall
1660:. Peter Paufler, a member of the Dresden team, says that these nanostructures give Damascus steel its distinctive properties and are a result of the
1541:
where there are known to have been ancient bloomeries that produced metal tools for the Nubians and Kushites and produced surplus for their economy.
936:
have yielded iron implements dated between 1800 and 1200 BC. By the early 13th century BC, iron smelting was practiced on a large scale in India. In
4586:
6846:
172:. Today, wrought iron is no longer produced on a commercial scale, having been displaced by the functionally equivalent mild or low-carbon steel.
1318:
4511:(Princeton, 1977), 37–41; P. W. King, 'The Iron Trade in England and Wales 1500–1815' (Ph.D. thesis, Wolverhampton University, 2003), 128–141.
1966:
so. His products were all of cast iron, though his immediate successors attempted (with little commercial success) to fine this to bar iron.
7321:
3701:
3431:
3032:
2724:
2653:
2555:
2425:
1980:
in Shropshire, and this was followed by others. These supplied coke pig iron to finery forges of the traditional kind for the production of
4979:
4739:
4664:
3233:
3078:
2747:
1328:
1887:
iron as his raw material, but it was soon found that oregrounds iron was more suitable. The quality of the steel could be improved by
6839:
4851:
4785:
4106:
4079:
3527:
3169:
2908:
2796:
639:
308:
229:) of that material, which are preserved when the metal is worked cold or at low temperature. Those artifacts include, for example, a
704:, who had learned from the Assyrians the use of iron and were expelled from Egypt, became major manufacturers and exporters of iron.
664:
smelting. While these metals and their alloys can be cold-worked or melted in relatively simple furnaces (such as the kilns used for
6110:
5016:
3857:
3655:
3262:
3207:
3107:
2941:
2917:
2694:
2401:
2259:
991:, door fittings, etc., dated from 600 to 200 BC, have been discovered at several archaeological sites of India. The Greek historian
2332:
Photos, E. (1989). "The Question of Meteoritic versus Smelted Nickel-Rich Iron: Archaeological Evidence and Experimental Results".
1634:
3632:
2743:, Chapter 5 in a series of essays on Geology, History, and People prepares for a course of the University of California at Davis.
2209:
stated China was the top steel producer with about one-third of the world share; Japan, Russia, and the US followed respectively.
2000:
It was only after this that economically viable means of converting pig iron to bar iron began to be devised. A process known as
1544:
7339:
6204:
6729:
6120:
5158:
4972:
4260:
2887:
2094:. That was slow and energy intensive, but allowed to better control the chemical makeup of the product and recycle iron scrap.
1927:
industry, on Sweden (from the mid-17th century) and then from about 1725 also on Russia. Smelting with coal (or its derivative
1628:. This process was adopted in the Middle East using locally produced steels. The exact process remains unknown, but it allowed
1198:
achieved a temperature of 1130 °C. At this temperature, iron combines with 4.3% carbon and melts. The liquid iron can be
3829:
7385:
4956:
4874:
3276:
The iron objects unearthed from tombs of the Siwa culture in Mogou, Gansu, and the origin of iron-making technology in China.
1096:
560:
3605:
Hansen, Svend (2019). "The Hillfort of Teleac and Early Iron in Southern Europe". In Hansen, Svend; Krause, RĂĽdiger (eds.).
3588:
Hansen, Svend (2019). "The Hillfort of Teleac and Early Iron in Southern Europe". In Hansen, Svend; Krause, RĂĽdiger (eds.).
3571:
Hansen, Svend (2019). "The Hillfort of Teleac and Early Iron in Southern Europe". In Hansen, Svend; Krause, RĂĽdiger (eds.).
3469:
Hansen, Svend (2019). "The Hillfort of Teleac and Early Iron in Southern Europe". In Hansen, Svend; Krause, RĂĽdiger (eds.).
1823:
3559:
iron technology was practiced in the Nordic region from at least the ninth century BC (Hjärthner-Holdar 1993; Serning 1984)
1064:, thirty pounds of steel. Wootz steel was originally a complex alloy with iron as its main component together with various
157:, ushering in a new era of greatly increased use of iron and steel that some contemporaries described as a new "Iron Age".
6342:
5872:
5132:
2455:
Miller, Duncan E.; van der Merwe, N.J. (1994). "Early Metal Working in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review of Recent Research".
2099:
1548:
Typical bloomery iron production operational sequence starting with acquiring raw materials through smelting and smithing
932:
The history of ferrous metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent began in the 2nd millennium BC. Archaeological sites in the
787:, the mummy's head-stand and sixteen models of an artisan's tools. An Ancient Egyptian sword bearing the name of pharaoh
7349:
7329:
7121:
6337:
5877:
5350:
4555:
2148:
2119:
1943:
in the 1690s, but only to make cannonballs and other cast iron products such as shells. However, in the peace after the
1558:
1187:, suggesting an independent Chinese origin. One of the fragments was made of bloomery iron rather than meteoritic iron.
451:
2090:
In the 1860s development of regenerative furnaces and higher temperature refractory lining allowed to melt steel in an
1822:, and then to England, where it became the main method of making wrought iron by 1600. It was introduced to Sweden by
1690:
Sometime in the medieval period, water power was applied to the bloomery process. It is possible that this was at the
865:, the process of adding carbon to wrought iron. While the iron bloom contained some carbon, the subsequent hot-working
7282:
5303:
2393:
2284:
2173:. In 1980, there were more than 500,000 U.S. steelworkers. By 2000, the number of steelworkers had fallen to 224,000.
2152:
1247:
700:
Iron Age began in India about 1200 BC, in Central Europe about 800 BC, and in China about 300 BC. Around 500 BC, the
5200:
7158:
6605:
6406:
4950:
1190:
The earliest iron artifacts made from bloomeries in China date to end of the 9th century BC. Cast iron was used in
1026:
Perhaps as early as 500 BC, although certainly by 200 AD, high-quality steel was produced in southern India by the
4686:
944:) iron was in use 12th to 11th centuries BC. The technology of iron metallurgy advanced in the politically stable
7354:
7206:
6317:
6226:
2960:
2206:
1489:
1417:
603:
578:
672:, thus it is not surprising that humans mastered the technology of smelted iron only after several millennia of
7297:
7095:
6600:
5692:
5237:
3212:
2106:
1888:
4345:
1222:
712:
226:
4900:
Everything Old is New Again? Rethinking the transition to Cast Iron Production in the Plains of Central China
4687:"Carbon capture and utilization in the steel industry: challenges and opportunities for chemical engineering"
3981:
Schmidt, Peter; Avery, Donald (1983). "More Evidence for an Advanced Prehistoric Iron Technology in Africa".
3299:
Everything Old is New Again? Rethinking the Transition to Cast Iron Production in the Central Plains of China
2075:
The problem of mass-producing cheap steel was solved in 1855 by Henry Bessemer, with the introduction of the
1601:
empires from the 11th century, thus suggesting a diffusion of Chinese metal technology to the Islamic world.
7344:
7334:
7221:
6883:
6717:
6627:
5799:
5566:
5385:
5318:
5050:
2497:
Stuiver, Minze; van der Merwe, N.J. (1968). "Radiocarbon Chronology of the Iron Age in Sub-Saharan Africa".
2202:
2156:
1314:
to replace charcoal, and with this switch in resources many acres of prime timberland in China were spared.
767:, dated from 2500 BC. About 1500 BC, increasing numbers of non-meteoritic, smelted iron objects appeared in
4685:
De Ras, Kevin; Van De Vijver, Ruben; Galvita, Vladimir V.; Marin, Guy B.; Van Geem, Kevin M. (2019-12-01).
4381:
English steelmaking in the seventeenth century: the excavation of two cementation furnaces at Coalbrookdale
7236:
7168:
7153:
7145:
7111:
6805:
6679:
6285:
6176:
6164:
5860:
5601:
5440:
5077:
5011:
4995:
2861:
2847:"The origins of iron-working in India: new evidence from the Central Ganga Plain and the Eastern Vindhyas"
2042:
2005:
632:
501:
5747:
1472:
Archaeological sites containing iron smelting furnaces and slag have also been excavated at sites in the
210:
75:
6978:
6975:
6544:
6480:
6354:
6047:
5973:
5742:
5680:
5556:
5504:
5497:
5043:
4053:
Childs, S. Terry (1996). "Technological history and culture in western Tanzania". In Schmidt, P. (ed.).
3645:
2221:
2020:
1916:
1760:
904:
A more recent theory claims that the development of iron technology was driven by the disruption of the
459:
194:
142:
3795:
Holl, Augustin F. C. (6 November 2009). "Early West African Metallurgies: New Data and Old Orthodoxy".
1903:
found a means of melting blister steel, made by the cementation process, in crucibles. The resulting
514:
3671:
7390:
7307:
7271:
7226:
7116:
7090:
6761:
6756:
6739:
6734:
6712:
6502:
6216:
6069:
5961:
5865:
5658:
5343:
5313:
5142:
5085:
4490:(1953; 1989); N. Cox, 'Imagination and innovation of an industrial pioneer: The first Abraham Darby'
4290:
3931:
3131:
2990:
2375:
2170:
2111:
2084:
2001:
1718:
district of England, powered bloomeries were in use into the beginning of the 18th century, and near
1430:
1352:
1337:
1231:
1118:
926:
483:
435:
190:
4863:
From Bronze to Iron: The Transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in the Eastern Mediterranean
2866:
1149:
129:
and wrought iron, to ancient China, Africa, the Middle East, and Europe. Archaeological evidence of
7276:
7266:
7262:
7211:
7201:
7085:
7064:
6951:
6918:
6800:
6411:
6270:
6103:
5636:
5509:
5390:
5365:
3922:
Schmidt, Peter; Avery, Donald (1978). "Complex Iron Smelting and Prehistoric Culture in Tanzania".
2414:
Rao, Kp (2018). "Iron Age in South India: Telangana and Andhra Pradesh". In Uesugi, Akinori (ed.).
2161:
2019:, this became known as 'wet puddling'. It was also found possible to produce steel by stopping the
1860:
1850:
1646:
1053:
1045:
403:
296:
138:
3451:
3189:
Simulation of air flows through a Sri Lankan wind driven furnace, submitted to J. Arch. Sci, 2003.
3024:
2639:
1422:
6981:
6751:
6654:
6556:
6369:
5764:
5281:
5247:
4917:
4819:
4717:
4469:
4316:
4252:
3963:
3947:
3812:
3756:
3491:
3392:
3147:
3070:
3006:
2879:
2514:
2472:
2357:
2349:
2004:
was devised in the 1760s and improved in the 1770s, and seems to have been widely adopted in the
1562:
443:
3051:"Sharpest cut from nanotube sword: Carbon nanotech may have given swords of Damascus their edge"
1772:
and Vinarhyttan, between 1150 and 1350. Some scholars have speculated the practice followed the
1373:
4581:
3165:
2764:
The Tomb of Tut-Ankh-Amen: Discovered by the Late Earl of Carnarvon and Howard Carter, Volume 3
6995:
6793:
6783:
6773:
6722:
6379:
5591:
5576:
5561:
5541:
5432:
5411:
5222:
5065:
4912:
Pounds, Norman J. G. (1957). "Historical Geography of the Iron and Steel Industry of France".
4870:
4847:
4781:
4709:
4408:
4403:
4308:
4217:
4102:
4096:
4075:
3955:
3853:
3748:
3740:
3697:
3689:
3651:
3427:
3258:
3229:
3203:
3103:
2937:
2913:
2792:
2720:
2690:
2649:
2592:
2584:
2576:
2551:
2421:
2397:
1900:
1515:
1366:
1356:
1203:
1031:
1014:
669:
625:
491:
415:
411:
395:
364:
269:
4069:
3900:
3777:
3050:
2744:
2643:
1931:) was a long sought objective. The production of pig iron with coke was probably achieved by
1137:
Vikramaditya and has withstood 1,600 years of exposure to heavy rains with relatively little
7080:
7059:
6788:
6695:
6438:
6280:
6221:
5941:
5897:
5697:
5519:
5370:
5330:
5026:
4811:
4701:
4461:
4298:
4244:
4209:
4180:
4135:
3990:
3939:
3804:
3730:
3384:
3139:
3122:
3060:
3055:
2998:
2981:
2929:
2871:
2506:
2464:
2341:
2299:
2264:
2224:. At the end of 2008, the steel industry faced a sharp downturn that led to many cut-backs.
2217:
2076:
1973:
1707:
1462:
1378:
1344:
1256:
1191:
1069:
749:
475:
165:
2706:
White, W. C.: "Bronze Culture of Ancient China", p. 208. University of Toronto Press, 1956.
1310:
iron industry's demands for charcoal. By this time however, the Chinese had learned to use
186:
7287:
7040:
7010:
6944:
6810:
6669:
6639:
6401:
6329:
6307:
6265:
6160:
6130:
5995:
5990:
5641:
5524:
5095:
4949:
4735:
4387:
3836:
2751:
2124:
2016:
1962:
1956:
1827:
1811:
1796:
1695:
1657:
1519:
1361:
1134:
1133:), is almost seven meters high and weighs more than six tonnes. The pillar was erected by
952:
933:
839:
615:
467:
428:
419:
348:
rocks. Besides meteoritic iron, Thule people of Greenland have used native iron from the
98:. During the medieval period, smiths in Europe found a way of producing wrought iron from
1206:, a method far less laborious than individually forging each piece of iron from a bloom.
1068:. Recent studies have suggested that its qualities may have been due to the formation of
1022:
inlaid with gold; hilt: jade; scabbard: steel with engraved, chased and gilded decoration
4294:
3935:
3135:
2994:
2687:
International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms: Proceedings HMM Symposium
1972:
thus continued normally to be made with charcoal pig iron until the mid-1750s. In 1755
795:
with an iron blade and gold-decorated bronze shaft were both found in the excavation of
7191:
7173:
7049:
7045:
6991:
6778:
6705:
6527:
6492:
6423:
6312:
6184:
5892:
5477:
5467:
5269:
2903:
2249:
2190:
1944:
1904:
1884:
1856:
1730:
1621:
1605:
1441:
1394:
1275:
1248:
repealed during the latter half of the dynasty and returned to private entrepreneurship
1194:
for warfare, agriculture and architecture. Around 500 BC, metalworkers in the southern
1077:
1027:
1019:
937:
214:
161:
4774:
Eggert, Manfred (2014). "Early iron in West and Central Africa". In Breunig, P (ed.).
201:
7374:
7135:
6924:
6664:
6649:
6595:
6470:
6458:
6374:
6297:
6125:
6086:
6074:
6062:
5774:
5685:
5614:
5355:
5298:
5276:
5185:
5117:
5112:
5090:
4823:
4721:
4473:
4413:
4169:"Ahmad Y. Al-Hassan and Donald R. Hill, 'Islamic technology: an illustrated history'"
3816:
3760:
3495:
3396:
3151:
3074:
3010:
2842:
2635:
2518:
2476:
2415:
2374:
Riederer, Josef; Wartke, Ralf-B.: "Iron", Cancik, Hubert; Schneider, Helmuth (eds.):
2198:
2194:
2177:
2069:
1879:
1864:
1742:
1590:
1176:
1166:
1161:
1105:
1099:. The furnaces were dug into the crests of hills, and the wind was diverted into the
1065:
996:
968:
945:
862:
537:
336:
312:
300:
238:
181:
4256:
4229:
3967:
3622:
Gjordes stål i norr samtidigt som i romarriket – nu väntas historien skrivas om: SVT
3547:"Heads and Tails – Minds and Bodies: Reconsidering the Late Bronze Age Vestby Hoard"
3274:
Chen, Jianli, Mao, Ruilin, Wang, Hui, Chen, Honghai, Xie, Yan, Qian, Yaopeng, 2012.
3120:
Juleff, G. (1996). "An ancient wind powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka".
2883:
2846:
7249:
7244:
6971:
6967:
6583:
6539:
6520:
6475:
6347:
6275:
6199:
6021:
5956:
5951:
5907:
5534:
5416:
5380:
5360:
5212:
5190:
5102:
4320:
3257:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.
2979:
G. Juleff (1996). "An ancient wind powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka".
2361:
1981:
1969:
1936:
1867:
1834:
1807:
1803:
1790:
1582:
1574:
1566:
1500:
1401:
1306:
1235:
1184:
1160:
to make wrought iron from pig iron. The righthand illustration shows men working a
1153:
1122:
1085:
1008:
1004:
878:
855:
784:
759:
One of the earliest smelted iron artifacts, a dagger with an iron blade found in a
733:
685:
545:
349:
341:
304:
280:
169:
107:
91:
6632:
4600:
4277:
Reibold, M.; Levin A. A.; Kochmann W.; Pätzke N.; Meyer D. C. (16 November 2006).
4228:
Levin, A. A.; Meyer D. C.; Reibold M.; Kochmann W.; Pätzke N.; Paufler P. (2005).
4213:
4140:
4123:
3943:
3287:
p. xl, Historical Dictionary of Ancient Greek Warfare, J, Woronoff & I. Spence
2345:
2060:
1706:, the first clear documentary evidence for this is the accounts of a forge of the
4775:
4452:
King, P. W. (2001). "Sir Clement Clerke and the adoption of coal in metallurgy".
3633:
Tre frågor om: Så avancerad var ståltillverkningen i norr för 2 000 år sedan; SVT
3488:
From bronze to iron : The occurrence of iron in the British later Bronze Age
7292:
7196:
7053:
7019:
6622:
6612:
6568:
6563:
6515:
6453:
6389:
6290:
6135:
6057:
5978:
5966:
5759:
5727:
5712:
5702:
5673:
5631:
5546:
5514:
5462:
5395:
5232:
5107:
4705:
2254:
2186:
2128:
2102:
was developed, and later basic lining was adopted for the open hearths as well.
2091:
2055:
1928:
1625:
1609:
1578:
1530:
1508:
1493:
1481:
1445:
1437:
1436:
originated in numerous centers of Africa; the centers of origin were located in
1390:
1311:
1264:
1243:
1195:
1073:
1037:
898:
780:
768:
737:
717:
150:
134:
122:
41:
3994:
3752:
3735:
3718:
1992:
1759:
The preferred method of iron production in Europe until the development of the
1088:
carried the technology from South India to Europe, where it was mass-produced.
7181:
7024:
6934:
6766:
6659:
6617:
6433:
6396:
6359:
5842:
5754:
5619:
5581:
5482:
5455:
5375:
5288:
5205:
5173:
5127:
5038:
5006:
4866:
4185:
4168:
3808:
3388:
2875:
2468:
2304:
2182:
2009:
1940:
1932:
1769:
1691:
1570:
1286:
1209:
Cast iron is rather brittle and unsuitable for striking implements. It can be
1049:
894:
843:
803:
792:
681:
522:
380:
64:
52:
17:
4713:
4559:
4221:
4124:"Iron Smelting in Sudan: Experimental Archaeology at The Royal City of Meroe"
3744:
2580:
1514:
Iron and copper working spread southward through the continent, reaching the
1381:. The spread of ironworking in Central and Western Europe is associated with
1246:(202 BC–220 AD), the government established ironworking as a state monopoly,
948:
period and during a period of peaceful settlements in the 1st millennium BC.
873:
it in water or oil. This procedure turned the outer layers of the piece into
94:(worked iron) was known by the 1st millennium BC, and its spread defined the
7302:
7216:
6987:
6939:
6896:
6831:
6674:
6573:
6465:
6443:
6428:
6243:
6026:
6011:
5936:
5919:
5837:
5722:
5653:
5648:
5571:
5450:
5338:
5264:
5031:
5021:
2080:
2038:
2032:
1726:
1653:
1650:
1586:
1386:
1282:
1138:
1100:
1092:
1041:
1000:
992:
921:
866:
788:
653:
284:
130:
99:
86:
began, but by the end of the 2nd millennium BC iron was being produced from
72:
4815:
4312:
4248:
3959:
2596:
221:. That source can often be identified with certainty because of the unique
4846:(2nd ed.). London: Maney Publishing, for the Institute of Materials.
4023:
Avery, Donald; Schmidt, Peter (1996). "Preheating: Practice or illusion".
3065:
1183:. They have been dated to the 14th century BC, belonging to the period of
1007:
had high regard for the excellence of steel from India in the time of the
30:
7186:
6928:
6914:
6906:
6448:
6384:
6189:
5929:
5924:
5832:
5707:
5529:
5492:
5472:
4964:
4893:
Mastering Iron: The Struggle to Modernize an American Industry, 1800–1868
4465:
2244:
1977:
1838:
1819:
1799:
1719:
1685:
1673:
1613:
1504:
1496:
of central Nigeria by about 550 BC and possibly a few centuries earlier.
1271:
976:
890:
835:
827:
764:
760:
692:
570:
372:
253:
146:
126:
111:
103:
95:
87:
79:
37:
34:
4520:
G. R. Morton and N. Mutton, 'The transition to Cort's puddling process'
4422:. Vol. 14 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 803.
3694:
The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World
3644:
Wells, Peter (1995). "Resources and Industry". In Green, Miranda (ed.).
2285:"5,000 years old Egyptian iron beads made from hammered meteoritic iron"
1747:
999:
account of the use of iron in India. The Indian mythological texts, the
861:
Concurrent with the transition from bronze to iron was the discovery of
344:
iron in the metallic state occurs rarely as small inclusions in certain
6510:
6416:
6302:
6260:
6236:
6016:
5822:
5732:
5586:
5487:
5445:
5308:
5227:
5180:
5168:
4921:
3951:
1715:
1711:
1703:
1661:
1638:
1629:
1594:
1523:
1477:
1343:
The earliest smelted iron object from Europe is a knife blade from the
1294:
1199:
831:
783:, who died in 1323 BC, including an iron dagger with a golden hilt, an
771:, Anatolia and Egypt. Nineteen meteoric iron objects were found in the
721:
665:
288:
265:
222:
2353:
1725:
The Catalan Forge was a variety of powered bloomery. Bloomeries with
1714:
in 1408, but that was certainly not the first such ironworks. In the
6578:
6255:
6115:
6093:
5946:
5882:
5827:
5217:
5195:
5163:
5137:
4407:
4122:
Humphris J, Charlton MF, Keen J, Sauder L, Alshishani F (June 2018).
3143:
3002:
2233:
1777:
1773:
1699:
1604:
One of the most famous steels produced in the medieval Near East was
1598:
1537:
that date back between the 7th and 6th centuries BC, particularly in
1473:
1305:
In the 11th century, there is evidence of the production of steel in
1290:
1226:
An illustration of furnace bellows operated by waterwheels, from the
1061:
984:
960:
941:
905:
889:
The development of iron smelting was traditionally attributed to the
870:
850:. Workers then repeatedly beat and folded it to force out the molten
816:
812:
808:
796:
753:
729:
725:
696:
673:
661:
345:
324:
276:
261:
257:
4582:
Congressional Record V. 148, Pt. 4, April 11, 2002 to April 24, 2002
4303:
4278:
3606:
3589:
3572:
3470:
1698:
as early as 1135, but it was certainly in use in early 13th century
1633:
whole remain tough and flexible. A team of researchers based at the
744:
in grey, iron in reddish brown, gold in yellow, silver in white and
4010:
Historical Archaeology: A Structural Approach in an African Culture
3871:
3717:
Bandama, Foreman; Babalola, Abidemi Babatunde (13 September 2023).
3546:
2816:
Muhly, James D. 'Metalworking/Mining in the Levant' pp. 174–183 in
2510:
1907:, usually cast in ingots, was more homogeneous than blister steel.
6866:
6644:
6364:
6248:
6098:
6052:
5914:
5769:
5717:
5663:
5293:
5259:
4338:"Legendary Swords' Sharpness, Strength From Nanotubes, Study Says"
2588:
2239:
2160:
2059:
2037:
The efficiency of the blast furnace was improved by the change to
1991:
1746:
1642:
1617:
1543:
1538:
1534:
1485:
1466:
1455:
1421:
1405:
1382:
1251:
1215:
1180:
1148:
1126:
1112:
1013:
988:
972:
964:
956:
920:
874:
820:
776:
711:
701:
242:
218:
200:
185:
154:
68:
60:
29:
1281:
During the Han dynasty, the Chinese were also the first to apply
1003:, have mentions of weaving, pottery and metallurgy, as well. The
6862:
6590:
6551:
6231:
6031:
5887:
5817:
5737:
5609:
5122:
3719:"Science, Not Black Magic: Metal and Glass Production in Africa"
1130:
1084:
who spread it through the Middle East. In the 16th century, the
1081:
1057:
851:
772:
745:
320:
249:
234:
230:
133:
appears in 5th-century BC China. New methods of producing it by
115:
56:
6835:
6158:
5797:
5063:
4968:
4433:
King, P. W. (2002). "Dud Dudley's contribution to metallurgy".
3510:"Life and Belief in the Bronze Age: Belt Disc from HeegermĂĽhle"
2083:, England. (An early converter can still be seen at the city's
6194:
5902:
5668:
5626:
1620:, in the period from 900 to 1750. This was produced using the
1333:
1157:
1048:
for its durability and ability to hold an edge. When asked by
980:
909:
834:
were used to force air through a pile of iron ore and burning
741:
657:
316:
292:
153:
for charcoal emerged, and these were later applied to produce
83:
4027:. Gainesville: University of Florida Press. pp. 267–276.
1518:
around AD 200. The widespread use of iron revolutionized the
4509:
Technological change and the British iron industry 1700–1870
1117:
One of the world's foremost metallurgical curiosities is an
695:
is conventionally defined by the widespread replacement of
121:
By the 4th century BC southern India had started exporting
1018:
Dagger and its scabbard, India, 17th–18th century. Blade:
4279:"Materials:Carbon nanotubes in an ancient Damascus sabre"
3872:"Iron and its influence on the prehistoric site of Lejja"
3852:. Charlottesville: University of Virginia, pp. 136, 137
3577:. Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH, Bonn. pp. 204–206.
2791:. Oxford, England: Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 2–5.
1806:, which seems to have been devised in the region around
319:. Another example of a late use of meteoric iron is an
4539:
Economic History of the British Iron and Steel Industry
3688:
Craddock, Paul T. (2008): "Mining and Metallurgy", in:
2008:
from about 1785. However, this was largely replaced by
1810:
in the 15th century. By the end of that century, this
1585:
in the east. There are also 10th-century references to
688:
artifacts remained a rarity until the 12th century BC.
4740:"Steel Industry, in Slump, Looks to Federal Stimulus"
4055:
The Culture and Technology of African Iron Production
4025:
The Culture and Technology of African Iron Production
3672:"East Lothian's Broxmouth fort reveals edge of steel"
2165:
Steel production (in million tons) by country in 2007
1649:
to examine Damascus steel discovered the presence of
1565:. By the 11th century, every province throughout the
4768:
East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History
4526:
Henry Cort: The great finer: creator of puddled iron
4524:
205(7) (1967), 722–728; R. A. Mott (ed. P. Singer),
1939:
may have smelted iron with coke at Coalbrookdale in
1488:(Eze-Uzomaka 2009) and to 750 BC and at the site of
7320:
7235:
7167:
7144:
7134:
7104:
7073:
7033:
7018:
6960:
6905:
6892:
6688:
6501:
6328:
6175:
6040:
6004:
5853:
5810:
5600:
5431:
5404:
5329:
5246:
5151:
5076:
4907:
Iron in Archaeology. The European Bloomery Smelters
4836:
Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 3
4832:
Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 2
3611:. Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH, Bonn. p. 211.
3594:. Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH, Bonn. p. 214.
3475:. Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH, Bonn. p. 204.
1984:. The reason for the delay remains controversial.
1976:(with partners) opened a new coke-using furnace at
1826:in the early 17th century and was used to make the
1393:was famous for its quality and sought-after by the
598:
275:Meteoric iron was also fashioned into tools in the
4865:. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology, vol. LIV.
4543:Technological Change and the British iron industry
3230:"List of Publications on Indian Archaeometallurgy"
1529:The earliest records of bloomery-type furnaces in
1434:scientific knowledge and technological development
854:. This laborious, time-consuming process produced
652:Iron smelting—the extraction of usable metal from
307:shipped the largest piece of the meteorite to the
4914:Annals of the Association of American Geographers
4042:. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell. pp. 267–288.
4777:Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context
4657:"Long-term planning needed to meet steel demand"
1557:Iron technology was further advanced by several
1250:, and built a series of large blast furnaces in
1104:traded extensively within the region and in the
264:, at a rate of 40 times the iron's weight, with
4601:"India's steel industry steps onto world stage"
4057:. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press.
3301:. Chinese University of Hong Kong. p. 519.
2719:. New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 37.
1044:from around 300 BC. Wootz steel is famous from
90:in the region from Greece to India, The use of
3528:"Der Depotfund von HeegermĂĽhle bei Eberswalde"
2420:. Research Group for South Asian Archaeology.
1569:had these industrial mills in operation, from
1533:are discoveries of smelted iron and carbon in
67:iron artifacts, from the 4th millennium BC in
6847:
4980:
3329:Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 3, p. 563 g
2773:
2771:
2681:
2679:
2677:
2667:
2665:
633:
141:were devised in the 17th century. During the
8:
4230:"Microstructure of a genuine Damascus sabre"
4098:The Nubian Past: An Archaeology of the Sudan
4068:Collins, Robert O.; Burns, James M. (2007).
3255:The Archaeometallurgy of the Asian Old World
2621:
2619:
2145:History of the steel industry (1970–present)
1837:. This became the main method of producing
3895:
3893:
3790:
3788:
3786:
3772:
3770:
3426:. Princeton University Press. p. 336.
3408:
3406:
2609:
2607:
2605:
1389:after circa 490 BC. By the 1st century BC,
1113:Steel § Wootz steel and Damascus steel
881:, with an inner core of less brittle iron.
7141:
7030:
6902:
6854:
6840:
6832:
6172:
6155:
5807:
5794:
5252:
5073:
5060:
4987:
4973:
4965:
4528:(1983); P. W. King, 'Iron Trade', 185–193.
3712:
3710:
3278:Wenwu (Cult. Relics) 8, 45–53 (in Chinese)
1917:Industrial Revolution § Iron industry
1855:In the early 17th century, ironworkers in
1426:Examples of African bloomery furnace types
1129:. The pillar is made of wrought iron (98%
640:
626:
359:
4936:Ancient Construction (Ancient Technology)
4934:Woods, Michael and Mary B. Woods (2000).
4630:. World Steel Association. Archived from
4398:
4396:
4332:
4330:
4302:
4184:
4139:
3734:
3490:(PhD). Edinburgh University. p. 24.
3213:"Review: Delhi Iron Pillar: New Insights"
3064:
2974:
2972:
2970:
2954:
2952:
2950:
2865:
2837:
2835:
2571:Williams, David (1867), "The Iron Age ",
2492:
2490:
2488:
2486:
2392:Early Antiquity By I.M. Drakonoff. 1991.
2327:
2325:
2323:
2321:
2319:
2317:
2315:
2303:
2141:History of the steel industry (1850–1970)
2131:and was not widely used until the 1920s.
2064:Schematic drawing of a Bessemer converter
1351:Iron metallurgy began to be practised in
295:and other edged tools from pieces of the
4895:(University of Chicago Press) 334 pages
4780:. Frankfurt: Africa Magna Verlag Press.
4587:United States Government Printing Office
4390:, Academia.edu, accessdate=30 March 2017
3044:
3042:
2820:ed. Suzanne Richard (2003), pp. 179–180.
2812:
2810:
2808:
2735:
2733:
2541:
2539:
2537:
2450:
2448:
2446:
2444:
1327:
1221:
193:, the sixth largest in the world, is an
4694:Current Opinion in Chemical Engineering
3878:. University of Nigeria,Nsukka, Nigeria
3365:Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 2, p. 371.
3356:Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 2, p. 370.
3347:Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 1, p. 282.
3320:Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 3, p. 277.
3311:Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 3, p. 197.
3166:"ANSYS Fluent Software: CFD Simulation"
2275:
1996:Schematic drawing of a puddling furnace
1891:, producing the so-called shear steel.
1589:, as well as archeological evidence of
885:Theories on the origin of iron smelting
371:
315:in 1897, it still weighed over 33
3830:Iron in Africa: Revisiting the History
3338:Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 3, p. 86.
2715:Collins, Rober O. and Burns, James M.
802:Although iron objects dating from the
4951:"Iron and Steel, Metallurgy of"
4358:
4154:
2388:
2386:
2384:
2023:before decarburisation was complete.
1095:from 300 BC by furnaces blown by the
858:, a malleable but fairly soft alloy.
842:produced by the charcoal reduced the
748:in black. The yellow area stands for
7:
4909:, Praha, ArcheologickĂ˝ Ăšstav Av Cr.
1624:method, based on the earlier Indian
233:from the 5th millennium BC found in
78:. It is not known when or where the
4770:. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
4522:Journal of Iron and Steel Institute
3545:Lund, Julie; Melheim, Lene (2011).
3202:. Aryan Books International, Delhi
3049:Sanderson, Katharine (2006-11-15).
1484:: dating to 2000 BC at the site of
728:in red (the important mines of the
684:in the 3rd millennium BC. However,
4902:, Chinese University of Hong Kong
3424:The Horse, the Wheel, and Language
2909:The New Cambridge History of India
1454:Inhabitants of Termit, in eastern
1270:According to legend, the sword of
309:American Museum of Natural History
237:and spear tips and ornaments from
25:
6111:Megalithic architectural elements
4599:Chopra, Anuj (12 February 2007).
3025:"Suspension bridge – engineering"
2717:The History of Sub-Saharan Africa
2292:Journal of Archaeological Science
2260:Non-ferrous extractive metallurgy
1947:, there was no demand for these.
1830:favoured by English steelmakers.
752:, while grey area stands for tin
656:iron ores—is more difficult than
213:, which comprise about 6% of all
27:Metallurgy of iron and its alloys
7381:4th-millennium BC establishments
7009:
4766:Ebrey, Walthall, Palais (2006).
4266:from the original on 2007-08-09.
4012:. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
3100:The Cambridge History of Science
3035:from the original on 2007-10-16.
2893:from the original on 2016-03-05.
1951:Abraham Darby and his successors
1668:Medieval and early modern Europe
125:, with a carbon content between
6730:Evolutionary origin of religion
4929:Iron and Steel in Ancient China
4237:Crystal Research and Technology
4202:Journal of Alloys and Compounds
4071:A History of Sub-Saharan Africa
3608:Bronze Age Fortresses in Europe
3591:Bronze Age Fortresses in Europe
3574:Bronze Age Fortresses in Europe
3551:European Journal of Archaeology
3472:Bronze Age Fortresses in Europe
3236:from the original on 2007-03-12
3219:from the original on 2007-09-27
3200:Delhi Iron Pillar: New Insights
3172:from the original on 2009-02-21
3081:from the original on 2006-11-19
2645:Mesopotamia : Annäherungen
2548:Iron and Steel in Ancient China
1458:, smelted iron around 1500 BC.
1076:, the technology passed to the
826:Iron was originally smelted in
260:iron (meteoric or smelted) for
110:. All these processes required
4957:New International Encyclopedia
4074:. Cambridge University Press.
4040:A Companion to African History
3102:. Cambridge University Press.
2912:. Cambridge University Press.
2068:Apart from some production of
1400:The annual iron output of the
1336:made of iron, dating from the
356:Iron smelting and the Iron Age
268:in the first centuries of the
1:
6879:History of ferrous metallurgy
6343:Art of the Middle Paleolithic
5873:British megalith architecture
4891:Knowles, Anne Kelly. (2013).
4492:Industrial Archaeology Review
4214:10.1016/j.jallcom.2003.10.005
4167:R. L. Miller (October 1988).
4141:10.1080/00934690.2018.1479085
3944:10.1126/science.201.4361.1085
3723:African Archaeological Review
2346:10.1080/00438243.1989.9980081
1911:Transition to coke in England
1259:, this process is now called
1056:is said to have chosen, over
1034:as early as the 4th century.
740:, are missing from the map),
549:
526:
509:Southeast Asia (1000–200 BC)
323:from around 1000 AD found in
7122:Argon oxygen decarburization
6338:Art of the Upper Paleolithic
5878:Nordic megalith architecture
4663:. 2008-03-01. Archived from
4128:Journal of Field Archaeology
3983:Journal of Field Archaeology
2575:, New York: David Williams,
2149:Global steel industry trends
2127:was developed on the eve of
2120:Second Industrial Revolution
1833:A variation on this was the
1559:inventions in medieval Islam
1499:There is also evidence that
716:Mining areas of the ancient
7283:Differential heat treatment
4706:10.1016/j.coche.2019.09.001
4342:news.nationalgeographic.com
3912:Tylecote (1975) (see below)
3850:The Civilizations of Africa
3848:Ehret, Christopher (2002).
3797:Journal of World Prehistory
3696:, Oxford University Press,
3377:Journal of Economic History
3253:Pigott, Vincent C. (1999).
3198:R. Balasubramaniam (2002),
2936:. Oxford University Press.
2671:Waldbaum (1978). pp. 56–58.
2394:University of Chicago Press
2153:Steel production by country
1818:on the eastern boundary of
1072:in the metal. According to
145:, new methods of producing
102:, in this context known as
7407:
6486:British Isles and Brittany
6407:Gwion Gwion rock paintings
4861:Waldbaum, Jane C. (1978).
4834:; Needham, Joseph (1986).
4545:(Princeton 1977), 146–159.
4095:Edwards, David N. (2004).
3995:10.1179/009346983791504228
3736:10.1007/s10437-023-09545-6
3650:. Routledge. p. 218.
2648:. Saint-Paul. p. 84.
2457:Journal of African History
2138:
2053:
2030:
1954:
1914:
1848:
1788:
1740:
1683:
1415:
1319:Early Japanese Ironworking
1316:
1110:
1040:was produced in India and
334:
179:
7258:
7207:Ferritic nitrocarburizing
7007:
6874:
6171:
6154:
5806:
5793:
5255:
5072:
5059:
5002:
4625:"Top Steelmakers in 2017"
4488:A dynasty of Ironfounders
4379:Belford and Ross, Paper:
4186:10.1017/s0025727300048602
4111:– via Google Books.
4084:– via Google Books.
3809:10.1007/s10963-009-9030-6
3389:10.1017/S0022050700061842
2961:The Story of Civilization
2876:10.1017/s0003598x00092590
2685:Marco Ceccarelli (2000).
2546:Donald B. Wagner (1993).
2469:10.1017/s0021853700025949
2305:10.1016/j.jas.2013.06.002
2207:British Geological Survey
1795:An alternative method of
1755:" vol.VII, published 1894
1751:Ironmaking described in "
1733:in the mid-19th century.
1612:, and mostly produced in
1418:Iron metallurgy in Africa
604:Archaeometallurgical slag
63:. The earliest surviving
7298:Post weld heat treatment
4898:Lam, Wengcheong (2014).
4842:Tylecote, R. F. (1992).
4830:Needham, Joseph (1986).
4605:Cristian Science Monitor
4101:. Taylor & Francis.
3456:Encyclopaedia Britannica
2963:I: Our Oriental Heritage
2818:Near Eastern Archaeology
2236:, a type of refined iron
2100:Gilchrist–Thomas process
1753:The Popular Encyclopedia
1507:by the ancestors of the
893:of Anatolia of the Late
209:Iron was extracted from
6884:List of steel producers
6718:Evolutionary musicology
6121:Oldest extant buildings
6048:Archaeological features
5567:Prepared-core technique
4927:Wagner, Donald (1996).
4844:A History of Metallurgy
4541:, 181–189; C. K. Hyde,
4419:Encyclopædia Britannica
4370:Tylecote (1992). p. 76.
4008:Schmidt, Peter (1978).
3486:Turnbull, Anne (1984).
3422:Anthony, David (2007).
3297:Wengcheong Lam (2014).
2754:accessed on 2010-02-11.
2157:List of steel producers
1404:is estimated at 84,750
951:Iron artifacts such as
877:, an alloy of iron and
823:, Anatolia and Egypt).
166:new steelmaking process
7112:Electro-slag remelting
6680:Unchambered long cairn
6528:Mound Builders culture
5861:Neolithic architecture
4996:Prehistoric technology
4931:. Leiden: E.J. Brill.
4816:10.1353/tech.2005.0026
4804:Technology and Culture
4494:12(2) (1990), 127–144.
4409:"Iron and Steel"
4249:10.1002/crat.200410456
2625:Tylecote (1992). p. 3.
2550:. Brill. p. 408.
2417:Iron Age in South Asia
2240:History of steelmaking
2218:trading as a commodity
2203:largest steel producer
2197:. As of 2017, though,
2166:
2065:
2050:Industrial steelmaking
2043:James Beaumont Neilson
1997:
1756:
1553:Medieval Islamic world
1549:
1427:
1340:
1239:
1234:, 1313 AD, during the
1171:
1091:Steel was produced in
1023:
929:
756:
553: 400 BC – 100 AD
227:Widmanstätten patterns
206:
198:
45:
7386:History of metallurgy
7322:Production by country
6355:List of Stone Age art
5557:Microblade technology
5505:Langdale axe industry
5103:Ard / plough
4916:47#1, pp. 3–14.
4435:Historical Metallurgy
3870:Eze–Uzomaka, Pamela.
3066:10.1038/news061113-11
2787:Smil, Vaclav (2016).
2222:London Metal Exchange
2216:In 2008, steel began
2164:
2135:Modern steel industry
2079:at his steelworks in
2063:
1995:
1915:Further information:
1750:
1729:were used in upstate
1547:
1461:In the region of the
1425:
1331:
1225:
1152:
1017:
924:
715:
204:
195:iron-nickel meteorite
189:
143:Industrial Revolution
33:
7308:Superplastic forming
7227:Quench polish quench
7117:Vacuum arc remelting
7096:Basic oxygen process
7091:Electric arc furnace
6762:Prehistoric medicine
6757:Prehistoric counting
6740:Prehistoric religion
6735:Paleolithic religion
6713:Behavioral modernity
6070:Causewayed enclosure
5962:Abri de la Madeleine
5086:Neolithic Revolution
4905:Pleiner, R. (2000).
4466:10.1179/tns.2001.002
4157:, p. 10–11, 27.
2777:Waldbaum (1978): 23.
2499:Current Anthropology
2171:economic development
2112:electric arc furnace
2107:basic oxygen process
2085:Kelham Island Museum
2002:potting and stamping
1635:Technical University
1503:was made in Western
1476:region of southeast
1431:Archaeometallurgical
927:iron pillar of Delhi
530: 2000 – 100 BC
270:second millennium BC
215:meteorites that fall
191:Willamette Meteorite
137:bars of iron in the
7263:Cryogenic treatment
7086:Open hearth furnace
7074:Primary (Post-1850)
7065:Cementation process
6952:Direct reduced iron
6801:Prehistoric warfare
5547:Magdalenian culture
5510:Levallois technique
5441:Earliest toolmaking
4454:Trans. Newcomen Soc
4295:2006Natur.444..286R
3936:1978Sci...201.1085S
3930:(4361): 1085–1089.
3899:Eggert (2014). pp.
3776:Eggert (2014). pp.
3136:1996Natur.379...60J
3098:Roy Porter (2003).
2995:1996Natur.379...60J
2283:Rehren, T. (2013).
1988:New forge processes
1861:cementation process
1851:Cementation process
1845:Cementation process
1647:electron microscopy
1577:in the west to the
1170:encyclopedia, 1637)
1046:Classical Antiquity
917:Indian subcontinent
599:Iron Age metallurgy
404:Bronze Age collapse
297:Cape York meteorite
139:cementation process
7034:Primary (Pre-1850)
6752:Origin of language
6745:Spiritual drug use
6655:Rectangular dolmen
6557:Dartmoor kistvaens
6370:Carved stone balls
6082:Circular enclosure
6041:Other architecture
5984:Alp pile dwellings
5572:Solutrean industry
5483:Gravettian culture
5133:Secondary products
4744:The New York Times
4637:on August 23, 2018
4404:Howe, Henry Marion
4386:2018-05-10 at the
3835:2008-10-25 at the
3690:Oleson, John Peter
3678:. 15 January 2014.
3532:askanier-welten.de
2789:Still the Iron Age
2750:2010-03-14 at the
2167:
2077:Bessemer converter
2066:
1998:
1859:had developed the
1757:
1722:until about 1770.
1680:Powered bloomeries
1593:being used in the
1563:Islamic Golden Age
1550:
1428:
1412:Sub-Saharan Africa
1387:Broxmouth Hillfort
1341:
1240:
1172:
1052:to select a gift,
1032:suspension bridges
1028:crucible technique
1024:
930:
757:
581:(2600 BC – 500 AD)
517:(1000 BC – 200 AD)
454:(1100 BC – 150 AD)
256:are known to have
211:iron–nickel alloys
207:
199:
160:In the late 1850s
49:Ferrous metallurgy
46:
7368:
7367:
7316:
7315:
7130:
7129:
7005:
7004:
6996:Induction furnace
6829:
6828:
6825:
6824:
6821:
6820:
6774:Prehistoric music
6723:music archaeology
6380:Cup and ring mark
6205:Clothing/textiles
6150:
6149:
6146:
6145:
5789:
5788:
5785:
5784:
5592:Yubetsu technique
5577:Striking platform
5542:Lithic technology
5427:
5426:
5412:Game drive system
5331:Projectile points
5223:Mortar and pestle
3702:978-0-19-518731-1
3433:978-0-691-05887-0
2725:978-0-521-68708-9
2655:978-3-525-53452-6
2557:978-90-04-09632-5
2427:978-4-9909150-1-8
2376:Brill's New Pauly
2334:World Archaeology
2298:(12): 4785–4792.
1901:Benjamin Huntsman
1367:Hallstatt culture
1355:during the later
1080:and from them to
830:, furnaces where
708:Ancient Near East
674:bronze metallurgy
650:
649:
573:(500 BC – 300 AD)
540:(500 BC – 200 AD)
486:(500 BC – 800 AD)
478:(800 BC – 100 AD)
396:Ancient Near East
71:, were made from
16:(Redirected from
7398:
7142:
7081:Bessemer process
7031:
7013:
6903:
6856:
6849:
6842:
6833:
6789:Divje Babe flute
6696:Archaeoastronomy
6439:Petrosomatoglyph
6173:
6156:
6005:Water management
5808:
5795:
5698:Denticulate tool
5520:Lithic reduction
5253:
5074:
5061:
4989:
4982:
4975:
4966:
4961:
4953:
4938:Runestone Press
4880:
4857:
4827:
4798:
4796:
4794:
4754:
4753:
4751:
4750:
4736:Uchitelle, Louis
4732:
4726:
4725:
4691:
4682:
4676:
4675:
4673:
4672:
4653:
4647:
4646:
4644:
4642:
4636:
4629:
4621:
4615:
4614:
4612:
4611:
4596:
4590:
4577:
4571:
4570:
4568:
4567:
4558:. Archived from
4556:"Steel Industry"
4552:
4546:
4535:
4529:
4518:
4512:
4501:
4495:
4484:
4478:
4477:
4449:
4443:
4442:
4430:
4424:
4423:
4411:
4400:
4391:
4377:
4371:
4368:
4362:
4356:
4350:
4349:
4344:. Archived from
4334:
4325:
4324:
4306:
4274:
4268:
4267:
4265:
4234:
4225:
4208:(1–2): L15–L19.
4197:
4191:
4190:
4188:
4164:
4158:
4152:
4146:
4145:
4143:
4119:
4113:
4112:
4092:
4086:
4085:
4065:
4059:
4058:
4050:
4044:
4043:
4035:
4029:
4028:
4020:
4014:
4013:
4005:
3999:
3998:
3978:
3972:
3971:
3919:
3913:
3910:
3904:
3897:
3888:
3887:
3885:
3883:
3867:
3861:
3846:
3840:
3827:
3821:
3820:
3792:
3781:
3774:
3765:
3764:
3738:
3714:
3705:
3686:
3680:
3679:
3668:
3662:
3661:
3647:The Celtic World
3641:
3635:
3630:
3624:
3619:
3613:
3612:
3602:
3596:
3595:
3585:
3579:
3578:
3568:
3562:
3561:
3542:
3536:
3535:
3524:
3518:
3517:
3506:
3500:
3499:
3483:
3477:
3476:
3466:
3460:
3459:
3448:
3442:
3441:
3419:
3413:
3410:
3401:
3400:
3372:
3366:
3363:
3357:
3354:
3348:
3345:
3339:
3336:
3330:
3327:
3321:
3318:
3312:
3309:
3303:
3302:
3294:
3288:
3285:
3279:
3272:
3266:
3251:
3245:
3244:
3242:
3241:
3227:
3225:
3224:
3196:
3190:
3187:
3181:
3180:
3178:
3177:
3162:
3156:
3155:
3144:10.1038/379060a0
3117:
3111:
3096:
3090:
3089:
3087:
3086:
3068:
3046:
3037:
3036:
3021:
3015:
3014:
3003:10.1038/379060a0
2976:
2965:
2958:Will Durant (),
2956:
2945:
2930:Patrick Olivelle
2927:
2921:
2901:
2895:
2894:
2892:
2869:
2860:(297): 536–544.
2851:
2839:
2830:
2829:Muhly 2003: 180.
2827:
2821:
2814:
2803:
2802:
2784:
2778:
2775:
2766:
2761:
2755:
2737:
2728:
2713:
2707:
2704:
2698:
2683:
2672:
2669:
2660:
2659:
2632:
2626:
2623:
2614:
2613:Tylecote (1992).
2611:
2600:
2599:
2568:
2562:
2561:
2543:
2532:
2531:Waldbaum (1978).
2529:
2523:
2522:
2494:
2481:
2480:
2452:
2439:
2438:
2436:
2434:
2411:
2405:
2390:
2379:
2372:
2366:
2365:
2329:
2310:
2309:
2307:
2289:
2280:
2265:Roman metallurgy
2021:puddling process
1974:Abraham Darby II
1761:puddling process
1708:Bishop of Durham
1658:carbon nanotubes
1379:Cap of the North
1372:From 500 BC the
1362:Carpathian Basin
1345:Catacomb culture
1338:Swedish Iron Age
1070:carbon nanotubes
995:wrote the first
720:. Boxes colors:
642:
635:
628:
564:
556:
554:
551:
541:
533:
531:
528:
518:
495:
487:
479:
471:
463:
455:
447:
439:
422:
407:
360:
245:around 4000 BC.
149:by substituting
21:
7406:
7405:
7401:
7400:
7399:
7397:
7396:
7395:
7371:
7370:
7369:
7364:
7312:
7288:Decarburization
7254:
7231:
7172:
7163:
7126:
7100:
7069:
7041:Pattern welding
7022:
7014:
7001:
6956:
6945:Anthracite iron
6894:
6893:Iron production
6888:
6870:
6860:
6830:
6817:
6684:
6670:Stone box grave
6640:Megalithic tomb
6545:Cotswold-Severn
6497:
6402:Guardian stones
6330:Prehistoric art
6324:
6167:
6142:
6131:Timber trackway
6036:
6000:
5996:Wattle and daub
5849:
5828:Standing stones
5802:
5781:
5596:
5423:
5400:
5325:
5242:
5152:Food processing
5147:
5096:New World crops
5068:
5055:
4998:
4993:
4948:
4945:
4888:
4886:Further reading
4883:
4877:
4869:: Paul Åström.
4860:
4854:
4841:
4801:
4792:
4790:
4788:
4773:
4762:
4757:
4748:
4746:
4734:
4733:
4729:
4689:
4684:
4683:
4679:
4670:
4668:
4655:
4654:
4650:
4640:
4638:
4634:
4627:
4623:
4622:
4618:
4609:
4607:
4598:
4597:
4593:
4578:
4574:
4565:
4563:
4554:
4553:
4549:
4536:
4532:
4519:
4515:
4502:
4498:
4485:
4481:
4451:
4450:
4446:
4432:
4431:
4427:
4402:
4401:
4394:
4388:Wayback Machine
4378:
4374:
4369:
4365:
4357:
4353:
4336:
4335:
4328:
4304:10.1038/444286a
4276:
4275:
4271:
4263:
4232:
4227:
4226:
4199:
4198:
4194:
4173:Medical History
4166:
4165:
4161:
4153:
4149:
4121:
4120:
4116:
4109:
4094:
4093:
4089:
4082:
4067:
4066:
4062:
4052:
4051:
4047:
4037:
4036:
4032:
4022:
4021:
4017:
4007:
4006:
4002:
3980:
3979:
3975:
3921:
3920:
3916:
3911:
3907:
3898:
3891:
3881:
3879:
3869:
3868:
3864:
3847:
3843:
3839:– Unesco (2002)
3837:Wayback Machine
3828:
3824:
3794:
3793:
3784:
3775:
3768:
3716:
3715:
3708:
3687:
3683:
3670:
3669:
3665:
3658:
3643:
3642:
3638:
3631:
3627:
3620:
3616:
3604:
3603:
3599:
3587:
3586:
3582:
3570:
3569:
3565:
3544:
3543:
3539:
3526:
3525:
3521:
3508:
3507:
3503:
3485:
3484:
3480:
3468:
3467:
3463:
3450:
3449:
3445:
3434:
3421:
3420:
3416:
3411:
3404:
3374:
3373:
3369:
3364:
3360:
3355:
3351:
3346:
3342:
3337:
3333:
3328:
3324:
3319:
3315:
3310:
3306:
3296:
3295:
3291:
3286:
3282:
3273:
3269:
3252:
3248:
3239:
3237:
3228:
3222:
3220:
3211:
3197:
3193:
3188:
3184:
3175:
3173:
3164:
3163:
3159:
3119:
3118:
3114:
3097:
3093:
3084:
3082:
3048:
3047:
3040:
3023:
3022:
3018:
2978:
2977:
2968:
2957:
2948:
2928:
2924:
2902:
2898:
2890:
2867:10.1.1.403.4300
2849:
2841:
2840:
2833:
2828:
2824:
2815:
2806:
2799:
2786:
2785:
2781:
2776:
2769:
2762:
2758:
2752:Wayback Machine
2741:The Age of Iron
2739:Richard Cowen,
2738:
2731:
2714:
2710:
2705:
2701:
2684:
2675:
2670:
2663:
2656:
2634:
2633:
2629:
2624:
2617:
2612:
2603:
2570:
2569:
2565:
2558:
2545:
2544:
2535:
2530:
2526:
2496:
2495:
2484:
2454:
2453:
2442:
2432:
2430:
2428:
2413:
2412:
2408:
2391:
2382:
2373:
2369:
2331:
2330:
2313:
2287:
2282:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2230:
2205:. In 2005, the
2201:is the world's
2159:
2137:
2125:Stainless steel
2058:
2052:
2035:
2029:
1990:
1963:Abraham Darby I
1959:
1957:Abraham Darby I
1953:
1924:
1919:
1913:
1897:
1853:
1847:
1828:oregrounds iron
1814:spread to the
1812:Walloon process
1793:
1787:
1745:
1739:
1702:and Sweden. In
1688:
1682:
1670:
1555:
1480:in what is now
1420:
1414:
1374:La Tène culture
1326:
1324:Iron Age Europe
1321:
1312:bituminous coke
1147:
1135:Chandragupta II
1121:located in the
1115:
934:Gangetic plains
919:
887:
840:carbon monoxide
710:
646:
616:Ancient history
609:
608:
594:
586:
585:
563:(5 BC – 500 AD)
559:
552:
544:
536:
529:
521:
513:
494:(800 BC – 1 AD)
490:
484:Northern Europe
482:
474:
466:
458:
450:
442:
434:
410:
402:
390:
358:
339:
333:
303:polar explorer
184:
178:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7404:
7402:
7394:
7393:
7388:
7383:
7373:
7372:
7366:
7365:
7363:
7362:
7357:
7352:
7347:
7342:
7337:
7332:
7326:
7324:
7318:
7317:
7314:
7313:
7311:
7310:
7305:
7300:
7295:
7290:
7285:
7280:
7274:
7269:
7259:
7256:
7255:
7253:
7252:
7247:
7241:
7239:
7233:
7232:
7230:
7229:
7224:
7219:
7214:
7209:
7204:
7199:
7194:
7192:Carbonitriding
7189:
7184:
7178:
7176:
7174:Case-hardening
7165:
7164:
7162:
7161:
7156:
7150:
7148:
7139:
7136:Heat treatment
7132:
7131:
7128:
7127:
7125:
7124:
7119:
7114:
7108:
7106:
7102:
7101:
7099:
7098:
7093:
7088:
7083:
7077:
7075:
7071:
7070:
7068:
7067:
7062:
7060:Tatara furnace
7057:
7050:Damascus steel
7046:Crucible steel
7043:
7037:
7035:
7028:
7016:
7015:
7008:
7006:
7003:
7002:
7000:
6999:
6992:Cupola furnace
6985:
6964:
6962:
6958:
6957:
6955:
6954:
6949:
6948:
6947:
6942:
6937:
6922:
6911:
6909:
6900:
6890:
6889:
6887:
6886:
6881:
6875:
6872:
6871:
6861:
6859:
6858:
6851:
6844:
6836:
6827:
6826:
6823:
6822:
6819:
6818:
6816:
6815:
6814:
6813:
6803:
6798:
6797:
6796:
6791:
6786:
6781:
6779:Alligator drum
6771:
6770:
6769:
6759:
6754:
6749:
6748:
6747:
6742:
6737:
6727:
6726:
6725:
6715:
6710:
6709:
6708:
6706:lunar calendar
6703:
6692:
6690:
6689:Other cultural
6686:
6685:
6683:
6682:
6677:
6672:
6667:
6662:
6657:
6652:
6647:
6642:
6637:
6636:
6635:
6630:
6620:
6615:
6610:
6609:
6608:
6603:
6593:
6588:
6587:
6586:
6576:
6571:
6566:
6561:
6560:
6559:
6549:
6548:
6547:
6537:
6536:
6535:
6525:
6524:
6523:
6518:
6507:
6505:
6499:
6498:
6496:
6495:
6493:Venus figurine
6490:
6489:
6488:
6483:
6473:
6468:
6463:
6462:
6461:
6456:
6446:
6441:
6436:
6431:
6426:
6424:Megalithic art
6421:
6420:
6419:
6414:
6404:
6399:
6394:
6393:
6392:
6382:
6377:
6375:Cave paintings
6372:
6367:
6362:
6357:
6352:
6351:
6350:
6340:
6334:
6332:
6326:
6325:
6323:
6322:
6321:
6320:
6315:
6305:
6300:
6295:
6294:
6293:
6288:
6283:
6278:
6273:
6268:
6258:
6253:
6252:
6251:
6241:
6240:
6239:
6234:
6224:
6219:
6214:
6213:
6212:
6202:
6197:
6192:
6187:
6181:
6179:
6177:Material goods
6169:
6168:
6159:
6152:
6151:
6148:
6147:
6144:
6143:
6141:
6140:
6139:
6138:
6128:
6123:
6118:
6113:
6108:
6107:
6106:
6096:
6091:
6090:
6089:
6079:
6078:
6077:
6067:
6066:
6065:
6055:
6050:
6044:
6042:
6038:
6037:
6035:
6034:
6029:
6024:
6019:
6014:
6008:
6006:
6002:
6001:
5999:
5998:
5993:
5988:
5987:
5986:
5976:
5971:
5970:
5969:
5964:
5959:
5949:
5944:
5939:
5934:
5933:
5932:
5922:
5917:
5912:
5911:
5910:
5900:
5895:
5893:Cliff dwelling
5890:
5885:
5880:
5875:
5870:
5869:
5868:
5857:
5855:
5851:
5850:
5848:
5847:
5846:
5845:
5840:
5835:
5825:
5820:
5814:
5812:
5804:
5803:
5798:
5791:
5790:
5787:
5786:
5783:
5782:
5780:
5779:
5778:
5777:
5767:
5762:
5757:
5752:
5751:
5750:
5740:
5735:
5730:
5725:
5720:
5715:
5710:
5705:
5700:
5695:
5690:
5689:
5688:
5678:
5677:
5676:
5671:
5661:
5656:
5651:
5646:
5645:
5644:
5634:
5629:
5624:
5623:
5622:
5612:
5606:
5604:
5598:
5597:
5595:
5594:
5589:
5584:
5579:
5574:
5569:
5564:
5559:
5554:
5549:
5544:
5539:
5538:
5537:
5532:
5527:
5517:
5512:
5507:
5502:
5501:
5500:
5490:
5485:
5480:
5478:Fire hardening
5475:
5470:
5468:Clovis culture
5465:
5460:
5459:
5458:
5453:
5448:
5437:
5435:
5429:
5428:
5425:
5424:
5422:
5421:
5420:
5419:
5408:
5406:
5402:
5401:
5399:
5398:
5393:
5391:Manis Mastodon
5388:
5383:
5378:
5373:
5368:
5363:
5358:
5353:
5348:
5347:
5346:
5335:
5333:
5327:
5326:
5324:
5323:
5322:
5321:
5316:
5311:
5306:
5301:
5291:
5286:
5285:
5284:
5274:
5273:
5272:
5270:throwing stick
5262:
5256:
5250:
5244:
5243:
5241:
5240:
5235:
5230:
5225:
5220:
5215:
5210:
5209:
5208:
5203:
5193:
5188:
5183:
5178:
5177:
5176:
5166:
5161:
5155:
5153:
5149:
5148:
5146:
5145:
5140:
5135:
5130:
5125:
5120:
5115:
5110:
5105:
5100:
5099:
5098:
5093:
5082:
5080:
5070:
5069:
5064:
5057:
5056:
5054:
5053:
5048:
5047:
5046:
5036:
5035:
5034:
5029:
5024:
5019:
5014:
5003:
5000:
4999:
4994:
4992:
4991:
4984:
4977:
4969:
4963:
4962:
4944:
4943:External links
4941:
4940:
4939:
4932:
4925:
4910:
4903:
4896:
4887:
4884:
4882:
4881:
4875:
4858:
4853:978-0901462886
4852:
4839:
4828:
4799:
4787:978-3937248462
4786:
4771:
4763:
4761:
4758:
4756:
4755:
4738:(2009-01-01).
4727:
4677:
4648:
4616:
4591:
4572:
4547:
4530:
4513:
4507:; C. K. Hyde,
4503:A. Raistrick,
4496:
4486:A. Raistrick,
4479:
4444:
4425:
4414:Chisholm, Hugh
4392:
4372:
4363:
4351:
4348:on 2016-01-28.
4326:
4269:
4243:(9): 905–916.
4192:
4179:(4): 466–467.
4159:
4147:
4134:(5): 399–416.
4114:
4108:978-0203482766
4107:
4087:
4081:978-0521867467
4080:
4060:
4045:
4030:
4015:
4000:
3989:(4): 421–434.
3973:
3914:
3905:
3889:
3862:
3841:
3822:
3803:(4): 415–438.
3782:
3766:
3729:(3): 531–543.
3706:
3681:
3663:
3656:
3636:
3625:
3614:
3597:
3580:
3563:
3557:(3): 441–464.
3537:
3519:
3501:
3478:
3461:
3452:"The Iron Age"
3443:
3432:
3414:
3402:
3367:
3358:
3349:
3340:
3331:
3322:
3313:
3304:
3289:
3280:
3267:
3246:
3191:
3182:
3157:
3112:
3091:
3038:
3029:britannica.com
3016:
2966:
2946:
2922:
2906:et al. (2005).
2904:J. F. Richards
2896:
2843:Tewari, Rakesh
2831:
2822:
2804:
2798:978-0128042335
2797:
2779:
2767:
2756:
2745:Online version
2729:
2708:
2699:
2673:
2661:
2654:
2636:Veenhof, Klaas
2627:
2615:
2601:
2563:
2556:
2533:
2524:
2511:10.1086/200878
2482:
2440:
2426:
2406:
2380:
2367:
2340:(3): 403–421.
2311:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2268:
2267:
2262:
2257:
2252:
2250:List of alloys
2247:
2242:
2237:
2229:
2226:
2191:Baosteel Group
2185:(which bought
2136:
2133:
2054:Main article:
2051:
2048:
2041:, patented by
2031:Main article:
2028:
2025:
1989:
1986:
1955:Main article:
1952:
1949:
1945:Nine Years War
1923:
1920:
1912:
1909:
1905:crucible steel
1899:In the 1740s,
1896:
1895:Crucible steel
1893:
1885:Forest of Dean
1857:Western Europe
1849:Main article:
1846:
1843:
1789:Main article:
1786:
1783:
1741:Main article:
1738:
1735:
1684:Main article:
1681:
1678:
1669:
1666:
1622:crucible steel
1606:Damascus steel
1591:blast furnaces
1554:
1551:
1442:Central Africa
1416:Main article:
1413:
1410:
1395:Roman military
1325:
1322:
1285:power (i.e. a
1167:Tiangong Kaiwu
1146:
1143:
1066:trace elements
1020:Damascus steel
938:Southern India
918:
915:
886:
883:
750:arsenic bronze
709:
706:
648:
647:
645:
644:
637:
630:
622:
619:
618:
611:
610:
607:
606:
601:
595:
593:Related topics
592:
591:
588:
587:
584:
583:
575:
567:
566:
565:
557:
542:
534:
519:
506:
498:
497:
496:
492:Western Europe
488:
480:
472:
468:Central Europe
464:
462:(900 – 650 BC)
460:Eastern Europe
456:
448:
440:
425:
424:
423:
408:
406:(1200–1150 BC)
391:
388:
387:
384:
383:
376:
375:
369:
368:
357:
354:
335:Main article:
332:
329:
180:Main article:
177:
174:
162:Henry Bessemer
26:
24:
18:Iron and steel
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7403:
7392:
7389:
7387:
7384:
7382:
7379:
7378:
7376:
7361:
7360:United States
7358:
7356:
7353:
7351:
7348:
7346:
7343:
7341:
7338:
7336:
7333:
7331:
7328:
7327:
7325:
7323:
7319:
7309:
7306:
7304:
7301:
7299:
7296:
7294:
7291:
7289:
7286:
7284:
7281:
7278:
7275:
7273:
7270:
7268:
7264:
7261:
7260:
7257:
7251:
7248:
7246:
7243:
7242:
7240:
7238:
7234:
7228:
7225:
7223:
7222:Precipitation
7220:
7218:
7215:
7213:
7210:
7208:
7205:
7203:
7200:
7198:
7195:
7193:
7190:
7188:
7185:
7183:
7180:
7179:
7177:
7175:
7170:
7166:
7160:
7159:Short circuit
7157:
7155:
7152:
7151:
7149:
7147:
7143:
7140:
7137:
7133:
7123:
7120:
7118:
7115:
7113:
7110:
7109:
7107:
7103:
7097:
7094:
7092:
7089:
7087:
7084:
7082:
7079:
7078:
7076:
7072:
7066:
7063:
7061:
7058:
7055:
7051:
7047:
7044:
7042:
7039:
7038:
7036:
7032:
7029:
7026:
7021:
7017:
7012:
6997:
6993:
6989:
6986:
6983:
6980:
6977:
6976:Reverberatory
6973:
6969:
6966:
6965:
6963:
6959:
6953:
6950:
6946:
6943:
6941:
6938:
6936:
6933:
6932:
6930:
6926:
6925:Blast furnace
6923:
6920:
6916:
6913:
6912:
6910:
6908:
6904:
6901:
6898:
6891:
6885:
6882:
6880:
6877:
6876:
6873:
6868:
6864:
6857:
6852:
6850:
6845:
6843:
6838:
6837:
6834:
6812:
6809:
6808:
6807:
6804:
6802:
6799:
6795:
6792:
6790:
6787:
6785:
6782:
6780:
6777:
6776:
6775:
6772:
6768:
6765:
6764:
6763:
6760:
6758:
6755:
6753:
6750:
6746:
6743:
6741:
6738:
6736:
6733:
6732:
6731:
6728:
6724:
6721:
6720:
6719:
6716:
6714:
6711:
6707:
6704:
6702:
6699:
6698:
6697:
6694:
6693:
6691:
6687:
6681:
6678:
6676:
6673:
6671:
6668:
6666:
6665:Simple dolmen
6663:
6661:
6658:
6656:
6653:
6651:
6650:Passage grave
6648:
6646:
6643:
6641:
6638:
6634:
6631:
6629:
6626:
6625:
6624:
6621:
6619:
6616:
6614:
6611:
6607:
6604:
6602:
6599:
6598:
6597:
6596:Gallery grave
6594:
6592:
6589:
6585:
6582:
6581:
6580:
6577:
6575:
6572:
6570:
6567:
6565:
6562:
6558:
6555:
6554:
6553:
6550:
6546:
6543:
6542:
6541:
6538:
6534:
6531:
6530:
6529:
6526:
6522:
6519:
6517:
6514:
6513:
6512:
6511:Burial mounds
6509:
6508:
6506:
6504:
6500:
6494:
6491:
6487:
6484:
6482:
6479:
6478:
6477:
6474:
6472:
6471:Statue menhir
6469:
6467:
6464:
6460:
6459:Stone carving
6457:
6455:
6452:
6451:
6450:
6447:
6445:
6442:
6440:
6437:
6435:
6432:
6430:
6427:
6425:
6422:
6418:
6415:
6413:
6410:
6409:
6408:
6405:
6403:
6400:
6398:
6395:
6391:
6388:
6387:
6386:
6383:
6381:
6378:
6376:
6373:
6371:
6368:
6366:
6363:
6361:
6358:
6356:
6353:
6349:
6346:
6345:
6344:
6341:
6339:
6336:
6335:
6333:
6331:
6327:
6319:
6316:
6314:
6311:
6310:
6309:
6306:
6304:
6301:
6299:
6298:Sewing needle
6296:
6292:
6289:
6287:
6284:
6282:
6279:
6277:
6274:
6272:
6269:
6267:
6264:
6263:
6262:
6259:
6257:
6254:
6250:
6247:
6246:
6245:
6242:
6238:
6235:
6233:
6230:
6229:
6228:
6225:
6223:
6220:
6218:
6215:
6211:
6208:
6207:
6206:
6203:
6201:
6198:
6196:
6193:
6191:
6188:
6186:
6183:
6182:
6180:
6178:
6174:
6170:
6166:
6162:
6157:
6153:
6137:
6134:
6133:
6132:
6129:
6127:
6126:Timber circle
6124:
6122:
6119:
6117:
6114:
6112:
6109:
6105:
6102:
6101:
6100:
6097:
6095:
6092:
6088:
6085:
6084:
6083:
6080:
6076:
6075:Tor enclosure
6073:
6072:
6071:
6068:
6064:
6063:fulacht fiadh
6061:
6060:
6059:
6056:
6054:
6051:
6049:
6046:
6045:
6043:
6039:
6033:
6030:
6028:
6025:
6023:
6020:
6018:
6015:
6013:
6010:
6009:
6007:
6003:
5997:
5994:
5992:
5989:
5985:
5982:
5981:
5980:
5977:
5975:
5972:
5968:
5965:
5963:
5960:
5958:
5955:
5954:
5953:
5950:
5948:
5945:
5943:
5940:
5938:
5935:
5931:
5928:
5927:
5926:
5923:
5921:
5918:
5916:
5913:
5909:
5906:
5905:
5904:
5901:
5899:
5896:
5894:
5891:
5889:
5886:
5884:
5881:
5879:
5876:
5874:
5871:
5867:
5864:
5863:
5862:
5859:
5858:
5856:
5852:
5844:
5841:
5839:
5836:
5834:
5831:
5830:
5829:
5826:
5824:
5821:
5819:
5816:
5815:
5813:
5809:
5805:
5801:
5796:
5792:
5776:
5773:
5772:
5771:
5768:
5766:
5763:
5761:
5758:
5756:
5753:
5749:
5746:
5745:
5744:
5741:
5739:
5736:
5734:
5731:
5729:
5726:
5724:
5721:
5719:
5716:
5714:
5711:
5709:
5706:
5704:
5701:
5699:
5696:
5694:
5691:
5687:
5684:
5683:
5682:
5679:
5675:
5672:
5670:
5667:
5666:
5665:
5662:
5660:
5657:
5655:
5652:
5650:
5647:
5643:
5640:
5639:
5638:
5635:
5633:
5630:
5628:
5625:
5621:
5618:
5617:
5616:
5613:
5611:
5608:
5607:
5605:
5603:
5599:
5593:
5590:
5588:
5585:
5583:
5580:
5578:
5575:
5573:
5570:
5568:
5565:
5563:
5560:
5558:
5555:
5553:
5550:
5548:
5545:
5543:
5540:
5536:
5533:
5531:
5528:
5526:
5523:
5522:
5521:
5518:
5516:
5513:
5511:
5508:
5506:
5503:
5499:
5496:
5495:
5494:
5491:
5489:
5486:
5484:
5481:
5479:
5476:
5474:
5471:
5469:
5466:
5464:
5461:
5457:
5454:
5452:
5449:
5447:
5444:
5443:
5442:
5439:
5438:
5436:
5434:
5430:
5418:
5415:
5414:
5413:
5410:
5409:
5407:
5403:
5397:
5394:
5392:
5389:
5387:
5384:
5382:
5379:
5377:
5374:
5372:
5369:
5367:
5364:
5362:
5359:
5357:
5354:
5352:
5349:
5345:
5342:
5341:
5340:
5337:
5336:
5334:
5332:
5328:
5320:
5317:
5315:
5312:
5310:
5307:
5305:
5302:
5300:
5299:spear-thrower
5297:
5296:
5295:
5292:
5290:
5287:
5283:
5280:
5279:
5278:
5277:Bow and arrow
5275:
5271:
5268:
5267:
5266:
5263:
5261:
5258:
5257:
5254:
5251:
5249:
5245:
5239:
5236:
5234:
5231:
5229:
5226:
5224:
5221:
5219:
5216:
5214:
5211:
5207:
5204:
5202:
5199:
5198:
5197:
5194:
5192:
5189:
5187:
5186:Grinding slab
5184:
5182:
5179:
5175:
5172:
5171:
5170:
5167:
5165:
5162:
5160:
5157:
5156:
5154:
5150:
5144:
5141:
5139:
5136:
5134:
5131:
5129:
5126:
5124:
5121:
5119:
5118:Domestication
5116:
5114:
5113:Digging stick
5111:
5109:
5106:
5104:
5101:
5097:
5094:
5092:
5091:Founder crops
5089:
5088:
5087:
5084:
5083:
5081:
5079:
5075:
5071:
5067:
5062:
5058:
5052:
5049:
5045:
5042:
5041:
5040:
5037:
5033:
5032:New Stone Age
5030:
5028:
5025:
5023:
5020:
5018:
5015:
5013:
5010:
5009:
5008:
5005:
5004:
5001:
4997:
4990:
4985:
4983:
4978:
4976:
4971:
4970:
4967:
4959:
4958:
4952:
4947:
4946:
4942:
4937:
4933:
4930:
4926:
4923:
4919:
4915:
4911:
4908:
4904:
4901:
4897:
4894:
4890:
4889:
4885:
4878:
4872:
4868:
4864:
4859:
4855:
4849:
4845:
4840:
4837:
4833:
4829:
4825:
4821:
4817:
4813:
4809:
4805:
4800:
4789:
4783:
4779:
4778:
4772:
4769:
4765:
4764:
4759:
4745:
4741:
4737:
4731:
4728:
4723:
4719:
4715:
4711:
4707:
4703:
4699:
4695:
4688:
4681:
4678:
4667:on 2024-05-25
4666:
4662:
4658:
4652:
4649:
4633:
4626:
4620:
4617:
4606:
4602:
4595:
4592:
4588:
4584:
4583:
4576:
4573:
4562:on 2009-06-18
4561:
4557:
4551:
4548:
4544:
4540:
4534:
4531:
4527:
4523:
4517:
4514:
4510:
4506:
4500:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4483:
4480:
4475:
4471:
4467:
4463:
4459:
4455:
4448:
4445:
4440:
4436:
4429:
4426:
4421:
4420:
4415:
4410:
4405:
4399:
4397:
4393:
4389:
4385:
4382:
4376:
4373:
4367:
4364:
4361:, p. 19.
4360:
4355:
4352:
4347:
4343:
4339:
4333:
4331:
4327:
4322:
4318:
4314:
4310:
4305:
4300:
4296:
4292:
4289:(7117): 286.
4288:
4284:
4280:
4273:
4270:
4262:
4258:
4254:
4250:
4246:
4242:
4238:
4231:
4223:
4219:
4215:
4211:
4207:
4203:
4196:
4193:
4187:
4182:
4178:
4174:
4170:
4163:
4160:
4156:
4151:
4148:
4142:
4137:
4133:
4129:
4125:
4118:
4115:
4110:
4104:
4100:
4099:
4091:
4088:
4083:
4077:
4073:
4072:
4064:
4061:
4056:
4049:
4046:
4041:
4034:
4031:
4026:
4019:
4016:
4011:
4004:
4001:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3977:
3974:
3969:
3965:
3961:
3957:
3953:
3949:
3945:
3941:
3937:
3933:
3929:
3925:
3918:
3915:
3909:
3906:
3902:
3896:
3894:
3890:
3877:
3873:
3866:
3863:
3859:
3858:0-8139-2085-X
3855:
3851:
3845:
3842:
3838:
3834:
3831:
3826:
3823:
3818:
3814:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3791:
3789:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3773:
3771:
3767:
3762:
3758:
3754:
3750:
3746:
3742:
3737:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3713:
3711:
3707:
3703:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3685:
3682:
3677:
3673:
3667:
3664:
3659:
3657:9781135632434
3653:
3649:
3648:
3640:
3637:
3634:
3629:
3626:
3623:
3618:
3615:
3610:
3609:
3601:
3598:
3593:
3592:
3584:
3581:
3576:
3575:
3567:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3541:
3538:
3533:
3529:
3523:
3520:
3515:
3511:
3505:
3502:
3497:
3493:
3489:
3482:
3479:
3474:
3473:
3465:
3462:
3457:
3453:
3447:
3444:
3440:
3435:
3429:
3425:
3418:
3415:
3409:
3407:
3403:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3371:
3368:
3362:
3359:
3353:
3350:
3344:
3341:
3335:
3332:
3326:
3323:
3317:
3314:
3308:
3305:
3300:
3293:
3290:
3284:
3281:
3277:
3271:
3268:
3264:
3263:0-924171-34-0
3260:
3256:
3250:
3247:
3235:
3231:
3218:
3214:
3209:
3208:81-7305-223-9
3205:
3201:
3195:
3192:
3186:
3183:
3171:
3167:
3161:
3158:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3124:
3116:
3113:
3109:
3108:0-521-57199-5
3105:
3101:
3095:
3092:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3067:
3062:
3058:
3057:
3052:
3045:
3043:
3039:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3020:
3017:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2983:
2975:
2973:
2971:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2955:
2953:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2942:0-19-283576-9
2939:
2935:
2931:
2926:
2923:
2919:
2918:0-521-36424-8
2915:
2911:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2897:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2848:
2844:
2838:
2836:
2832:
2826:
2823:
2819:
2813:
2811:
2809:
2805:
2800:
2794:
2790:
2783:
2780:
2774:
2772:
2768:
2765:
2760:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2746:
2742:
2736:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2712:
2709:
2703:
2700:
2696:
2695:0-7923-6372-8
2692:
2688:
2682:
2680:
2678:
2674:
2668:
2666:
2662:
2657:
2651:
2647:
2646:
2641:
2640:Eidem, Jesper
2637:
2631:
2628:
2622:
2620:
2616:
2610:
2608:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2567:
2564:
2559:
2553:
2549:
2542:
2540:
2538:
2534:
2528:
2525:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2493:
2491:
2489:
2487:
2483:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2451:
2449:
2447:
2445:
2441:
2429:
2423:
2419:
2418:
2410:
2407:
2403:
2402:0-226-14465-8
2399:
2395:
2389:
2387:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2371:
2368:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2328:
2326:
2324:
2322:
2320:
2318:
2316:
2312:
2306:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2286:
2279:
2276:
2270:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2251:
2248:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2238:
2235:
2232:
2231:
2227:
2225:
2223:
2219:
2214:
2210:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2199:ArcelorMittal
2196:
2195:Shagang Group
2192:
2188:
2184:
2179:
2178:economic boom
2174:
2172:
2163:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2134:
2132:
2130:
2126:
2121:
2115:
2113:
2108:
2105:Finally, the
2103:
2101:
2095:
2093:
2088:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2073:
2071:
2070:puddled steel
2062:
2057:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2040:
2034:
2026:
2024:
2022:
2018:
2013:
2011:
2007:
2006:West Midlands
2003:
1994:
1987:
1985:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1964:
1958:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1921:
1918:
1910:
1908:
1906:
1902:
1894:
1892:
1890:
1886:
1881:
1880:Coalbrookdale
1877:
1876:blister steel
1873:
1869:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1852:
1844:
1842:
1840:
1836:
1831:
1829:
1825:
1824:Louis de Geer
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1798:
1797:decarburising
1792:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1765:
1762:
1754:
1749:
1744:
1743:Blast furnace
1737:Blast furnace
1736:
1734:
1732:
1728:
1723:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1687:
1679:
1677:
1675:
1667:
1665:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1602:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1571:Islamic Spain
1568:
1564:
1561:, during the
1560:
1552:
1546:
1542:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1527:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1512:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1497:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1470:
1468:
1464:
1463:AĂŻr Mountains
1459:
1457:
1452:
1449:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1432:
1424:
1419:
1411:
1409:
1407:
1403:
1398:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1375:
1370:
1369:from 800 BC.
1368:
1363:
1358:
1354:
1349:
1346:
1339:
1335:
1330:
1323:
1320:
1315:
1313:
1308:
1303:
1301:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1279:
1277:
1273:
1268:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1224:
1220:
1217:
1212:
1207:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1192:ancient China
1188:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1169:
1168:
1163:
1162:blast furnace
1159:
1155:
1151:
1144:
1142:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1114:
1109:
1107:
1106:Islamic world
1102:
1098:
1097:monsoon winds
1094:
1089:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1033:
1029:
1021:
1016:
1012:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
986:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
958:
954:
949:
947:
943:
940:(present day
939:
935:
928:
923:
916:
914:
911:
907:
902:
900:
896:
892:
884:
882:
880:
879:iron carbides
876:
872:
868:
864:
863:carburization
859:
857:
853:
849:
845:
841:
837:
833:
829:
824:
822:
818:
814:
810:
805:
800:
798:
794:
791:as well as a
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
719:
714:
707:
705:
703:
698:
694:
689:
687:
683:
677:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
643:
638:
636:
631:
629:
624:
623:
621:
620:
617:
613:
612:
605:
602:
600:
597:
596:
590:
589:
582:
580:
576:
574:
572:
568:
562:
558:
547:
543:
539:
535:
524:
520:
516:
512:
511:
510:
507:
505:
504:(1200–200 BC)
503:
499:
493:
489:
485:
481:
477:
476:Great Britain
473:
470:(800 – 50 BC)
469:
465:
461:
457:
453:
449:
446:(1100–700 BC)
445:
441:
438:(1200–700 BC)
437:
433:
432:
431:
430:
426:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
400:
399:
398:(1200–550 BC)
397:
393:
392:
386:
385:
382:
378:
377:
374:
370:
366:
362:
361:
355:
353:
351:
347:
343:
338:
337:Telluric iron
330:
328:
326:
322:
318:
314:
313:New York City
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
287:began making
286:
282:
278:
273:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
246:
244:
240:
239:ancient Egypt
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
203:
196:
192:
188:
183:
182:Meteoric iron
176:Meteoric iron
175:
173:
171:
167:
163:
158:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
119:
117:
113:
109:
108:finery forges
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
82:of iron from
81:
77:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
43:
39:
36:
32:
19:
7250:Martempering
7245:Austempering
7154:Low hydrogen
6972:Finery forge
6968:Wrought iron
6878:
6606:wedge-shaped
6591:Funeral pyre
6584:Great dolmen
6540:Chamber tomb
6521:Round barrow
6476:Stone circle
6348:Blombos Cave
6276:Grooved ware
6200:Chalcolithic
6104:Thornborough
6022:Flush toilet
5957:Blombos Cave
5952:Rock shelter
5908:Quiggly hole
5800:Architecture
5775:illustration
5551:
5417:Buffalo jump
5238:Storage pits
5201:Aşıklı Höyük
5191:Ground stone
5027:Subdivisions
4955:
4935:
4928:
4913:
4906:
4899:
4892:
4862:
4843:
4835:
4831:
4807:
4803:
4791:. Retrieved
4776:
4767:
4760:Bibliography
4747:. Retrieved
4743:
4730:
4697:
4693:
4680:
4669:. Retrieved
4665:the original
4660:
4651:
4639:. Retrieved
4632:the original
4619:
4608:. Retrieved
4604:
4594:
4580:
4575:
4564:. Retrieved
4560:the original
4550:
4542:
4538:
4533:
4525:
4521:
4516:
4508:
4504:
4499:
4491:
4487:
4482:
4460:(1): 33–52.
4457:
4453:
4447:
4438:
4434:
4428:
4417:
4375:
4366:
4354:
4346:the original
4341:
4286:
4282:
4272:
4240:
4236:
4205:
4201:
4195:
4176:
4172:
4162:
4150:
4131:
4127:
4117:
4097:
4090:
4070:
4063:
4054:
4048:
4039:
4033:
4024:
4018:
4009:
4003:
3986:
3982:
3976:
3927:
3923:
3917:
3908:
3880:. Retrieved
3876:Academia.edu
3875:
3865:
3849:
3844:
3825:
3800:
3796:
3726:
3722:
3693:
3684:
3675:
3666:
3646:
3639:
3628:
3617:
3607:
3600:
3590:
3583:
3573:
3566:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3540:
3531:
3522:
3514:Neues Museum
3513:
3504:
3487:
3481:
3471:
3464:
3455:
3446:
3437:
3423:
3417:
3412:(2006). 158.
3380:
3376:
3370:
3361:
3352:
3343:
3334:
3325:
3316:
3307:
3298:
3292:
3283:
3275:
3270:
3254:
3249:
3238:. Retrieved
3221:. Retrieved
3199:
3194:
3185:
3174:. Retrieved
3160:
3130:(3): 60–63.
3127:
3121:
3115:
3099:
3094:
3083:. Retrieved
3054:
3028:
3019:
2989:(3): 60–63.
2986:
2980:
2959:
2933:
2925:
2907:
2899:
2857:
2853:
2825:
2817:
2788:
2782:
2763:
2759:
2740:
2716:
2711:
2702:
2689:. Springer.
2686:
2644:
2630:
2572:
2566:
2547:
2527:
2502:
2498:
2460:
2456:
2431:. Retrieved
2416:
2409:
2378:, Brill 2009
2370:
2337:
2333:
2295:
2291:
2278:
2215:
2211:
2175:
2168:
2116:
2104:
2096:
2089:
2074:
2067:
2036:
2017:decarburised
2014:
1999:
1968:
1960:
1937:Shadrach Fox
1925:
1898:
1875:
1872:cement steel
1871:
1868:wrought iron
1854:
1835:German forge
1832:
1815:
1804:finery forge
1794:
1791:Finery forge
1785:Finery forge
1766:
1758:
1724:
1689:
1671:
1603:
1583:Central Asia
1575:North Africa
1567:Muslim world
1556:
1528:
1513:
1501:carbon steel
1498:
1471:
1460:
1453:
1450:
1429:
1402:Roman Empire
1399:
1371:
1350:
1342:
1304:
1299:
1280:
1269:
1263:, literally
1260:
1241:
1236:Yuan dynasty
1227:
1211:decarburized
1210:
1208:
1189:
1185:Siwa culture
1173:
1165:
1123:Qutb complex
1116:
1090:
1036:
1025:
1009:Gupta Empire
950:
931:
903:
888:
860:
856:wrought iron
847:
825:
801:
785:Eye of Horus
758:
690:
686:wrought iron
678:
651:
577:
569:
508:
500:
427:
394:
340:
305:Robert Peary
281:Thule people
274:
252:. The early
247:
208:
170:wrought iron
159:
120:
92:wrought iron
48:
47:
7391:Steelmaking
7293:Forming gas
7197:Carburizing
7054:Wootz steel
7020:Steelmaking
6919:sponge iron
6628:unchambered
6623:Long barrow
6613:Grave goods
6569:Court cairn
6564:Clava cairn
6516:Bowl barrow
6454:Rock cupule
6397:Golden hats
6390:Hill figure
6291:Unstan ware
6271:Cord-marked
6136:Sweet Track
6058:Burnt mound
5979:Stilt house
5967:Sibudu Cave
5760:Tally stick
5728:Quern-stone
5713:Hammerstone
5703:Fire plough
5674:Pesse canoe
5632:Bannerstone
5602:Other tools
5515:Lithic core
5463:Aurignacian
5351:Bare Island
5233:Quern-stone
4810:(1): 1–30.
4793:21 February
4441:(1): 43–53.
3882:12 December
3753:10004759980
2255:Nok culture
2187:Corus Group
2129:World War I
2092:open hearth
2056:Steelmaking
1865:carburizing
1841:in Sweden.
1816:Pay de Bray
1626:wootz steel
1610:swordmaking
1579:Middle East
1531:East Africa
1509:Haya people
1494:Nok culture
1446:East Africa
1438:West Africa
1391:Noric steel
1353:Scandinavia
1265:stir frying
1244:Han dynasty
1242:During the
1196:state of Wu
1119:iron pillar
1074:Will Durant
1038:Wootz steel
899:Sea Peoples
781:Tutankhamun
769:Mesopotamia
718:Middle East
561:Philippines
331:Native iron
223:crystalline
164:invented a
135:carburizing
123:wootz steel
76:iron-nickel
65:prehistoric
42:Middle Ages
40:during the
7375:Categories
7350:Luxembourg
7330:Bangladesh
7272:Deflashing
7182:Ausforming
7025:Steel mill
6935:Cold blast
6927:(produces
6917:(produces
6869:production
6767:trepanning
6660:Ring cairn
6618:Jar burial
6601:transepted
6533:U.S. sites
6434:Petroglyph
6360:Bird stone
6318:wine press
5991:Stone roof
5974:Roundhouse
5866:long house
5843:Stonehenge
5811:Ceremonial
5755:Stone tool
5582:Tool stone
5552:Metallurgy
5456:Mousterian
5433:Toolmaking
5371:Cumberland
5344:Transverse
5314:Schöningen
5206:Qesem cave
5174:Earth oven
5128:Irrigation
5039:Technology
5007:Prehistory
4876:9185058793
4867:Gothenburg
4749:2009-07-19
4671:2010-11-02
4641:August 22,
4610:2009-07-12
4566:2009-07-12
4537:A. Birch,
4359:Lucas 2005
4155:Lucas 2005
3240:2007-04-27
3223:2007-04-27
3176:2009-01-23
3085:2006-11-17
2589:sc82008005
2189:in 2007),
2183:Tata Steel
2139:See also:
2010:Henry Cort
1941:Shropshire
1933:Dud Dudley
1922:Beginnings
1770:Lapphyttan
1692:Cistercian
1641:that uses
1357:Bronze Age
1317:See also:
1307:Song China
1287:waterwheel
1177:Mogou site
1111:See also:
1050:King Porus
1001:Upanishads
895:Bronze Age
844:iron oxide
828:bloomeries
804:Bronze Age
793:battle axe
724:in brown,
682:Bronze Age
502:South Asia
381:Bronze Age
291:, knives,
225:features (
73:meteoritic
53:metallurgy
7303:Quenching
7277:Hardening
7267:Deburring
7237:Tempering
7217:Nitriding
7212:Induction
7202:Cryogenic
7169:Hardening
7146:Annealing
7105:Secondary
6988:Cast iron
6961:Secondary
6940:Hot blast
6897:Ironworks
6811:symbolism
6675:Tor cairn
6633:Grønsalen
6574:Cremation
6466:Sculpture
6444:Pictogram
6429:Petroform
6249:amber use
6217:Cosmetics
6027:Reservoir
6012:Check dam
5942:Pueblitos
5937:Pit-house
5920:Longhouse
5854:Dwellings
5723:Microlith
5654:Bow drill
5649:Bone tool
5642:prismatic
5451:Acheulean
5366:Cresswell
5339:Arrowhead
5265:Boomerang
5181:Granaries
5143:Terracing
5022:Stone Age
4824:109564224
4722:210619173
4714:2211-3398
4700:: 81–87.
4474:112533187
4222:0925-8388
3817:161611760
3761:261858183
3745:0263-0338
3496:164098953
3397:154556274
3383:: 53–54.
3152:205026185
3075:136774602
3011:205026185
2944:. p. xxix
2934:Upanisads
2862:CiteSeerX
2854:Antiquity
2581:0021-1508
2519:145379030
2505:: 54–58.
2477:162330270
2271:Citations
2081:Sheffield
2046:furnace.
2039:hot blast
2033:Hot blast
2027:Hot blast
1961:In 1707,
1889:faggoting
1727:hot blast
1696:Clairvaux
1694:Abbey of
1664:process.
1654:nanowires
1651:cementite
1608:used for
1587:cast iron
1283:hydraulic
1255:Mandarin-
1232:Wang Zhen
1219:weapons.
1139:corrosion
1101:air vents
1093:Sri Lanka
1054:Alexander
1042:Sri Lanka
993:Herodotus
977:saucepans
871:quenching
789:Merneptah
571:East Asia
546:Indonesia
389:By region
285:Greenland
279:when the
131:cast iron
100:cast iron
88:iron ores
7187:Boriding
6979:Puddling
6929:pig iron
6915:Bloomery
6907:Smelting
6449:Rock art
6412:painting
6385:Geoglyph
6210:timeline
6190:Beadwork
5930:Mehrgarh
5925:Mudbrick
5833:megalith
5708:Fire-saw
5530:debitage
5525:analysis
5493:Hand axe
5473:Cupstone
5051:Glossary
5012:Timeline
4661:The News
4406:(1911).
4384:Archived
4313:17108950
4261:Archived
4257:96560374
3968:37926350
3960:17830304
3833:Archived
3704:, p. 108
3676:BBC News
3234:Archived
3217:Archived
3170:Archived
3110:. p. 684
3079:Archived
3033:Archived
2932:(1998).
2888:Archived
2884:14951163
2845:(2003).
2748:Archived
2697:. p. 218
2642:(2008).
2573:Iron Age
2463:: 1–36.
2433:12 April
2404:. p. 372
2245:Iron Age
2228:See also
1982:bar iron
1978:Horsehay
1970:Bar iron
1839:bar iron
1820:Normandy
1802:was the
1800:pig iron
1731:New York
1720:Garstang
1686:Bloomery
1674:Medieval
1630:carbides
1614:Damascus
1505:Tanzania
1482:Igboland
1300:Nong Shu
1272:Liu Bang
1238:in China
1228:Nong Shu
1078:Persians
967:-heads,
891:Hittites
867:oxidized
836:charcoal
777:Egyptian
765:Anatolia
763:tomb in
693:Iron Age
654:oxidized
538:Malaysia
523:Thailand
416:Caucasus
412:Anatolia
373:Iron Age
365:a series
363:Part of
352:region.
301:American
289:harpoons
258:bartered
254:Hittites
147:bar iron
127:pig iron
112:charcoal
106:, using
104:pig iron
96:Iron Age
80:smelting
59:and its
38:smelting
35:Bloomery
7355:Nigeria
7138:methods
6982:Furnace
6806:Symbols
6417:pigment
6303:Weaving
6266:Cardium
6261:Pottery
6256:Mirrors
6244:Jewelry
6185:Baskets
6165:culture
6017:Cistern
5823:Pyramid
5765:Weapons
5743:Scraper
5733:Racloir
5693:Cleaver
5681:Chopper
5587:Uniface
5498:Grooves
5488:Hafting
5446:Oldowan
5405:Systems
5356:Cascade
5319:woomera
5309:harpoon
5282:history
5248:Hunting
5228:Pottery
5169:Cooking
5078:Farming
5044:history
5017:Outline
4960:. 1905.
4922:2561556
4505:Dynasty
4416:(ed.).
4321:4431079
4291:Bibcode
3952:1746308
3932:Bibcode
3924:Science
3692:(ed.):
3265:, p. 8.
3132:Bibcode
2991:Bibcode
2920:. p. 64
2597:5257259
2362:5908149
2220:on the
1776:across
1774:Mongols
1716:Furness
1712:Bedburn
1710:, near
1704:England
1662:forging
1639:Dresden
1595:Ayyubid
1524:savanna
1478:Nigeria
1295:Prefect
1276:Nanyang
1257:Chinese
997:western
985:chisels
961:daggers
832:bellows
722:arsenic
702:Nubians
666:pottery
515:Vietnam
452:Balkans
266:Assyria
217:on the
51:is the
6784:flutes
6579:Dolmen
6503:Burial
6313:winery
6286:Linear
6116:Midden
6094:Cursus
6087:Goseck
5947:Pueblo
5898:Dugout
5883:Burdei
5562:Mining
5386:Lamoka
5381:Folsom
5361:Clovis
5218:Metate
5196:Hearth
5164:Basket
5138:Sickle
4920:
4873:
4850:
4822:
4784:
4720:
4712:
4472:
4319:
4311:
4283:Nature
4255:
4220:
4105:
4078:
3966:
3958:
3950:
3856:
3815:
3759:
3751:
3743:
3700:
3654:
3494:
3430:
3395:
3261:
3206:
3150:
3123:Nature
3106:
3073:
3056:Nature
3009:
2982:Nature
2940:
2916:
2882:
2864:
2795:
2723:
2693:
2652:
2595:
2587:
2579:
2554:
2517:
2475:
2424:
2400:
2360:
2354:124562
2352:
2234:Bintie
2155:, and
1778:Russia
1764:iron.
1700:France
1643:X-rays
1599:Mamluk
1474:Nsukka
1444:, and
1383:Celtic
1291:Du Shi
1154:Fining
1062:silver
1005:Romans
973:spoons
957:knives
953:spikes
946:Maurya
942:Mysore
906:copper
838:. The
817:Greece
813:Cyprus
809:Levant
797:Ugarit
779:ruler
761:Hattic
754:bronze
738:Feynan
730:Arabah
726:copper
697:bronze
662:copper
579:Africa
436:Aegean
429:Europe
420:Levant
367:on the
346:basalt
342:Native
325:Sweden
277:Arctic
262:silver
61:alloys
7345:Italy
7340:India
7335:China
6990:(via
6970:(via
6867:steel
6701:sites
6645:Mummy
6365:Cairn
6281:JĹŤmon
6232:shoes
6227:Hides
6099:Henge
6053:Broch
5915:Jacal
5770:Wheel
5718:Knife
5664:Canoe
5659:Burin
5637:Blade
5535:flake
5396:Plano
5304:baton
5294:Spear
5260:Arrow
5213:Manos
5066:Tools
4918:JSTOR
4820:S2CID
4718:S2CID
4690:(PDF)
4635:(PDF)
4628:(PDF)
4470:S2CID
4412:. In
4317:S2CID
4264:(PDF)
4253:S2CID
4233:(PDF)
3964:S2CID
3948:JSTOR
3813:S2CID
3757:S2CID
3492:S2CID
3393:S2CID
3148:S2CID
3071:S2CID
3007:S2CID
2891:(PDF)
2880:S2CID
2850:(PDF)
2515:S2CID
2473:S2CID
2358:S2CID
2350:JSTOR
2288:(PDF)
1808:Namur
1618:Syria
1539:Meroe
1535:Nubia
1520:Bantu
1486:Lejja
1467:Niger
1456:Niger
1252:Henan
1230:, by
1216:Hebei
1204:molds
1202:into
1181:Gansu
1179:, in
1156:iron
1145:China
1127:Delhi
1086:Dutch
1082:Arabs
989:tongs
969:bowls
965:arrow
875:steel
848:bloom
821:Crete
734:Timna
444:Italy
350:Disko
243:Sumer
219:Earth
155:steel
69:Egypt
6974:or
6865:and
6863:Iron
6794:gudi
6552:Cist
6481:list
6308:Wine
6237:Ă–tzi
6222:Glue
6195:Beds
6163:and
6161:Arts
6032:Well
5888:Cave
5818:Kiva
5748:side
5738:Rope
5686:tool
5620:bone
5610:Adze
5376:Eden
5289:Nets
5159:Fire
5123:Goad
5108:Celt
4871:ISBN
4848:ISBN
4795:2022
4782:ISBN
4710:ISSN
4643:2018
4309:PMID
4218:ISSN
4103:ISBN
4076:ISBN
3956:PMID
3903:–54.
3884:2014
3854:ISBN
3780:–59.
3749:OCLC
3741:ISSN
3698:ISBN
3652:ISBN
3428:ISBN
3259:ISBN
3204:ISBN
3104:ISBN
2938:ISBN
2914:ISBN
2793:ISBN
2721:ISBN
2691:ISBN
2650:ISBN
2593:OCLC
2585:LCCN
2577:ISSN
2552:ISBN
2435:2022
2422:ISBN
2398:ISBN
2193:and
2176:The
1929:coke
1863:for
1656:and
1645:and
1597:and
1581:and
1573:and
1516:Cape
1261:chao
1200:cast
1058:gold
981:axes
925:The
908:and
852:slag
773:tomb
746:lead
736:and
691:The
670:flux
660:and
321:adze
317:tons
293:ulus
250:gold
241:and
235:Iran
231:bead
151:coke
116:fuel
84:ores
57:iron
6994:or
5903:Hut
5838:row
5669:Oar
5627:Axe
5615:Awl
4812:doi
4702:doi
4585:".
4462:doi
4299:doi
4287:444
4245:doi
4210:doi
4206:372
4181:doi
4136:doi
3991:doi
3940:doi
3928:201
3805:doi
3731:doi
3385:doi
3140:doi
3128:379
3061:doi
2999:doi
2987:379
2872:doi
2507:doi
2465:doi
2342:doi
2300:doi
1874:or
1637:of
1490:Opi
1465:in
1334:axe
1332:An
1158:ore
1125:in
1060:or
910:tin
775:of
742:tin
658:tin
311:in
283:of
114:as
55:of
7377::
7171:/
7052:,
6931:)
4954:.
4818:.
4808:46
4806:.
4742:.
4716:.
4708:.
4698:26
4696:.
4692:.
4659:.
4603:.
4468:.
4458:73
4456:.
4439:36
4437:.
4395:^
4340:.
4329:^
4315:.
4307:.
4297:.
4285:.
4281:.
4259:.
4251:.
4241:40
4239:.
4235:.
4216:.
4204:.
4177:32
4175:.
4171:.
4132:43
4130:.
4126:.
3987:10
3985:.
3962:.
3954:.
3946:.
3938:.
3926:.
3901:53
3892:^
3874:.
3811:.
3801:22
3799:.
3785:^
3778:51
3769:^
3755:.
3747:.
3739:.
3727:40
3725:.
3721:.
3709:^
3674:.
3555:14
3553:.
3549:.
3530:.
3512:.
3454:.
3436:.
3405:^
3391:.
3381:26
3379:.
3232:.
3215:.
3210:.
3168:.
3146:.
3138:.
3126:.
3077:.
3069:.
3059:.
3053:.
3041:^
3031:.
3027:.
3005:.
2997:.
2985:.
2969:^
2949:^
2886:.
2878:.
2870:.
2858:77
2856:.
2852:.
2834:^
2807:^
2770:^
2732:^
2676:^
2664:^
2638:;
2618:^
2604:^
2591:,
2583:,
2536:^
2513:.
2501:.
2485:^
2471:.
2461:35
2459:.
2443:^
2396:.
2383:^
2356:.
2348:.
2338:20
2336:.
2314:^
2296:40
2294:.
2290:.
2151:,
2147:,
2143:,
1616:,
1440:,
1408:.
1397:.
1302:.
1293:,
1141:.
1131:Fe
1108:.
1011:.
987:,
983:,
979:,
975:,
971:,
963:,
959:,
955:,
819:,
815:,
811:,
799:.
732:,
676:.
614:↓
550:c.
527:c.
418:,
414:,
379:↑
327:.
272:.
118:.
7279:)
7265:(
7056:)
7048:(
7027:)
7023:(
6998:)
6984:)
6921:)
6899:)
6895:(
6855:e
6848:t
6841:v
4988:e
4981:t
4974:v
4924:.
4879:.
4856:.
4838:.
4826:.
4814::
4797:.
4752:.
4724:.
4704::
4674:.
4645:.
4613:.
4589:.
4579:"
4569:.
4476:.
4464::
4323:.
4301::
4293::
4247::
4224:.
4212::
4189:.
4183::
4144:.
4138::
3997:.
3993::
3970:.
3942::
3934::
3886:.
3860:.
3819:.
3807::
3763:.
3733::
3660:.
3534:.
3516:.
3498:.
3458:.
3399:.
3387::
3243:.
3226:.
3179:.
3154:.
3142::
3134::
3088:.
3063::
3013:.
3001::
2993::
2874::
2801:.
2727:.
2658:.
2560:.
2521:.
2509::
2503:9
2479:.
2467::
2437:.
2364:.
2344::
2308:.
2302::
1406:t
1164:(
641:e
634:t
627:v
555:)
548:(
532:)
525:(
197:.
44:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.