552:
source. Generally, the best-absorbed forms of iron come from animal products. Absorption of dietary iron in iron salt form (as in most supplements) varies somewhat according to the body's need for iron, and is usually between 10% and 20% of iron intake. Absorption of iron from animal products, and some plant products, is in the form of heme iron, and is more efficient, allowing absorption of from 15% to 35% of intake. Heme iron in animals is from blood and heme-containing proteins in meat and mitochondria, whereas in plants, heme iron is present in mitochondria in all cells that use oxygen for respiration.
691:. TFR1 has a 30-fold higher affinity for transferrin-bound iron than TFR2 and thus is the main player in this process. The higher order multifunctional glycolytic enzyme glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) also acts as a transferrin receptor. Transferrin-bound ferric iron is recognized by these transferrin receptors, triggering a conformational change that causes endocytosis. Iron then enters the cytoplasm from the endosome via importer DMT1 after being reduced to its ferrous state by a STEAP family reductase.
329:
970:
31:
539:
494:, which is an ill-defined deposit of protein and iron, created by macrophages where excess iron is present, either locally or systemically, e.g., among people with iron overload due to frequent blood cell destruction and the necessary transfusions their condition calls for. If systemic iron overload is corrected, over time the hemosiderin is slowly resorbed by the macrophages.
402:
1125:). The exact mechanisms of most of the various forms of adult hemochromatosis, which make up most of the genetic iron overload disorders, remain unsolved. So, while researchers have been able to identify genetic mutations causing several adult variants of hemochromatosis, they now must turn their attention to the normal function of these mutated genes.
871:
139:
628:, a 25-amino acid peptide hormone. The body regulates iron levels by regulating each of these steps. For instance, enterocytes synthesize more Dcytb, DMT1 and ferroportin in response to iron deficiency anemia. Iron absorption from diet is enhanced in the presence of vitamin C and diminished by excess calcium, zinc, or manganese.
434:. The liver stores of ferritin are the primary physiologic source of reserve iron in the body. The reserves of iron in industrialized countries tend to be lower in children and women of child-bearing age than in men and in the elderly. Women who must use their stores to compensate for iron lost through
308:
is safe. Also, there are virtually no truly free iron ions in the cell, since they readily form complexes with organic molecules. However, some of the intracellular iron is bound to low-affinity complexes, and is termed labile iron or "free" iron. Iron in such complexes can cause damage as described
1057:
The body is able to substantially reduce the amount of iron it absorbs across the mucosa. It does not seem to be able to entirely shut down the iron transport process. Also, in situations where excess iron damages the intestinal lining itself (for instance, when children eat a large quantity of iron
1077:
expression (leading to higher concentrations of intracellular iron) survive for a shorter period of time on average, while high ferroportin expression predicts 90% 10-year survival in breast cancer patients. Similarly, genetic variations in iron transporter genes known to increase serum iron levels
1098:
Chronic iron toxicity is usually the result of more chronic iron overload syndromes associated with genetic diseases, repeated transfusions or other causes. In such cases the iron stores of an adult may reach 50 grams (10 times normal total body iron) or more. The most common diseases of iron
2058:
Müller, Sebastian; Sindikubwabo, Fabien; Cañeque, Tatiana; Lafon, Anne; Versini, Antoine; Lombard, Bérangère; Loew, Damarys; Wu, Ting-Di; Ginestier, Christophe; Charafe-Jauffret, Emmanuelle; Durand, Adeline; Vallot, Céline; Baulande, Sylvain; Servant, Nicolas; Rodriguez, Raphaël (1 October 2020).
941:
Both ferritin and ferroportin contain an IRE in their 5' UTRs, so that under iron deficiency their translation is repressed by IRP2, preventing the unnecessary synthesis of storage protein and the detrimental export of iron. In contrast, TFR1 and some DMT1 variants contain 3' UTR IREs, which bind
902:
internalize the complex “Fe-transferrin-transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1)” in endosome, reduce ferric Fe ion to ferrous Fe ion by STEAP3 enzyme and then Fe ion crosses the endosomal membrane thanks to DMT1. Fe is then exported to the extracellular matrix (ECM) and interstitial fluid, via ferroportin
866:
causes the internalization of ferroportin, decreasing iron export. Besides, hepcidin seems to downregulate both TFR1 and DMT1 through an unknown mechanism. Another player assisting ferroportin in effecting cellular iron export is GAPDH. A specific post translationally modified isoform of GAPDH is
661:
a day for men, and 1.5–2 mg a day for women with regular menstrual periods. People with gastrointestinal parasitic infections, more commonly found in developing countries, often lose more. Those who cannot regulate absorption well enough get disorders of iron overload. In these diseases, the
623:
that can oxidize Fe to Fe and is found mainly in the small intestine, helps ferroportin transfer iron across the basolateral end of the intestine cells. Upon release into the bloodstream, Fe binds transferrin and circulates to tissues. In contrast, ferroportin is post-translationally repressed by
1065:
Iron toxicity results when the amount of circulating iron exceeds the amount of transferrin available to bind it, but the body is able to vigorously regulate its iron uptake. Thus, iron toxicity from ingestion is usually the result of extraordinary circumstances like iron tablet over-consumption
694:
Alternatively, iron can enter the cell directly via plasma membrane divalent cation importers such as DMT1 and ZIP14 (Zrt-Irt-like protein 14). Again, iron enters the cytoplasm in the ferrous state after being reduced in the extracellular space by a reductase such as STEAP2, STEAP3 (in red blood
631:
The human body's rate of iron absorption appears to respond to a variety of interdependent factors, including total iron stores, the extent to which the bone marrow is producing new red blood cells, the concentration of hemoglobin in the blood, and the oxygen content of the blood. The body also
551:
The absorption of dietary iron is a variable and dynamic process. The amount of iron absorbed compared to the amount ingested is typically low, but may range from 5% to as much as 35% depending on circumstances and type of iron. The efficiency with which iron is absorbed varies depending on the
530:, and the uncontrolled loss of iron from epithelial sloughing, sweat, injuries and blood loss. In addition, systemic iron is continuously recycled. Cellular iron levels are controlled differently by different cell types due to the expression of particular iron regulatory and transport proteins.
797:
In the cytoplasm, ferrous iron is found in a soluble, chelatable state which constitutes the labile iron pool (~0.001 mM). In this pool, iron is thought to be bound to low-mass compounds such as peptides, carboxylates and phosphates, although some might be in a free, hydrated form
563:
of the duodenal lining. These cells have special molecules that allow them to move iron into the body. To be absorbed, dietary iron can be absorbed as part of a protein such as heme protein or iron must be in its ferrous Fe form. A ferric reductase enzyme on the enterocytes'
788:
trigger the upregulation of CD44, a surface molecule capable of internalizing iron bound to the hyaluronan complex. This alternative pathway, relying on CD44-mediated endocytosis, becomes the dominant iron uptake mechanism compared to the traditional TfR1-dependent route.
316:. This binding allows cells to benefit from iron while also limiting its ability to do harm. Typical intracellular labile iron concentrations in bacteria are 10-20 micromolar, though they can be 10-fold higher in anaerobic environment, where free radicals and
358:
they must pay. That means that iron-deprived bacteria reproduce more slowly. So, control of iron levels appears to be an important defense against many bacterial infections. Certain bacteria species have developed strategies to circumvent that defense,
421:
is contained in the hemoglobin needed to carry oxygen through the blood (around 0.5 mg of iron per mL of blood), and most of the rest (approximately 2 grams in adult men, and somewhat less in women of childbearing age) is contained in
1058:
tablets produced for adult consumption), even more iron can enter the bloodstream and cause a potentially deadly syndrome of iron overload. Large amounts of free iron in the circulation will cause damage to critical cells in the liver, the
2017:
Lane, D.J.R.; Merlot, A.M.; Huang, M.L.-H.; Bae, D.-H.; Jansson, P.J.; Sahni, S.; Kalinowski, D.S.; Richardson, D.R. (May 2015). "Cellular iron uptake, trafficking and metabolism: Key molecules and mechanisms and their roles in disease".
1007:
from tea, although in all three of these studies the effect was small and the authors of the studies cited regarding bran and tea note that the effect will probably only have a noticeable impact when most iron is obtained from vegetable
3365:
Panel on
Micronutrients; Subcommittees on Upper Reference Levels of Nutrients and of Interpretation and Uses of Dietary Reference Intakes; the Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes (2001).
914:, is tightly controlled at the transcriptional level and it represents the link between cellular and systemic iron homeostasis due to hepcidin's role as "gatekeeper" of iron release from enterocytes into the rest of the body.
479:
is the primary clinical manifestation of iron deficiency. Iron-deficient people will suffer or die from organ damage well before their cells run out of the iron needed for intracellular processes like electron transport.
644:
Most of the iron in the body is hoarded and recycled by the reticuloendothelial system, which breaks down aged red blood cells. In contrast to iron uptake and recycling, there is no physiologic regulatory mechanism for
761:
Malignant cells often exhibit a heightened demand for iron, fueling their transition towards a more invasive mesenchymal state. This iron is necessary for the expression of mesenchymal genes, like those encoding
1082:
and the average number of years spent in good health. It has been suggested that mutations that increase iron absorption, such as the ones responsible for hemochromatosis (see below), were selected for during
380:
Although this mechanism is an elegant response to short-term bacterial infection, it can cause problems when it goes on so long that the body is deprived of needed iron for red cell production. Inflammatory
101:
at the systemic and cellular level. Iron is both necessary to the body and potentially toxic. Controlling iron levels in the body is a critically important part of many aspects of human health and disease.
886:
pathway (illustrated in the upper right segment of the image), where the complex “Fe-transferrin-transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1)” undergoes endocytosis and exocytosis from the luminal pole to the cerebral
1011:
Acid-reducing medications: Acid-reducing medications reduce the absorption of dietary iron. These medications are commonly used for gastritis, reflux disease, and ulcers. Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs),
417:
Most well-nourished people in industrialized countries have 4 to 5 grams of iron in their bodies (~38 mg iron/kg body weight for women and ~50 mg iron/kg body for men). Of this, about
389:, that reduces available iron. If hepcidin levels increase because of non-bacterial sources of inflammation, like viral infection, cancer, auto-immune diseases or other chronic diseases, then the
780:
Conventional iron uptake pathways, such as those using the transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1), often prove insufficient to meet these elevated iron demands in cancer cells. As a result, various
1492:
McKie AT, Barrow D, Latunde-Dada GO, Rolfs A, Sager G, Mudaly E, Mudaly M, Richardson C, Barlow D, Bomford A, Peters TJ, Raja KB, Shirali S, Hediger MA, Farzaneh F, Simpson RJ (Mar 2001).
2443:
Du F, Qian C, Qian ZM, Wu XM, Xie H, Yung WH, Ke Y (Jun 2011). "Hepcidin directly inhibits transferrin receptor 1 expression in astrocytes via a cyclic AMP-protein kinase A pathway".
4512:
818:(for use in catalysis). The labile iron pool is potentially toxic due to iron's ability to generate reactive oxygen species. Iron from this pool can be taken up by mitochondria via
346:". If bacteria are to survive, then they must obtain iron from their environment. Disease-causing bacteria do this in many ways, including releasing iron-binding molecules called
838:, which can be problematic in cases of iron overload. The ferritin storage iron pool is much larger than the labile iron pool, ranging in concentration from 0.7 mM to 3.6 mM.
991:
Nutritional deficiency. This can result due to a lack of dietary iron or consumption of foods that inhibit iron absorption. Absorption inhibition has been observed caused by
2486:
Boradia, Vishant
Mahendra; Raje, Manoj; Raje, Chaaya Iyengar (1 December 2014). "Protein moonlighting in iron metabolism: glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH)".
636:, in order to deprive bacteria of iron. Recent discoveries demonstrate that hepcidin regulation of ferroportin is responsible for the syndrome of anemia of chronic disease.
850:, red blood cells, macrophages and enterocytes. The latter two are especially important since systemic iron levels depend upon them. There is only one known iron exporter,
542:
Hephaestin is an enzyme that helps release iron from enterocytes. The regulation of hephaestin expression is one of the mechanisms that control iron absorption by the body.
2842:
Annibale, Bruno; Capurso, Gabriele; Martino, Gina; Grossi, Cristina; Delle Fave, Gianfranco (December 2000). "Iron deficiency anaemia and
Helicobacter pylori infection".
3619:
1876:
Kumar S, Sheokand N, Mhadeshwar MA, Raje CI, Raje M (Jan 2012). "Characterization of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase as a novel transferrin receptor".
3123:
Andrews S, Norton I, Salunkhe AS, Goodluck H, Aly WS, Mourad-Agha H, Cornelis P (2013). "Chapter 7, Control of Iron
Metabolism in Bacteria". In Banci L (ed.).
2902:
Pinnix, Zandra K.; Miller, Lance D.; Wang, Wei; D'Agostino, Ralph; Kute, Tim; Willingham, Mark C.; Hatcher, Heather; Tesfay, Lia; Sui, Guangchao (2010-08-04).
457:
is devoted to cellular proteins that use iron for important cellular processes like storing oxygen (myoglobin) or performing energy-producing redox reactions (
320:
are scarcer. In mammalian cells, intracellular labile iron concentrations are typically smaller than 1 micromolar, less than 5 percent of total cellular iron.
3372:
Dietary
Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc
867:
recruited to the surface of iron loaded cells where it recruits apo-transferrin in close proximity to ferroportin so as to rapidly chelate the iron extruded.
727:, to which they’re normally anchored, paving the way for the newly differentiated motile mesenchymal cells to begin migration away from the epithelial layer.
2668:
Muckenthaler MU, Galy B, Hentze MW (2008). "Systemic iron homeostasis and the iron-responsive element/iron-regulatory protein (IRE/IRP) regulatory network".
4091:
930:
Although some control exists at the transcriptional level, the regulation of cellular iron levels is ultimately controlled at the translational level by
3447:
Iron
Disorders Institute: A nonprofit group concerned with iron disorders; site has helpful links and information on iron-related medical disorders.
490:
store iron as part of the process of breaking down and processing hemoglobin from engulfed red blood cells. Iron is also stored as a pigment called
1837:"Comparison of the interactions of transferrin receptor and transferrin receptor 2 with transferrin and the hereditary hemochromatosis protein HFE"
269:) is required for the functioning and survival of nearly all cell types. Oxygen is transported from the lungs to the rest of the body bound to the
4276:
931:
393:
may result. In this case, iron withholding actually impairs health by preventing the manufacture of enough hemoglobin-containing red blood cells.
67:
2828:
377:
in place of iron. People with increased amounts of iron, as, for example, in hemochromatosis, are more susceptible to some bacterial infections.
522:
Human iron homeostasis is regulated at two different levels. Systemic iron levels are balanced by the controlled absorption of dietary iron by
471:
first affects the storage of iron in the body, and depletion of these stores is thought to be relatively asymptomatic, although some vague and
712:
3417:
3383:
3348:
3305:
3160:
3140:
2886:
607:, which is accomplished by Fe binding to apoferritin (in which case the iron will leave the body when the cell dies and is sloughed off into
3483:
1427:
503:
1091:
against iron-deficiency anemia. The increase in systemic iron levels becomes pathological in old age, which supports the notion that
2230:
Finney LA, O'Halloran TV (May 2003). "Transition metal speciation in the cell: insights from the chemistry of metal ion receptors".
2214:
1454:
1070:. The type of acute toxicity from iron ingestion causes severe mucosal damage in the gastrointestinal tract, among other problems.
1019:
Damage to the intestinal lining. Examples of causes of this kind of damage include surgery involving the duodenum or diseases like
114:, where most of the human body's iron is contained. Understanding iron metabolism is also important for understanding diseases of
1773:
1196:
Kakhlon O, Cabantchik ZI (2002). "The labile iron pool: characterization, measurement, and participation in cellular processes".
4431:
3614:
981:
Functional or actual iron deficiency can result from a variety of causes. These causes can be grouped into several categories:
763:
649:
iron. People lose a small but steady amount by gastrointestinal blood loss, sweating and by shedding cells of the skin and the
4084:
799:
1042:
Acute blood loss or acute liver cirrhosis creates a lack of transferrin therefore causing iron to be secreted from the body.
4017:
3297:
676:
289:
Iron is also potentially toxic. Its ability to donate and accept electrons means that it can catalyze the conversion of
862:(mostly in enterocytes), which oxidize iron to its ferric state so it can bind ferritin in the extracellular medium.
51:
1911:
Sheokand N, Kumar S, Malhotra H, Tillu V, Raje CI, Raje M (Jun 2013). "Secreted glyceraldehye-3-phosphate [
555:
Like most mineral nutrients, the majority of the iron absorbed from digested food or supplements is absorbed in the
34:
Diagram showing a generalized view of cellular iron homeostasis in humans. Iron import can occur via endocytosis of
4507:
3524:
1100:
1073:
Excess iron has been linked to higher rates of disease and mortality. For example, breast cancer patients with low
487:
119:
4077:
3888:
3810:
3565:
731:
390:
209:
4497:
4467:
3908:
3629:
3570:
3476:
1271:"Intracellular free iron and its potential role in ultrahigh-pressure-induced inactivation of Escherichia coli"
1110:
953:
922:, a hormone which inhibits hepcidin and so increases the availability of iron needed for hemoglobin synthesis.
217:
875:
179:
158:. Its importance lies in its ability to mediate electron transfer. In the ferrous state (Fe), iron acts as an
3903:
465:, bound to transferrin. Because of its toxicity, free soluble iron is kept in low concentration in the body.
4472:
4002:
3751:
3746:
3732:
3707:
1092:
935:
317:
301:
175:
63:
1608:"The role of hepcidin, ferroportin, HCP1, and DMT1 protein in iron absorption in the human digestive tract"
4334:
4104:
4037:
3971:
3857:
3852:
3557:
684:
680:
654:
585:
476:
205:
127:
35:
1328:"Regulation of the intracellular free iron pool by Dpr provides oxygen tolerance to Streptococcus mutans"
413:, the bone marrow produces fewer blood cells, and as the deficiency gets worse, the cells become smaller.
297:. Free radicals can cause damage to a wide variety of cellular structures, and ultimately kill the cell.
4449:
4240:
4204:
4007:
3963:
3727:
3586:
3375:
1917:] dehydrogenase is a multifunctional autocrine transferrin receptor for cellular iron acquisition".
657:. The total amount of loss for healthy people in the developed world amounts to an estimated average of
343:
4441:
4423:
4183:
4178:
4173:
3981:
3686:
3662:
3624:
3409:
3259:
Frazer DM, Anderson GJ (Oct 2005). "Iron imports. I. Intestinal iron absorption and its regulation".
2975:
2239:
2072:
1505:
1282:
888:
815:
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into the cell. If the iron is bound to heme, it is instead transported across the apical membrane by
472:
369:
199:
2523:"Moonlighting cell-surface GAPDH recruits apotransferrin to effect iron egress from mammalian cells"
1796:"Transferrin receptor 2-alpha supports cell growth both in iron-chelated cultured cells and in vivo"
942:
IRP2 under iron deficiency, stabilizing the mRNA, which guarantees the synthesis of iron importers.
4502:
3926:
3545:
3469:
1088:
1029:
3226:"Understanding iron homeostasis through genetic analysis of hemochromatosis and related disorders"
1036:
Inflammation leading to hepcidin-induced restriction on iron release from enterocytes (see above).
4459:
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3654:
3367:
2468:
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1996:
1588:
1531:
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328:
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because women can sometimes become iron-deficient from the increased iron demands of pregnancy.
969:
538:
342:
In response to a systemic bacterial infection, the immune system initiates a process known as "
4405:
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94:
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3202:
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2640:
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2534:
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2415:
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2202:
2158:
2142:
2096:
2080:
2027:
1978:
1926:
1885:
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1807:
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1347:
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1067:
1039:
Is also a common occurrence in pregnant women, and in growing adolescents due to poor diets.
2779:
Disler PB, Lynch SR, Charlton RW, Torrance JD, Bothwell TH, Walker RB, et al. (1975).
43:
30:
4413:
4359:
4195:
3898:
3780:
2681:
1134:
1079:
964:
747:
708:
468:
410:
355:
221:
123:
111:
611:), or the cell can release it into the body via the only known iron exporter in mammals,
3072:"Molecular biology, genetics and biochemistry of the repulsive guidance molecule family"
2979:
2243:
2076:
1509:
1286:
874:
This schematic outlines iron metabolism in the brain illustrating that iron crosses the
4141:
3975:
3893:
3883:
3832:
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3793:
3096:
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3047:
3020:
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2130:
2101:
2060:
1708:
1691:
1632:
1607:
1303:
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IRP1 and especially IRP2. When iron levels are low, these proteins are able to bind to
919:
785:
593:
515:
159:
3207:
3182:
2855:
2345:
1352:
1327:
1209:
4491:
4339:
4288:
3847:
3534:
2964:"Multivariate genomic scan implicates novel loci and haem metabolism in human ageing"
2962:
Timmers, Paul R. H. J.; Wilson, James F.; Joshi, Peter K.; Deelen, Joris (Jul 2020).
1377:"Hepcidin, a key regulator of iron metabolism and mediator of anemia of inflammation"
1343:
1052:
1013:
974:
915:
855:
774:
581:
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115:
79:
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To prevent that kind of damage, all life forms that use iron bind the iron atoms to
4214:
3827:
3797:
3602:
3574:
3332:
2521:
Sheokand N, Malhotra H, Kumar S, Tillu VA, Chauhan AS, Raje CI, Raje M (Oct 2014).
2198:
1835:
West AP, Bennett MJ, Sellers VM, Andrews NC, Enns CA, Bjorkman PJ (December 2000).
1592:
1494:"An iron-regulated ferric reductase associated with the absorption of dietary iron"
1024:
883:
819:
633:
565:
462:
435:
360:
347:
229:
225:
187:
103:
938:(IREs). IREs are stem loop structures in the untranslated regions (UTRs) of mRNA.
350:
and then reabsorbing them to recover iron, or scavenging iron from hemoglobin and
3401:
2919:
2332:
Arosio P, Levi S (Aug 2002). "Ferritin, iron homeostasis, and oxidative damage".
2192:
2031:
1930:
1889:
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1794:
Kawabata H, Germain RS, Vuong PT, Nakamaki T, Said JW, Koeffler HP (June 2000).
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metals across the plasma membrane, then transports iron across the enterocyte's
523:
491:
483:
406:
364:
351:
208:
from a multi-step process known as cellular respiration, more specifically from
170:
of enzymatic reactions that involve electron transfer (reduction and oxidation,
71:
17:
4069:
3242:
3225:
2987:
2756:
2739:
2621:"Identification of erythroferrone as an erythroid regulator of iron metabolism"
2420:
2403:
2380:
1983:
1966:
1567:
1550:
1393:
1376:
834:
activity of the ferritin heavy chain. Dysfunctional ferritin may accumulate as
475:
have been associated with it. Since iron is primarily required for hemoglobin,
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3776:
3697:
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empowering them to invade surrounding tissues and establish distant colonies (
716:
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toxicity of iron starts overwhelming the body's ability to bind and store it.
616:
597:
560:
527:
458:
338:. Most bacteria that cause human disease require iron to live and to multiply.
274:
256:
239:, a protein found in red blood cells that serves to transport oxygen from the
236:
107:
75:
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2927:
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3441:
2904:"Ferroportin and Iron Regulation in Breast Cancer Progression and Prognosis"
2251:
1749:
1732:
1518:
1493:
1084:
910:
The expression of hepcidin, which only occurs in certain cell types such as
802:). Alternatively, iron ions might be bound to specialized proteins known as
781:
646:
443:
439:
382:
374:
278:
260:
244:
167:
3280:
3251:
3216:
3150:
3105:
3056:
3005:
2945:
2863:
2765:
2689:
2654:
2605:
2548:
2507:
2464:
2429:
2388:
2353:
2318:
2259:
2172:
2110:
2039:
1992:
1938:
1897:
1862:
1853:
1836:
1821:
1812:
1795:
1758:
1717:
1676:
1641:
1584:
1527:
1402:
1361:
1312:
1255:
1217:
1179:
572:), reduces ferric Fe to Fe. A protein called divalent metal transporter 1 (
502:
2814:
2724:
1623:
146:; "Fe" is the chemical symbol of iron, "II" indicates its oxidation state.
4262:
4249:
4219:
4209:
4155:
4130:
3037:
2796:
1294:
992:
863:
743:
625:
604:
577:
556:
426:
complexes that are present in all cells, but most common in bone marrow,
423:
386:
313:
151:
83:
59:
3127:. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 12. Springer. pp. 203–39.
2499:
1668:
4382:
4377:
4344:
4012:
3997:
3087:
2539:
2522:
2456:
2283:"Special delivery: distributing iron in the cytosol of mammalian cells"
1004:
1000:
767:
334:
213:
155:
2562:
Berthou, Christian; Iliou, Jean Paul; Barba, Denis (5 December 2021).
1655:
Fleming RE, Bacon BR (Apr 2005). "Orchestration of iron homeostasis".
814:
appear to mediate transfer of free iron to ferritin (for storage) and
401:
3261:
American
Journal of Physiology. Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology
3198:
3019:
Rametta, Raffaela; Meroni, Marica; Dongiovanni, Paola (15 May 2020).
2579:
2146:
847:
766:(TGF-β), crucial for EMT. Notably, iron’s unique ability to catalyze
751:
735:
650:
431:
385:
stimulate the liver to produce the iron metabolism regulator protein
143:
47:
2636:
2619:
Kautz L, Jung G, Valore EV, Rivella S, Nemeth E, Ganz T (Jul 2014).
2194:
Iron
Deficiency and Overload From Basic Biology to Clinical Medicine
2061:"CD44 regulates epigenetic plasticity by mediating iron endocytosis"
870:
216:. Iron is present in the iron–sulfur cluster and heme groups of the
3456:
4349:
4329:
3021:"From Environment to Genome and Back: A Lesson from HFE Mutations"
1158:
Conrad ME, Umbreit JN (Apr 2000). "Disorders of iron metabolism".
1059:
968:
869:
811:
807:
688:
608:
569:
537:
501:
461:). A relatively small amount (3–4 mg) circulates through the
427:
400:
354:. The harder the bacteria have to work to get iron, the greater a
327:
171:
138:
137:
55:
29:
1326:
Yamamoto Y, Fukui K, Koujin N, Ohya H, Kimura K, Kamio Y (2004).
1027:
which severely reduce the surface area available for absorption.
854:. It transports ferrous iron out of the cell, generally aided by
4372:
4367:
4266:
4150:
2703:
Hallberg L (1987). "Wheat fiber, phytates and iron absorption".
996:
704:
603:
These intestinal lining cells can then either store the iron as
573:
511:
305:
270:
240:
183:
98:
39:
4073:
3465:
3446:
1774:"Iron overload syndromes other than hereditary hemochromatosis"
730:
While EMT plays a crucial role in physiological processes like
1965:
Hentze MW, Muckenthaler MU, Galy B, Camaschella C (Jul 2010).
1913:
771:
2367:
Rouault TA, Cooperman S (Sep 2006). "Brain iron metabolism".
2020:
Biochimica et
Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Cell Research
985:
Increased demand for iron, which the diet cannot accommodate.
150:
Iron is an essential bioelement for most forms of life, from
1878:
446:
have lower non-hemoglobin body stores, which may consist of
3451:
277:
in red blood cells. In muscles cells, iron binds oxygen to
1269:
Yan Y, Waite-Cusic JG, Kuppusamy P, Yousef AE (Jan 2013).
3452:
An interactive medical learning portal on iron metabolism
846:
Iron export occurs in a variety of cell types, including
830:
Iron can be stored in ferritin as ferric iron due to the
265:
The human body needs iron for oxygen transport. Oxygen (O
46:, which require the activity of iron reductases such as
1967:"Two to tango: regulation of Mammalian iron metabolism"
1234:
Andrews NC (Dec 1999). "Disorders of iron metabolism".
988:
Increased loss of iron (usually through loss of blood).
3694:(amino acid→pyruvate, acetyl CoA, or TCA intermediate)
2281:
Philpott, Caroline C.; Ryu, Moon-Suhn (22 July 2014).
1919:
Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects
204:
Human cells require iron in order to obtain energy as
1422:(6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. p. 481.
518:, much of which is recycled from old red blood cells.
3323:
Lammi-Keef CJ, Couch SC, Philipson EH, eds. (2008).
3183:"Anemia of inflammation: the cytokine-hepcidin link"
1692:"Review on iron and its importance for human health"
777:
plays a vital role in this gene expression process.
4458:
4440:
4422:
4404:
4395:
4358:
4320:
4239:
4232:
4194:
4140:
4129:
4120:
4111:
4030:
3990:
3962:
3943:
3872:
3765:
3745:
3706:
3677:
3653:
3644:
3601:
3585:
3544:
3533:
3507:
3442:
A comprehensive NIH factsheet on iron and nutrition
2129:Kalluri, Raghu; Weinberg, Robert A. (1 June 2009).
3325:"Dietary diversification and modification of iron"
243:to other tissues. Heme groups are also present in
174:). Proteins can contain iron as part of different
62:and used for protein biosynthesis, or to generate
2131:"The basics of epithelial-mesenchymal transition"
106:have been especially interested in systemic iron
3288:Insel P, Ross D, McMahon K, Bernstein M (2011).
2881:. New York: McGraw-Hill, Medical Pub. Division.
2404:"Cellular iron: ferroportin is the only way out"
1606:Przybyszewska, Justyna; Żekanowska, Ewa (2014).
1033:infections also reduce the availability of iron.
746:attachment, its dysregulation can also fuel the
675:Most cell types take up iron primarily through
162:, while in the ferric state (Fe) it acts as an
93:is the set of chemical reactions that maintain
3374:. Washington, D.C.: Food and Nutrition Board,
3331:. Nutrition & Health. Totowa, New Jersey:
1733:"Body iron excretion by healthy men and women"
1229:
1227:
1191:
1189:
1153:
1151:
1149:
4513:Biology and pharmacology of chemical elements
4085:
3477:
2844:International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents
822:to synthesize Fe-S clusters and heme groups.
405:Illustration of blood cell production in the
367:, which present an iron rich environment and
247:to store and diffuse oxygen in muscle cells.
8:
3070:Severyn CJ, Shinde U, Rotwein P (Sep 2009).
2564:"Iron, neuro-bioavailability and depression"
3025:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
1416:Gropper, Sareen S.; Smith, Jack L. (2013).
1016:, and antacids will reduce iron metabolism.
898:The facilitated transporter pathway, where
806:. Specifically, poly-r(C)-binding proteins
4401:
4236:
4137:
4126:
4117:
4092:
4078:
4070:
3959:
3876:
3769:
3762:
3674:
3650:
3541:
3484:
3470:
3462:
2957:
2955:
2740:"The effect of calcium on iron absorption"
1737:The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
1551:"The Intestinal Heme Transporter Revealed"
526:, the cells that line the interior of the
3241:
3206:
3095:
3046:
3036:
2995:
2935:
2804:
2755:
2644:
2595:
2538:
2419:
2308:
2298:
2186:
2184:
2182:
2162:
2100:
1982:
1852:
1811:
1748:
1707:
1631:
1566:
1517:
1392:
1351:
1302:
695:cells), Dcytb (in enterocytes) and SDR2.
3296:(4th ed.). Sudbury, Massachusetts:
1960:
1958:
1956:
1954:
1952:
1950:
1948:
1470:Camaschella C, Schrier SL (2011-11-07).
1003:from supplements or dairy products, and
932:iron-responsive element-binding proteins
453:Of the body's total iron content, about
68:iron-responsive element-binding proteins
4277:Iron-responsive element-binding protein
3457:Information about iron outside the body
2012:
2010:
1419:Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism
1145:
1095:or "hyperfunction" drives human aging.
1062:and other metabolically active organs.
186:groups, both of which are assembled in
166:. Thus, iron plays a vital role in the
2781:"The effect of tea on iron absorption"
2197:. Nutrition and Health. New York, NY:
2124:
2122:
2120:
1275:Applied and Environmental Microbiology
926:Translational control of cellular iron
58:. Intracellular iron can be stored in
3187:The Journal of Clinical Investigation
2682:10.1146/annurev.nutr.28.061807.155521
2191:Yehuda S, Mostofsky DI, eds. (2010).
2135:The Journal of Clinical Investigation
2053:
2051:
2049:
1449:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 52.
66:(ROS) and regulate transcription via
7:
3594:Electron acceptors other than oxygen
1113:(JH), caused by mutations in either
3329:Handbook of Nutrition and Pregnancy
2334:Free Radical Biology & Medicine
1841:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
1800:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
1772:Schrier SL, Bacon BR (2011-11-07).
1657:The New England Journal of Medicine
1443:Truswell, A. Stewart (2010-07-15).
1236:The New England Journal of Medicine
1160:The New England Journal of Medicine
514:each day for the production of new
363:causing bacteria can reside within
1109:gene, and the more severe disease
632:absorbs less iron during times of
25:
1549:Rouault, Tracey A. (2005-09-09).
1198:Free Radical Biology and Medicine
1103:(HH), caused by mutations in the
713:epithelial–mesenchymal transition
2488:Biochemical Society Transactions
1344:10.1128/jb.186.18.5997-6002.2004
699:Iron import in some cancer cells
110:, because iron is essential for
70:(IRP1/2). Export occurs through
4432:Phosphoric acids and phosphates
3615:Substrate-level phosphorylation
3408:. Oxford, UK & Ames, Iowa:
2369:Seminars in Pediatric Neurology
1690:Abbaspour, Nazanin (Feb 2014).
764:transforming growth factor beta
576:), which can transport several
281:, which regulates its release.
2908:Science Translational Medicine
973:Iron is an important topic in
703:Iron can also enter cells via
38:or via ferrous iron importers
1:
4165:Ferroportin (SLC11A3/SLC40A1)
4018:Reverse cholesterol transport
3298:Jones and Bartlett Publishers
2856:10.1016/s0924-8579(00)00288-0
2346:10.1016/s0891-5849(02)00842-0
1210:10.1016/s0891-5849(02)01006-7
677:receptor-mediated endocytosis
498:Mechanisms of iron regulation
134:Importance of iron regulation
3670:(protein→peptide→amino acid)
3406:The Nutritional Trace Metals
2920:10.1126/scitranslmed.3001127
2032:10.1016/j.bbamcr.2015.01.021
1931:10.1016/j.bbagen.2013.03.019
1890:10.1016/j.biocel.2011.10.016
1472:"Regulation of iron balance"
3133:10.1007/978-94-007-5561-1_7
2705:Scand J Gastroenterol Suppl
1731:Janet, R Hunt (June 2009).
1248:10.1056/NEJM199912233412607
1172:10.1056/NEJM200004273421716
903:coupled with ceruloplasmin.
27:Iron metabolism in the body
4529:
4055:Phospagen system (ATP-PCr)
3525:Primary nutritional groups
3243:10.1182/blood-2005-05-1857
3224:Camaschella C (Dec 2005).
2988:10.1038/s41467-020-17312-3
2757:10.1079/095442200108729043
2670:Annual Review of Nutrition
2421:10.1016/j.cmet.2005.02.005
2381:10.1016/j.spen.2006.08.002
1984:10.1016/j.cell.2010.06.028
1568:10.1016/j.cell.2005.08.027
1394:10.1182/blood-2003-03-0672
1101:hereditary hemochromatosis
1066:rather than variations in
1050:
962:
951:
488:reticuloendothelial system
300:Iron bound to proteins or
254:
197:
120:hereditary hemochromatosis
4258:
3917:
3889:Anoxygenic photosynthesis
3879:
3843:
3811:Pentose phosphate pathway
3806:
3789:
3772:
3566:Oxidative phosphorylation
3341:10.1007/978-1-59745-112-3
2717:10.3109/00365528709095855
2287:Frontiers in Pharmacology
2207:10.1007/978-1-59745-462-9
2085:10.1038/s41557-020-0513-5
1087:times as they provided a
723:with detachment from the
568:, duodenal cytochrome B (
391:anemia of chronic disease
220:proteins that generate a
210:oxidative phosphorylation
4468:Calcium-sensing receptor
4215:Calreticulin/mobilferrin
3909:Entner-Doudoroff pathway
3571:electron transport chain
3558:Pyruvate decarboxylation
3273:10.1152/ajpgi.00220.2005
3125:Metallomics and the Cell
2300:10.3389/fphar.2014.00173
1111:juvenile hemochromatosis
954:Iron metabolism disorder
936:iron-responsive elements
715:(EMT). In this process,
666:Cellular iron regulation
534:Systemic iron regulation
235:Heme groups are part of
218:electron transport chain
4473:Calcium-binding protein
4003:Sphingolipid metabolism
3904:DeLey-Doudoroff pathway
3752:carbohydrate catabolism
3747:Carbohydrate metabolism
3733:Purine nucleotide cycle
3181:Andrews NC (May 2004).
3076:The Biochemical Journal
2527:Journal of Cell Science
2252:10.1126/science.1085049
1750:10.3945/ajcn.2009.27439
1612:Gastroenterology Review
1519:10.1126/science.1057206
1332:Journal of Bacteriology
1093:antagonistic pleiotropy
734:, where it enables the
640:Iron recycling and loss
332:Electron micrograph of
318:reactive oxygen species
82:(Cp), and repressed by
64:reactive oxygen species
3972:Fatty acid degradation
3692:Amino acid degradation
1854:10.1074/jbc.C000664200
1813:10.1074/jbc.M908846199
978:
907:
707:in complexes bound to
685:transferrin receptor 2
681:transferrin receptor 1
655:gastrointestinal tract
586:heme carrier protein 1
543:
519:
477:iron deficiency anemia
414:
339:
147:
128:iron-deficiency anemia
87:
36:transferrin receptor 1
4450:Magnesium transporter
4241:Iron-binding proteins
4205:Duodenal cytochrome B
4008:Eicosanoid metabolism
3964:Fatty acid metabolism
3728:Pyrimidine metabolism
3587:Anaerobic respiration
3376:Institute of Medicine
3319:See esp. pp. 513-514.
2968:Nature Communications
1624:10.5114/pg.2014.45102
972:
873:
826:The storage iron pool
816:non-heme iron enzymes
588:(HCP1). Heme is then
541:
505:
473:non-specific symptoms
404:
331:
212:at the mitochondrial
141:
91:Human iron metabolism
33:
4442:Magnesium metabolism
4424:Phosphate metabolism
4174:Transferrin receptor
3982:Fatty acid synthesis
3687:Amino acid synthesis
3410:Blackwell Publishing
3378:. pp. 290–393.
3335:. pp. 350–351.
3300:. pp. 510–514.
3038:10.3390/ijms21103505
2879:Rudolph's pediatrics
2797:10.1136/gut.16.3.193
1295:10.1128/aem.02202-12
889:extracellular matrix
793:The labile iron pool
370:Borrelia burgdorferi
324:Bacterial protection
200:Cellular respiration
194:Cellular respiration
180:iron–sulfur clusters
3546:Aerobic respiration
2980:2020NatCo..11.3570T
2877:Rudolph CD (2003).
2500:10.1042/BST20140220
2402:Ganz T (Mar 2005).
2244:2003Sci...300..931F
2077:2020NatCh..12..929M
1669:10.1056/NEJMp048363
1510:2001Sci...291.1755M
1375:Ganz T (Aug 2003).
1287:2013ApEnM..79..722Y
1089:selective advantage
1030:Helicobacter pylori
876:blood–brain barrier
547:Dietary iron uptake
228:to synthesize ATP (
4460:Calcium metabolism
4050:Ethanol metabolism
3998:Steroid metabolism
3723:Nucleotide salvage
3655:Protein metabolism
3412:. pp. 35–81.
3088:10.1042/BJ20090978
2540:10.1242/jcs.154005
2533:(Pt 19): 4279–91.
2457:10.1002/glia.21166
979:
908:
893:interstitial fluid
544:
520:
415:
340:
148:
88:
4508:Human homeostasis
4485:
4484:
4481:
4480:
4406:Sodium metabolism
4391:
4390:
4322:Copper metabolism
4316:
4315:
4312:
4311:
4228:
4227:
4067:
4066:
4063:
4062:
4026:
4025:
3939:
3938:
3935:
3934:
3922:Xylose metabolism
3868:
3867:
3741:
3740:
3718:Purine metabolism
3663:Protein synthesis
3640:
3639:
3562:Citric acid cycle
3520:Metabolic network
3515:Metabolic pathway
3419:978-1-4051-1040-2
3400:Reilly C (2004).
3385:978-0-309-07279-3
3350:978-1-59745-112-3
3307:978-0-7637-7663-3
3161:978-94-007-5561-1
3142:978-94-007-5560-4
2888:978-0-07-112457-7
2738:Lynch SR (2000).
1338:(18): 5997–6002.
1014:H2 antihistamines
900:endothelial cells
804:metallochaperones
725:basement membrane
721:mesenchymal cells
291:hydrogen peroxide
95:human homeostasis
74:, often aided by
16:(Redirected from
4520:
4402:
4237:
4138:
4127:
4118:
4113:Transition metal
4105:Metal metabolism
4094:
4087:
4080:
4071:
4038:Metal metabolism
3960:
3945:Lipid metabolism
3877:
3770:
3763:
3675:
3651:
3577:
3542:
3486:
3479:
3472:
3463:
3430:
3428:
3426:
3396:
3394:
3392:
3361:
3359:
3357:
3318:
3316:
3314:
3284:
3255:
3245:
3220:
3210:
3199:10.1172/JCI21441
3155:electronic-book
3154:
3110:
3109:
3099:
3067:
3061:
3060:
3050:
3040:
3016:
3010:
3009:
2999:
2959:
2950:
2949:
2939:
2899:
2893:
2892:
2874:
2868:
2867:
2839:
2833:
2832:
2825:
2819:
2818:
2808:
2776:
2770:
2769:
2759:
2735:
2729:
2728:
2700:
2694:
2693:
2665:
2659:
2658:
2648:
2616:
2610:
2609:
2599:
2580:10.1002/jha2.321
2559:
2553:
2552:
2542:
2518:
2512:
2511:
2494:(6): 1796–1801.
2483:
2477:
2476:
2440:
2434:
2433:
2423:
2399:
2393:
2392:
2364:
2358:
2357:
2329:
2323:
2322:
2312:
2302:
2278:
2272:
2271:
2227:
2221:
2220:
2188:
2177:
2176:
2166:
2147:10.1172/JCI39104
2141:(6): 1420–1428.
2126:
2115:
2114:
2104:
2065:Nature Chemistry
2055:
2044:
2043:
2026:(5): 1130–1144.
2014:
2005:
2004:
1986:
1962:
1943:
1942:
1908:
1902:
1901:
1873:
1867:
1866:
1856:
1832:
1826:
1825:
1815:
1806:(22): 16618–25.
1791:
1785:
1784:
1782:
1781:
1769:
1763:
1762:
1752:
1743:(6): 1792–1798.
1728:
1722:
1721:
1711:
1687:
1681:
1680:
1652:
1646:
1645:
1635:
1603:
1597:
1596:
1570:
1546:
1540:
1539:
1521:
1504:(5509): 1755–9.
1489:
1483:
1482:
1480:
1479:
1467:
1461:
1460:
1446:ABC of Nutrition
1440:
1434:
1433:
1413:
1407:
1406:
1396:
1372:
1366:
1365:
1355:
1323:
1317:
1316:
1306:
1266:
1260:
1259:
1231:
1222:
1221:
1204:(8): 1037–1046.
1193:
1184:
1183:
1155:
717:epithelial cells
660:
600:, releasing Fe.
509:
456:
450:, or even less.
449:
420:
397:Body iron stores
344:iron withholding
251:Oxygen transport
21:
18:Iron homeostasis
4528:
4527:
4523:
4522:
4521:
4519:
4518:
4517:
4498:Iron metabolism
4488:
4487:
4486:
4477:
4454:
4436:
4418:
4387:
4360:Zinc metabolism
4354:
4308:
4254:
4224:
4196:Iron(III) oxide
4190:
4132:
4122:Iron metabolism
4107:
4098:
4068:
4059:
4043:Iron metabolism
4022:
3986:
3947:
3931:
3913:
3899:Carbon fixation
3864:
3839:
3802:
3785:
3781:Gluconeogenesis
3754:
3749:
3737:
3709:
3702:
3673:
3646:
3636:
3597:
3581:
3569:
3536:
3529:
3503:
3490:
3438:
3433:
3424:
3422:
3420:
3399:
3390:
3388:
3386:
3364:
3355:
3353:
3351:
3322:
3312:
3310:
3308:
3287:
3258:
3223:
3180:
3143:
3122:
3118:
3116:Further reading
3113:
3069:
3068:
3064:
3018:
3017:
3013:
2961:
2960:
2953:
2901:
2900:
2896:
2889:
2876:
2875:
2871:
2841:
2840:
2836:
2827:
2826:
2822:
2778:
2777:
2773:
2737:
2736:
2732:
2702:
2701:
2697:
2667:
2666:
2662:
2637:10.1038/ng.2996
2625:Nature Genetics
2618:
2617:
2613:
2561:
2560:
2556:
2520:
2519:
2515:
2485:
2484:
2480:
2442:
2441:
2437:
2408:Cell Metabolism
2401:
2400:
2396:
2366:
2365:
2361:
2331:
2330:
2326:
2280:
2279:
2275:
2238:(5621): 931–6.
2229:
2228:
2224:
2217:
2201:. p. 230.
2190:
2189:
2180:
2128:
2127:
2118:
2071:(10): 929–938.
2057:
2056:
2047:
2016:
2015:
2008:
1964:
1963:
1946:
1910:
1909:
1905:
1875:
1874:
1870:
1847:(49): 38135–8.
1834:
1833:
1829:
1793:
1792:
1788:
1779:
1777:
1771:
1770:
1766:
1730:
1729:
1725:
1689:
1688:
1684:
1654:
1653:
1649:
1605:
1604:
1600:
1548:
1547:
1543:
1491:
1490:
1486:
1477:
1475:
1469:
1468:
1464:
1457:
1442:
1441:
1437:
1430:
1415:
1414:
1410:
1374:
1373:
1369:
1325:
1324:
1320:
1268:
1267:
1263:
1242:(26): 1986–95.
1233:
1232:
1225:
1195:
1194:
1187:
1157:
1156:
1147:
1143:
1135:Iron in biology
1131:
1121:) or hepcidin (
1055:
1049:
967:
965:Iron deficiency
961:
959:Iron deficiency
956:
950:
928:
906:
844:
828:
795:
719:transform into
709:hyaluronic acid
701:
673:
668:
658:
642:
549:
536:
516:red blood cells
507:
500:
469:Iron deficiency
454:
447:
418:
411:iron deficiency
399:
356:metabolic price
326:
287:
268:
263:
253:
222:proton gradient
202:
196:
136:
124:iron deficiency
112:red blood cells
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4526:
4524:
4516:
4515:
4510:
4505:
4500:
4490:
4489:
4483:
4482:
4479:
4478:
4476:
4475:
4470:
4464:
4462:
4456:
4455:
4453:
4452:
4446:
4444:
4438:
4437:
4435:
4434:
4428:
4426:
4420:
4419:
4417:
4416:
4410:
4408:
4399:
4393:
4392:
4389:
4388:
4386:
4385:
4380:
4375:
4370:
4364:
4362:
4356:
4355:
4353:
4352:
4347:
4342:
4337:
4332:
4326:
4324:
4318:
4317:
4314:
4313:
4310:
4309:
4307:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4286:
4285:
4284:
4274:
4269:
4259:
4256:
4255:
4253:
4252:
4246:
4244:
4234:
4230:
4229:
4226:
4225:
4223:
4222:
4217:
4212:
4207:
4201:
4199:
4192:
4191:
4189:
4188:
4187:
4186:
4181:
4167:
4158:
4153:
4151:DMT1 (SLC11A2)
4147:
4145:
4142:Iron(II) oxide
4135:
4124:
4115:
4109:
4108:
4099:
4097:
4096:
4089:
4082:
4074:
4065:
4064:
4061:
4060:
4058:
4057:
4052:
4047:
4046:
4045:
4034:
4032:
4028:
4027:
4024:
4023:
4021:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3994:
3992:
3988:
3987:
3985:
3984:
3979:
3976:Beta oxidation
3968:
3966:
3957:
3941:
3940:
3937:
3936:
3933:
3932:
3930:
3929:
3924:
3918:
3915:
3914:
3912:
3911:
3906:
3901:
3896:
3894:Chemosynthesis
3891:
3886:
3884:Photosynthesis
3880:
3874:
3870:
3869:
3866:
3865:
3863:
3862:
3861:
3860:
3855:
3844:
3841:
3840:
3838:
3837:
3836:
3835:
3833:Leloir pathway
3825:
3824:
3823:
3821:Polyol pathway
3813:
3807:
3804:
3803:
3801:
3800:
3794:Glycogenolysis
3790:
3787:
3786:
3784:
3783:
3773:
3767:
3760:
3743:
3742:
3739:
3738:
3736:
3735:
3730:
3725:
3720:
3714:
3712:
3704:
3703:
3701:
3700:
3695:
3689:
3683:
3681:
3672:
3671:
3665:
3659:
3657:
3648:
3642:
3641:
3638:
3637:
3635:
3634:
3633:
3632:
3627:
3622:
3607:
3605:
3599:
3598:
3596:
3595:
3591:
3589:
3583:
3582:
3580:
3579:
3550:
3548:
3539:
3531:
3530:
3528:
3527:
3522:
3517:
3511:
3509:
3505:
3504:
3491:
3489:
3488:
3481:
3474:
3466:
3460:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3437:
3436:External links
3434:
3432:
3431:
3418:
3397:
3384:
3362:
3349:
3320:
3306:
3285:
3256:
3236:(12): 3710–7.
3221:
3178:
3141:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3111:
3082:(3): 393–403.
3062:
3011:
2974:(3570): 3570.
2951:
2914:(43): 43ra56.
2894:
2887:
2869:
2850:(4): 515–519.
2834:
2820:
2791:(3): 193–200.
2771:
2730:
2695:
2660:
2611:
2574:(1): 263–275.
2554:
2513:
2478:
2435:
2394:
2359:
2324:
2273:
2222:
2215:
2178:
2116:
2045:
2006:
1944:
1925:(6): 3816–27.
1903:
1868:
1827:
1786:
1764:
1723:
1702:(2): 164–174.
1682:
1663:(17): 1741–4.
1647:
1618:(4): 208–213.
1598:
1561:(5): 649–651.
1541:
1484:
1462:
1455:
1435:
1429:978-1133104056
1428:
1408:
1367:
1318:
1281:(2): 722–724.
1261:
1223:
1185:
1166:(17): 1293–4.
1144:
1142:
1139:
1138:
1137:
1130:
1127:
1051:Main article:
1048:
1045:
1044:
1043:
1040:
1037:
1034:
1017:
1009:
989:
986:
963:Main article:
960:
957:
952:Main article:
949:
946:
927:
924:
920:erythroferrone
905:
904:
896:
879:
843:
840:
827:
824:
794:
791:
786:growth factors
742:to facilitate
738:to invade the
700:
697:
672:
669:
667:
664:
653:lining of the
641:
638:
594:heme oxygenase
592:by microsomal
548:
545:
535:
532:
499:
496:
398:
395:
325:
322:
286:
283:
266:
252:
249:
198:Main article:
195:
192:
160:electron donor
135:
132:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4525:
4514:
4511:
4509:
4506:
4504:
4501:
4499:
4496:
4495:
4493:
4474:
4471:
4469:
4466:
4465:
4463:
4461:
4457:
4451:
4448:
4447:
4445:
4443:
4439:
4433:
4430:
4429:
4427:
4425:
4421:
4415:
4412:
4411:
4409:
4407:
4403:
4400:
4398:
4394:
4384:
4381:
4379:
4376:
4374:
4371:
4369:
4366:
4365:
4363:
4361:
4357:
4351:
4348:
4346:
4343:
4341:
4340:Ceruloplasmin
4338:
4336:
4333:
4331:
4328:
4327:
4325:
4323:
4319:
4305:
4302:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4289:Ceruloplasmin
4287:
4283:
4280:
4279:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4268:
4264:
4261:
4260:
4257:
4251:
4248:
4247:
4245:
4242:
4238:
4235:
4231:
4221:
4218:
4216:
4213:
4211:
4208:
4206:
4203:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4193:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4177:
4176:
4175:
4171:
4168:
4166:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4148:
4146:
4143:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:Absorption in
4128:
4125:
4123:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4110:
4106:
4102:
4095:
4090:
4088:
4083:
4081:
4076:
4075:
4072:
4056:
4053:
4051:
4048:
4044:
4041:
4040:
4039:
4036:
4035:
4033:
4029:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3995:
3993:
3989:
3983:
3980:
3977:
3973:
3970:
3969:
3967:
3965:
3961:
3958:
3955:
3951:
3946:
3942:
3928:
3927:Radiotrophism
3925:
3923:
3920:
3919:
3916:
3910:
3907:
3905:
3902:
3900:
3897:
3895:
3892:
3890:
3887:
3885:
3882:
3881:
3878:
3875:
3871:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3850:
3849:
3848:Glycosylation
3846:
3845:
3842:
3834:
3831:
3830:
3829:
3826:
3822:
3819:
3818:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3808:
3805:
3799:
3795:
3792:
3791:
3788:
3782:
3778:
3775:
3774:
3771:
3768:
3764:
3761:
3758:
3753:
3748:
3744:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3716:
3715:
3713:
3711:
3705:
3699:
3696:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3684:
3682:
3680:
3676:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3660:
3658:
3656:
3652:
3649:
3643:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3617:
3616:
3612:
3609:
3608:
3606:
3604:
3600:
3593:
3592:
3590:
3588:
3584:
3576:
3572:
3567:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3552:
3551:
3549:
3547:
3543:
3540:
3538:
3532:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3512:
3510:
3506:
3502:
3498:
3494:
3487:
3482:
3480:
3475:
3473:
3468:
3467:
3464:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3439:
3435:
3421:
3415:
3411:
3407:
3403:
3398:
3387:
3381:
3377:
3373:
3369:
3363:
3352:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3326:
3321:
3309:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3267:(4): G631–5.
3266:
3262:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3193:(9): 1251–3.
3192:
3188:
3184:
3179:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3162:
3158:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3121:
3120:
3115:
3107:
3103:
3098:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3066:
3063:
3058:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3015:
3012:
3007:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2958:
2956:
2952:
2947:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2898:
2895:
2890:
2884:
2880:
2873:
2870:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2838:
2835:
2830:
2824:
2821:
2816:
2812:
2807:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2775:
2772:
2767:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2750:(2): 141–58.
2749:
2745:
2741:
2734:
2731:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2699:
2696:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2664:
2661:
2656:
2652:
2647:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2631:(7): 678–84.
2630:
2626:
2622:
2615:
2612:
2607:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2558:
2555:
2550:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2517:
2514:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2482:
2479:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2451:(6): 936–45.
2450:
2446:
2439:
2436:
2431:
2427:
2422:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2398:
2395:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2363:
2360:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2340:(4): 457–63.
2339:
2335:
2328:
2325:
2320:
2316:
2311:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2277:
2274:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2226:
2223:
2218:
2216:9781934115220
2212:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2195:
2187:
2185:
2183:
2179:
2174:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2125:
2123:
2121:
2117:
2112:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2054:
2052:
2050:
2046:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2013:
2011:
2007:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1961:
1959:
1957:
1955:
1953:
1951:
1949:
1945:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1915:
1907:
1904:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1884:(1): 189–99.
1883:
1879:
1872:
1869:
1864:
1860:
1855:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1831:
1828:
1823:
1819:
1814:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1790:
1787:
1775:
1768:
1765:
1760:
1756:
1751:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1727:
1724:
1719:
1715:
1710:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1696:J Res Med Sci
1693:
1686:
1683:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1651:
1648:
1643:
1639:
1634:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1602:
1599:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1569:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1545:
1542:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1520:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1488:
1485:
1473:
1466:
1463:
1458:
1456:9781444314229
1452:
1448:
1447:
1439:
1436:
1431:
1425:
1421:
1420:
1412:
1409:
1404:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1371:
1368:
1363:
1359:
1354:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1322:
1319:
1314:
1310:
1305:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1265:
1262:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1230:
1228:
1224:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1192:
1190:
1186:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1154:
1152:
1150:
1146:
1140:
1136:
1133:
1132:
1128:
1126:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1107:
1102:
1099:overload are
1096:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1081:
1076:
1071:
1069:
1063:
1061:
1054:
1053:Iron overload
1047:Iron overload
1046:
1041:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1031:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1015:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
987:
984:
983:
982:
976:
975:prenatal care
971:
966:
958:
955:
947:
945:
943:
939:
937:
933:
925:
923:
921:
917:
916:Erythroblasts
913:
901:
897:
894:
890:
885:
881:
880:
877:
872:
868:
865:
861:
857:
856:ceruloplasmin
853:
849:
841:
839:
837:
833:
825:
823:
821:
817:
813:
809:
805:
801:
792:
790:
787:
783:
778:
776:
775:demethylation
773:
769:
765:
759:
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
737:
733:
728:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
706:
698:
696:
692:
690:
686:
682:
678:
670:
665:
663:
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582:cell membrane
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295:free radicals
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145:
142:Structure of
140:
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129:
125:
121:
117:
116:iron overload
113:
109:
105:
104:Hematologists
100:
96:
92:
85:
81:
80:ceruloplasmin
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
32:
19:
4121:
4042:
3828:Galactolysis
3798:Glycogenesis
3603:Fermentation
3575:ATP synthase
3423:. Retrieved
3405:
3389:. Retrieved
3371:
3354:. Retrieved
3333:Humana Press
3328:
3311:. Retrieved
3293:
3264:
3260:
3233:
3229:
3190:
3186:
3124:
3079:
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3031:(10): 3505.
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2744:Nutr Res Rev
2743:
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2704:
2698:
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2414:(3): 155–7.
2411:
2407:
2397:
2375:(3): 142–8.
2372:
2368:
2362:
2337:
2333:
2327:
2290:
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2235:
2231:
2225:
2199:Humana Press
2193:
2138:
2134:
2068:
2064:
2023:
2019:
1977:(1): 24–38.
1974:
1970:
1922:
1918:
1912:
1906:
1881:
1877:
1871:
1844:
1840:
1830:
1803:
1799:
1789:
1778:. Retrieved
1767:
1740:
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1726:
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1695:
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1660:
1656:
1650:
1615:
1611:
1601:
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1554:
1544:
1501:
1497:
1487:
1476:. Retrieved
1465:
1445:
1438:
1418:
1411:
1387:(3): 783–8.
1384:
1380:
1370:
1335:
1331:
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1097:
1078:also reduce
1072:
1064:
1056:
1028:
1025:celiac sprue
980:
944:
940:
929:
909:
884:transcytosis
845:
829:
796:
779:
760:
732:implantation
729:
702:
693:
674:
643:
634:inflammation
630:
602:
566:brush border
554:
550:
521:
482:
467:
452:
436:menstruation
416:
379:
368:
348:siderophores
341:
333:
311:
299:
288:
264:
234:
230:chemiosmosis
226:ATP synthase
224:that allows
203:
188:mitochondria
149:
90:
89:
78:(Hp) and/or
4414:Na/K-ATPase
4397:Electrolyte
4304:Lactoferrin
4299:Hemosiderin
4272:Hemojuvelin
4170:Transferrin
3954:lipogenesis
3816:Fructolysis
3630:Lactic acid
3170:electronic-
2676:: 197–213.
1115:hemojuvelin
1075:ferroportin
912:hepatocytes
852:ferroportin
842:Iron export
836:hemosiderin
832:ferroxidase
740:endometrium
687:(TFR2) and
671:Iron import
621:ferroxidase
613:ferroportin
590:catabolized
561:enterocytes
524:enterocytes
506:Humans use
492:hemosiderin
484:Macrophages
459:cytochromes
455:400 mg
448:500 mg
407:bone marrow
365:macrophages
352:transferrin
182:(Fe-S) and
72:ferroportin
4503:Hematology
4492:Categories
4161:Hephaestin
4101:Metabolism
3777:Glycolysis
3710:metabolism
3708:Nucleotide
3698:Urea cycle
3679:Amino acid
3668:Catabolism
3611:Glycolysis
3554:Glycolysis
3537:metabolism
3497:catabolism
3493:Metabolism
2829:"UpToDate"
1780:2012-03-11
1776:. UpToDate
1478:2012-03-11
1474:. UpToDate
1141:References
891:(ECM) and
878:either by:
860:hephaestin
820:mitoferrin
756:metastasis
750:spread of
617:Hephaestin
598:biliverdin
528:intestines
508:20 mg
419:2.5 g
275:hemoglobin
257:Hemoglobin
255:See also:
237:hemoglobin
178:, such as
126:, such as
118:, such as
108:metabolism
76:hephaestin
4282:Aconitase
3950:lipolysis
3757:anabolism
3501:anabolism
3294:Nutrition
3176:1868-0402
3168:1559-0836
2928:1946-6234
2588:2688-6146
2155:0021-9738
2093:1755-4330
1577:0092-8674
1085:Neolithic
948:Pathology
800:aqua ions
782:cytokines
748:malignant
744:placental
659:1 mg
647:excreting
444:lactation
440:pregnancy
383:cytokines
375:manganese
302:cofactors
279:myoglobin
273:group of
261:myoglobin
245:myoglobin
176:cofactors
168:catalysis
4263:Hepcidin
4250:Ferritin
4220:Ferritin
4210:Integrin
4156:Ferritin
4133:duodenum
3873:Nonhuman
3858:O-linked
3853:N-linked
3645:Specific
3425:June 25,
3391:June 25,
3356:June 25,
3313:June 25,
3281:16160078
3252:16030190
3217:15124013
3151:23595674
3106:19698085
3057:32429125
3006:32678081
2946:20686179
2864:11118871
2766:19087437
2711:: 73–9.
2690:18489257
2655:24880340
2606:35846210
2549:25074810
2508:25399609
2473:25678955
2465:21438013
2430:16054057
2389:17101452
2354:12160928
2319:25101000
2268:14863354
2260:12738850
2173:19487818
2111:32747755
2040:25661197
2001:23971474
1993:20603012
1939:23541988
1898:22062951
1863:11027676
1822:10748106
1759:19386738
1718:24778671
1677:15858181
1642:25276251
1585:16143096
1536:44351106
1528:11230685
1403:12663437
1362:15342568
1313:23124235
1256:10607817
1218:12374615
1180:10787338
1129:See also
1080:lifespan
1008:sources.
993:phytates
918:produce
864:Hepcidin
683:(TFR1),
626:hepcidin
605:ferritin
578:divalent
557:duodenum
424:ferritin
387:hepcidin
314:proteins
304:such as
285:Toxicity
164:acceptor
152:bacteria
84:hepcidin
60:ferritin
4383:SLC39A4
4378:SLC30A1
4345:SLC31A1
4013:Ketosis
3625:Ethanol
3508:General
3097:4242795
3048:7279025
2997:7366647
2976:Bibcode
2937:3734848
2815:1168162
2806:1410962
2725:2820048
2646:4104984
2597:9175715
2310:4106451
2293:: 173.
2240:Bibcode
2232:Science
2164:2689101
2102:7612580
2073:Bibcode
1709:3999603
1633:4178046
1593:9180328
1506:Bibcode
1498:Science
1304:3553779
1283:Bibcode
1021:Crohn's
1005:tannins
1001:calcium
858:and/or
848:neurons
768:protein
711:during
651:mucosal
486:of the
335:E. coli
309:above.
214:cristae
156:mammals
3535:Energy
3416:
3402:"Iron"
3382:
3368:"Iron"
3347:
3304:
3290:"Iron"
3279:
3250:
3215:
3208:398435
3205:
3174:
3166:
3159:
3149:
3139:
3104:
3094:
3055:
3045:
3004:
2994:
2944:
2934:
2926:
2885:
2862:
2813:
2803:
2764:
2723:
2688:
2653:
2643:
2604:
2594:
2586:
2568:EJHaem
2547:
2506:
2471:
2463:
2428:
2387:
2352:
2317:
2307:
2266:
2258:
2213:
2171:
2161:
2153:
2109:
2099:
2091:
2038:
1999:
1991:
1937:
1896:
1861:
1820:
1757:
1716:
1706:
1675:
1640:
1630:
1591:
1583:
1575:
1534:
1526:
1453:
1426:
1401:
1360:
1353:515136
1350:
1311:
1301:
1254:
1216:
1178:
752:tumors
736:embryo
463:plasma
432:spleen
430:, and
144:Heme b
122:, and
48:STEAP2
4350:ATOX1
4335:ATP7B
4330:ATP7A
4233:Other
4031:Other
3991:Other
3766:Human
3647:paths
3230:Blood
2469:S2CID
2264:S2CID
1997:S2CID
1589:S2CID
1532:S2CID
1381:Blood
1060:heart
812:PCBP2
808:PCBP1
689:GAPDH
609:feces
596:into
570:Dcytb
428:liver
409:. In
373:uses
293:into
241:lungs
172:redox
56:Dcytb
52:SDR-2
44:ZIP14
4373:TMC8
4368:TMC6
4267:HAMP
4184:TFR2
4179:TFR1
3755:and
3427:2012
3414:ISBN
3393:2012
3380:ISBN
3358:2012
3345:ISBN
3315:2012
3302:ISBN
3277:PMID
3248:PMID
3213:PMID
3172:ISSN
3164:ISSN
3157:ISBN
3147:PMID
3137:ISBN
3102:PMID
3053:PMID
3002:PMID
2942:PMID
2924:ISSN
2883:ISBN
2860:PMID
2811:PMID
2762:PMID
2721:PMID
2686:PMID
2651:PMID
2602:PMID
2584:ISSN
2545:PMID
2504:PMID
2461:PMID
2445:Glia
2426:PMID
2385:PMID
2350:PMID
2315:PMID
2256:PMID
2211:ISBN
2169:PMID
2151:ISSN
2107:PMID
2089:ISSN
2036:PMID
2024:1853
1989:PMID
1971:Cell
1935:PMID
1923:1830
1894:PMID
1859:PMID
1818:PMID
1755:PMID
1714:PMID
1673:PMID
1638:PMID
1581:PMID
1573:ISSN
1555:Cell
1524:PMID
1451:ISBN
1424:ISBN
1399:PMID
1358:PMID
1309:PMID
1252:PMID
1214:PMID
1176:PMID
1123:HAMP
1068:diet
997:bran
882:The
810:and
784:and
770:and
705:CD44
679:via
619:, a
574:DMT1
512:iron
306:heme
271:heme
259:and
184:heme
99:iron
54:and
42:and
40:DMT1
4294:HFE
4172:to
3779:⇄
3620:ABE
3337:doi
3269:doi
3265:289
3238:doi
3234:106
3203:PMC
3195:doi
3191:113
3129:doi
3092:PMC
3084:doi
3080:422
3043:PMC
3033:doi
2992:PMC
2984:doi
2932:PMC
2916:doi
2852:doi
2801:PMC
2793:doi
2785:Gut
2752:doi
2713:doi
2709:129
2678:doi
2641:PMC
2633:doi
2592:PMC
2576:doi
2535:doi
2531:127
2496:doi
2453:doi
2416:doi
2377:doi
2342:doi
2305:PMC
2295:doi
2248:doi
2236:300
2203:doi
2159:PMC
2143:doi
2139:119
2097:PMC
2081:doi
2028:doi
1979:doi
1975:142
1927:doi
1914:sic
1886:doi
1849:doi
1845:275
1808:doi
1804:275
1745:doi
1704:PMC
1665:doi
1661:352
1628:PMC
1620:doi
1563:doi
1559:122
1514:doi
1502:291
1389:doi
1385:102
1348:PMC
1340:doi
1336:186
1299:PMC
1291:doi
1244:doi
1240:341
1206:doi
1168:doi
1164:342
1119:HJV
1106:HFE
1023:or
995:in
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559:by
510:of
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