Ferrous metallurgy - Knowledge (XXG)

1329: 1545: 2087:). In the Bessemer process, molten pig iron from the blast furnace was charged into a large crucible, and then air was blown through the molten iron from below, igniting the dissolved carbon from the coke. As the carbon burned off, the melting point of the mixture increased, but the heat from the burning carbon provided the extra energy needed to keep the mixture molten. After the carbon content in the melt had dropped to the desired level, the air draft was cut off: a typical Bessemer converter could convert a 25-ton batch of pig iron to steel in half an hour. 713: 1223: 901:, who invaded the Eastern Mediterranean and destroyed the Hittite empire at the end of the Late Bronze Age, were responsible for spreading the knowledge through that region. This theory is no longer held in the mainstream of scholarship, since there is no archaeological evidence of the alleged Hittite monopoly. While there are some iron objects from Bronze Age Anatolia, the number is comparable to iron objects found in Egypt and other places of the same time period, and only a small number of those objects were weapons. 1150: 2162: 1423: 1015: 187: 7011: 2061: 1448:; consequently, as these origin centers are located within inner Africa, these archaeometallurgical developments are thus native African technologies. Iron metallurgical development occurred 2631 BCE – 2458 BCE at Lejja, in Nigeria, 2136 BCE – 1921 BCE at Obui, in Central Africa Republic, 1895 BCE – 1370 BCE at Tchire Ouma 147, in Niger, and 1297 BCE – 1051 BCE at Dekpassanware, in Togo. 1993: 202: 922: 31: 1748: 299:. Typically pea-size bits of metal were cold-hammered into disks and fitted to a bone handle. These artifacts were also used as trade goods with other Arctic peoples: tools made from the Cape York meteorite have been found in archaeological sites more than 1,000 miles (1,600 km) distant. When the 3438:

One unappreciated aspect of Early Bronze Age and Middle Bronze Age steppe metallurgy was its experimentation with iron. … A Catacomb-period grave at Gerasimovka on the Donets (western Russia/Ukraine), probably dated around 2500 BCE, contained a knife with a handle made of arsenical bronze and a blade

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province, dated to the early 3rd century BC, contains several soldiers buried with their weapons and other equipment. The artifacts recovered from this grave are variously made of wrought iron, cast iron, malleabilized cast iron, and quench-hardened steel, with only a few, probably ornamental, bronze

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to precipitate out as micro particles arranged in sheets or bands within the body of a blade. Carbides are far harder than the surrounding low carbon steel, so swordsmiths could produce an edge that cut hard materials with the precipitated carbides, while the bands of softer steel let the sword as a

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by long trenches. This arrangement created a zone of high pressure at the entrance, and a zone of low pressure at the top of the furnace. The flow is believed to have allowed higher temperatures than bellows-driven furnaces could produce, resulting in better-quality iron. Steel made in Sri Lanka was

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weapons and tools with those of iron and steel. That transition happened at different times in different places, as the technology spread. Mesopotamia was fully into the Iron Age by 900 BC. Although Egypt produced iron artifacts, bronze remained dominant until its conquest by Assyria in 663 BC. The

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The large production capacity of steel results in a significant amount of carbon dioxide emissions inherent related to the main production route. In 2019, it was estimated that 7 to 9% of the global carbon dioxide emissions resulted from the steel industry. Reduction of these emissions are expected

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patented a method of making cast iron pots. His pots were thinner and hence cheaper than those of his rivals. Needing a larger supply of pig iron he leased the blast furnace at Coalbrookdale in 1709. There, he made iron using coke, thus establishing the first successful business in Europe to do

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in 1783–84. Cast iron development lagged in Europe because wrought iron was the desired product and the intermediate step of producing cast iron involved an expensive blast furnace and further refining of pig iron to cast iron, which then required a labor and capital intensive conversion to wrought

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in Scotland in 1828. This further reduced production costs. Within a few decades, the practice was to have a 'stove' as large as the furnace next to it into which the waste gas (containing CO) from the furnace was directed and burnt. The resultant heat was used to preheat the air blown into the

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in present-day Ukraine, dated to c. 2500 BC. During most of the Middle and Late Bronze Age in Europe, iron was present, though scarce. It was used for personal ornaments and small knives, for repairs on bronzes, and for bimetallic items. Early smelted iron finds from central Europe include an iron

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using two techniques: a "berganesque" method that produced inferior, heterogeneous steel and a precursor to the modern Bessemer process that utilized partial decarbonization via repeated forging under a cold blast. By the 11th century, there was a large amount of deforestation in China due to the

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to these sites, but there is no clear proof of this hypothesis, and it would certainly not explain the pre-Mongol datings of many of these iron-production centres. In any event, by the late 14th century, a market for cast iron goods began to form, as a demand developed for cast iron cannonballs.

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was introduced at the Voest-Alpine works in 1952; a modification of the basic Bessemer process, it lances oxygen from above the steel (instead of bubbling air from below), reducing the amount of nitrogen uptake into the steel. The basic oxygen process is used in all modern steelworks; the last

1870:. Wrought iron bars and charcoal were packed into stone boxes, then sealed with clay to be held at a red heat continually tended in an oxygen-free state immersed in nearly pure carbon (charcoal) for up to a week. During this time, carbon diffused into the surface layers of the iron, producing 912:

trade routes, due to the collapse of the empires at the end of the Late Bronze Age. These metals, especially tin, were not widely available and metal workers had to transport them over long distances, whereas iron ores were widely available. However, no known archaeological evidence suggests a

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Early iron smelting used charcoal as both the heat source and the reducing agent. By the 18th century, the availability of wood for making charcoal was limiting the expansion of iron production, so that England became increasingly dependent for a considerable part of the iron required by its

1878:—also known as case hardened, where the portions wrapped in iron (the pick or axe blade) became harder, than say an axe hammer-head or shaft socket which might be insulated by clay to keep them from the carbon source. The earliest place where this process was used in England was at 2117:

Until these 19th-century developments, steel was an expensive commodity and only used for a limited number of purposes where a particularly hard or flexible metal was needed, as in the cutting edges of tools and springs. The widespread availability of inexpensive steel powered the

1492:(Holl 2009). The site of Gbabiri (in the Central African Republic) has yielded evidence of iron metallurgy, from a reduction furnace and blacksmith workshop; with earliest dates of 896–773 BC and 907–796 BC respectively. Similarly, smelting in bloomery-type furnaces appear in the 1364:

there is a significant increase in iron finds dating from the 10th century BC onwards, with some finds possibly dating as early as the 12th century BC. Iron swords have been found in central Europe dating from the 10th century BC; however, the Iron Age began in earnest with the

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The place and time for the discovery of iron smelting is not known, partly because of the difficulty of distinguishing metal extracted from nickel-containing ores from hot-worked meteoritic iron. The archaeological evidence seems to point to the Middle East area, during the

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The acidic refractory lining of Bessemer converters and early open hearths didn't allow to remove phosphorus from steel with lime, which prolonged the life of puddling furnaces in order to utilize phosphorous iron ores abundant in Continental Europe. However, in the 1870s

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made of iron. The iron did not contain magnetite or nickel, as would be expected in meteoric iron, so it is thought to have been forged. Iron objects were rare, but they were part of the experiments conducted by steppe metalsmiths during the Early and Middle Bronze Ages

1278:) from the Han period forward was a major center of the iron and steel industry. Along with their original methods of forging steel, the Chinese had also adopted the production methods of creating Wootz steel, an idea imported from India to China by the 5th century AD. 1267:. Pig iron is known as 'raw iron', while wrought iron is known as 'cooked iron'. By the 1st century BC, Chinese metallurgists had found that wrought iron and cast iron could be melted together to yield an alloy of intermediate carbon content, that is, steel. 806:

have been found across the Eastern Mediterranean, bronzework appears to have greatly predominated during this period. As the technology spread, iron came to replace bronze as the dominant metal used for tools and weapons across the Eastern Mediterranean (the

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saw a significant increase in iron production, with iron metallurgy also becoming common in southern Scandinavia. North of Sweden saw steel manufacturing dating back to around 0 AD through the eastern-western migration of hunter-gatherers in the

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and modern society as we know it. Mild steel ultimately replaced wrought iron for almost all purposes, and wrought iron is no longer commercially produced. With minor exceptions, alloy steels only began to be made in the late 19th century.

2012:'s puddling process, patented in 1784, but probably only made to work with grey pig iron in about 1790. These processes permitted the great expansion in the production of iron that constitutes the Industrial Revolution for the iron industry. 1254:

province, each capable of producing several tons of iron per day. By this time, Chinese metallurgists had discovered how to fine molten pig iron, stirring it in the open air until it lost its carbon and could be hammered (wrought). In modern

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knife or sickle from Ganovce in Slovakia, possibly dating from the 18th century BC, an iron ring from Vorwohlde in Germany dating from circa the 15th century BC, and an iron chisel from Heegermühle in Germany dating from circa 1000 BC.

2072:, English steel continued to be made by the cementation process, sometimes followed by remelting to produce crucible steel. These were batch-based processes whose raw material was bar iron, particularly Swedish oregrounds iron. 1213:

to steel or wrought iron by heating it in air for several days. In China, these iron working methods spread northward, and by 300 BC, iron was the material of choice throughout China for most tools and weapons. A mass grave in

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of Nanyang. Although Du Shi was the first to apply water power to bellows in metallurgy, the first drawn and printed illustration of its operation with water power appeared in 1313 AD, in the Yuan dynasty era text called the

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Historians debate whether bloomery-based ironworking ever spread to China from the Middle East. One theory suggests that metallurgy was introduced through Central Asia. In 2008, two iron fragments were excavated at the

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Through a good portion of the Middle Ages, in Western Europe, iron was still being made by the working of iron blooms into wrought iron. Some of the earliest casting of iron in Europe occurred in Sweden, in two sites,

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from 1619, where Sir Basil Brooke had two cementation furnaces (recently excavated in 2001–2005). For a time in the 1610s, he owned a patent on the process, but had to surrender this in 1619. He probably used

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in China and India caused a massive increase in the demand for steel. Between 2000 and 2005, world steel demand increased by 6%. Since 2000, several Indian and Chinese steel firms have risen to prominence, such as

1274:, the first Han emperor, was made in this fashion. Some texts of the era mention "harmonizing the hard and the soft" in the context of ironworking; the phrase may refer to this process. The ancient city of Wan ( 1359:

from at least the 9th century BC. In the 11th century BC iron swords replaced bronze swords in Southern Europe, especially in Greece, and in the 10th century BC iron became the prevailing metal in use. In the

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Iron meteorites consist overwhelmingly of nickel-iron alloys. The metal taken from these meteorites is known as meteoric iron and was one of the earliest sources of usable iron available to humans.

668:) and cast into molds, smelted iron requires hot-working and can be melted only in specially designed furnaces. Iron is a common impurity in copper ores and iron ore was sometimes used as a 1469:

there are also signs of independent copper smelting between 2500 and 1500 BC. The process was not in a developed state, indicating smelting was not foreign. It became mature about 1500 BC.

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Bessemer converter in the U.S. was retired in 1968. Furthermore, the last three decades have seen a massive increase in the mini-mill business, where scrap steel only is melted with an

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to come from a shift in the main production route using cokes, more recycling of steel and the application of carbon capture and storage or carbon capture and utilization technology.

1526:. The technologically superior Bantu-speakers spread across southern Africa and became wealthy and powerful, producing iron for tools and weapons in large, industrial quantities. 1672:

There was no fundamental change in the technology of iron production in Europe for many centuries. European metal workers continued to produce iron in bloomeries. However, the

1030:. In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon. Iron chain was used in Indian 168:

which involved blowing air through molten pig-iron to burn off carbon, and so producing mild steel. This and other 19th-century and later steel-making processes have displaced

1522:-speaking farming communities who adopted it, driving out and absorbing the rock tool using hunter-gatherer societies they encountered as they expanded to farm wider areas of 6853: 3509: 1752: 1511:

as early as 2,300 to 2,000 years ago (about 300 BC or soon after) by a complex process of "pre-heating" allowing temperatures inside a furnace to reach 1300 to 1400 °C.

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expansion. Celtic smiths produced steel from circa 800 BC as part of the production of swords, and evidence for the production of high-carbon steel is found in Britain at

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most of it. Smiths in the Middle East discovered that wrought iron could be turned into a much harder product by heating the finished piece in a bed of charcoal, and then

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These early uses appear to have been largely ceremonial or decorative. Meteoric iron is very rare, and the metal was probably very expensive, perhaps more expensive than

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Kochmann, W.; Reibold M.; Goldberg R.; Hauffe W.; Levin A. A.; Meyer D. C.; Stephan T.; Müller H.; Belger A.; Paufler P. (2004). "Nanowires in ancient Damascus steel".

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shortage of bronze or tin in the Early Iron Age. Bronze objects remained abundant, and these objects have the same percentage of tin as those from the Late Bronze Age.

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In the early 19th century, Hall discovered that the addition of iron oxide to the charge of the puddling furnace caused a violent reaction, in which the pig iron was

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from the ore to metallic iron. The bloomery, however, was not hot enough to melt the iron, so the metal collected in the bottom of the furnace as a spongy mass, or

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period brought two developments—the use of water power in the bloomery process in various places (outlined above), and the first European production in cast iron.

2140: 2114:. These mills only produced bar products at first, but have since expanded into flat and heavy products, once the exclusive domain of the integrated steelworks. 897:. It was believed that they maintained a monopoly on iron working, and that their empire had been based on that advantage. According to that theory, the ancient 1935:

around 1619, and with a mixed fuel made from coal and wood again in the 1670s. However this was probably only a technological rather than a commercial success.

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Though there is some uncertainty, some archaeologists believe that iron metallurgy was developed independently in sub-Saharan Africa (possibly in West Africa).

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Lucas, Adam Robert (2005). "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe".

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Hartwell, Robert (1966). "Markets, Technology and the Structure of Enterprise in the Development of the Eleventh Century Chinese Iron and Steel Industry".

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Schmidt, Peter (2019). "Science in Africa: A history of ingenuity and invention in African iron technology". In Worger, W; Ambler, C; Achebe, N (eds.).

1289:) in working the bellows of the blast furnace. This was recorded in the year 31 AD, as an innovation by the Chinese mechanical engineer and politician 7380: 2169:

The steel industry is often considered an indicator of economic progress, because of the critical role played by steel in infrastructural and overall

1660:. Peter Paufler, a member of the Dresden team, says that these nanostructures give Damascus steel its distinctive properties and are a result of the 1541:

where there are known to have been ancient bloomeries that produced metal tools for the Nubians and Kushites and produced surplus for their economy.

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have yielded iron implements dated between 1800 and 1200 BC. By the early 13th century BC, iron smelting was practiced on a large scale in India. In

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so. His products were all of cast iron, though his immediate successors attempted (with little commercial success) to fine this to bar iron.

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in Shropshire, and this was followed by others. These supplied coke pig iron to finery forges of the traditional kind for the production of

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iron as his raw material, but it was soon found that oregrounds iron was more suitable. The quality of the steel could be improved by

6839: 4851: 4785: 4106: 4079: 3527: 3169: 2908: 2796: 639: 308: 229:) of that material, which are preserved when the metal is worked cold or at low temperature. Those artifacts include, for example, a 704:, who had learned from the Assyrians the use of iron and were expelled from Egypt, became major manufacturers and exporters of iron. 664:

smelting. While these metals and their alloys can be cold-worked or melted in relatively simple furnaces (such as the kilns used for

6110: 5016: 3857: 3655: 3262: 3207: 3107: 2941: 2917: 2694: 2401: 2259: 991:, door fittings, etc., dated from 600 to 200 BC, have been discovered at several archaeological sites of India. The Greek historian 2332:

Photos, E. (1989). "The Question of Meteoritic versus Smelted Nickel-Rich Iron: Archaeological Evidence and Experimental Results".

1634: 3632: 2743:, Chapter 5 in a series of essays on Geology, History, and People prepares for a course of the University of California at Davis. 2209:

stated China was the top steel producer with about one-third of the world share; Japan, Russia, and the US followed respectively.

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It was only after this that economically viable means of converting pig iron to bar iron began to be devised. A process known as

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industry, on Sweden (from the mid-17th century) and then from about 1725 also on Russia. Smelting with coal (or its derivative

1628:. This process was adopted in the Middle East using locally produced steels. The exact process remains unknown, but it allowed 1198:

achieved a temperature of 1130 °C. At this temperature, iron combines with 4.3% carbon and melts. The liquid iron can be

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The iron objects unearthed from tombs of the Siwa culture in Mogou, Gansu, and the origin of iron-making technology in China.

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Hansen, Svend (2019). "The Hillfort of Teleac and Early Iron in Southern Europe". In Hansen, Svend; Krause, Rüdiger (eds.).

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Hansen, Svend (2019). "The Hillfort of Teleac and Early Iron in Southern Europe". In Hansen, Svend; Krause, Rüdiger (eds.).

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Hansen, Svend (2019). "The Hillfort of Teleac and Early Iron in Southern Europe". In Hansen, Svend; Krause, Rüdiger (eds.).

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Hansen, Svend (2019). "The Hillfort of Teleac and Early Iron in Southern Europe". In Hansen, Svend; Krause, Rüdiger (eds.).

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iron technology was practiced in the Nordic region from at least the ninth century BC (Hjärthner-Holdar 1993; Serning 1984)

1064:, thirty pounds of steel. Wootz steel was originally a complex alloy with iron as its main component together with various 157:, ushering in a new era of greatly increased use of iron and steel that some contemporaries described as a new "Iron Age". 6342: 5872: 5132: 2455:

Miller, Duncan E.; van der Merwe, N.J. (1994). "Early Metal Working in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review of Recent Research".

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Typical bloomery iron production operational sequence starting with acquiring raw materials through smelting and smithing

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The history of ferrous metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent began in the 2nd millennium BC. Archaeological sites in the

787:, the mummy's head-stand and sixteen models of an artisan's tools. An Ancient Egyptian sword bearing the name of pharaoh 7349: 7329: 7121: 6337: 5877: 5350: 4555: 2148: 2119: 1943:

in the 1690s, but only to make cannonballs and other cast iron products such as shells. However, in the peace after the

1558: 1187:, suggesting an independent Chinese origin. One of the fragments was made of bloomery iron rather than meteoritic iron. 451: 2090:

In the 1860s development of regenerative furnaces and higher temperature refractory lining allowed to melt steel in an

1822:, and then to England, where it became the main method of making wrought iron by 1600. It was introduced to Sweden by 1690:

Sometime in the medieval period, water power was applied to the bloomery process. It is possible that this was at the

865:, the process of adding carbon to wrought iron. While the iron bloom contained some carbon, the subsequent hot-working 7282: 5303: 2393: 2284: 2173:. In 1980, there were more than 500,000 U.S. steelworkers. By 2000, the number of steelworkers had fallen to 224,000. 2152: 1247: 700:

Iron Age began in India about 1200 BC, in Central Europe about 800 BC, and in China about 300 BC. Around 500 BC, the

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The earliest iron artifacts made from bloomeries in China date to end of the 9th century BC. Cast iron was used in

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Perhaps as early as 500 BC, although certainly by 200 AD, high-quality steel was produced in southern India by the

4686: 944:) iron was in use 12th to 11th centuries BC. The technology of iron metallurgy advanced in the politically stable 7354: 7206: 6317: 6226: 2960: 2206: 1489: 1417: 603: 578: 672:, thus it is not surprising that humans mastered the technology of smelted iron only after several millennia of 7297: 7095: 6600: 5692: 5237: 3212: 2106: 1888: 4345: 1222: 712: 226: 4900:

Everything Old is New Again? Rethinking the transition to Cast Iron Production in the Plains of Central China

4687:"Carbon capture and utilization in the steel industry: challenges and opportunities for chemical engineering" 3981:

Schmidt, Peter; Avery, Donald (1983). "More Evidence for an Advanced Prehistoric Iron Technology in Africa".

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Everything Old is New Again? Rethinking the Transition to Cast Iron Production in the Central Plains of China

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The problem of mass-producing cheap steel was solved in 1855 by Henry Bessemer, with the introduction of the

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empires from the 11th century, thus suggesting a diffusion of Chinese metal technology to the Islamic world.

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Stuiver, Minze; van der Merwe, N.J. (1968). "Radiocarbon Chronology of the Iron Age in Sub-Saharan Africa".

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to replace charcoal, and with this switch in resources many acres of prime timberland in China were spared.

767:, dated from 2500 BC. About 1500 BC, increasing numbers of non-meteoritic, smelted iron objects appeared in 4685:

De Ras, Kevin; Van De Vijver, Ruben; Galvita, Vladimir V.; Marin, Guy B.; Van Geem, Kevin M. (2019-12-01).

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English steelmaking in the seventeenth century: the excavation of two cementation furnaces at Coalbrookdale

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Archaeological sites containing iron smelting furnaces and slag have also been excavated at sites in the

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Childs, S. Terry (1996). "Technological history and culture in western Tanzania". In Schmidt, P. (ed.).

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A more recent theory claims that the development of iron technology was driven by the disruption of the

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Holl, Augustin F. C. (6 November 2009). "Early West African Metallurgies: New Data and Old Orthodoxy".

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found a means of melting blister steel, made by the cementation process, in crucibles. The resulting

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district of England, powered bloomeries were in use into the beginning of the 18th century, and near

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From Bronze to Iron: The Transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in the Eastern Mediterranean

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and wrought iron, to ancient China, Africa, the Middle East, and Europe. Archaeological evidence of

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Schmidt, Peter; Avery, Donald (1978). "Complex Iron Smelting and Prehistoric Culture in Tanzania".

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Rao, Kp (2018). "Iron Age in South India: Telangana and Andhra Pradesh". In Uesugi, Akinori (ed.).

2161: 2019:, this became known as 'wet puddling'. It was also found possible to produce steel by stopping the 1860: 1850: 1646: 1053: 1045: 403: 296: 138: 3451: 3189:

Simulation of air flows through a Sri Lankan wind driven furnace, submitted to J. Arch. Sci, 2003.

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was devised in the 1760s and improved in the 1770s, and seems to have been widely adopted in the

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and Vinarhyttan, between 1150 and 1350. Some scholars have speculated the practice followed the

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The Tomb of Tut-Ankh-Amen: Discovered by the Late Earl of Carnarvon and Howard Carter, Volume 3

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Pounds, Norman J. G. (1957). "Historical Geography of the Iron and Steel Industry of France".

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Vikramaditya and has withstood 1,600 years of exposure to heavy rains with relatively little

7080: 7059: 6788: 6695: 6438: 6280: 6221: 5941: 5897: 5697: 5519: 5370: 5330: 5026: 4811: 4701: 4461: 4298: 4244: 4209: 4180: 4135: 3990: 3939: 3804: 3730: 3384: 3139: 3122: 3060: 3055: 2998: 2981: 2929: 2871: 2506: 2464: 2341: 2299: 2264: 2224:. At the end of 2008, the steel industry faced a sharp downturn that led to many cut-backs. 2217: 2076: 1973: 1707: 1462: 1378: 1344: 1256: 1191: 1069: 749: 475: 165: 2706:

White, W. C.: "Bronze Culture of Ancient China", p. 208. University of Toronto Press, 1956.

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iron industry's demands for charcoal. By this time however, the Chinese had learned to use

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rocks. Besides meteoritic iron, Thule people of Greenland have used native iron from the

98:. During the medieval period, smiths in Europe found a way of producing wrought iron from 1206:, a method far less laborious than individually forging each piece of iron from a bloom. 1068:. Recent studies have suggested that its qualities may have been due to the formation of 1022:

inlaid with gold; hilt: jade; scabbard: steel with engraved, chased and gilded decoration

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International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms: Proceedings HMM Symposium

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thus continued normally to be made with charcoal pig iron until the mid-1750s. In 1755

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with an iron blade and gold-decorated bronze shaft were both found in the excavation of

7191: 7173: 7049: 7045: 6991: 6778: 6705: 6527: 6492: 6423: 6312: 6184: 5892: 5477: 5467: 5269: 2903: 2249: 2190: 1944: 1904: 1884: 1856: 1730: 1621: 1605: 1441: 1394: 1275: 1248:

repealed during the latter half of the dynasty and returned to private entrepreneurship

1194:

for warfare, agriculture and architecture. Around 500 BC, metalworkers in the southern

1077: 1027: 1019: 937: 214: 161: 4774:

Eggert, Manfred (2014). "Early iron in West and Central Africa". In Breunig, P (ed.).

201: 7374: 7135: 6924: 6664: 6649: 6595: 6470: 6458: 6374: 6297: 6125: 6086: 6074: 6062: 5774: 5685: 5614: 5355: 5298: 5276: 5185: 5117: 5112: 5090: 4823: 4721: 4473: 4413: 4169:"Ahmad Y. Al-Hassan and Donald R. Hill, 'Islamic technology: an illustrated history'" 3816: 3760: 3495: 3396: 3151: 3074: 3010: 2842: 2635: 2518: 2476: 2415: 2374:

Riederer, Josef; Wartke, Ralf-B.: "Iron", Cancik, Hubert; Schneider, Helmuth (eds.):

2198: 2194: 2177: 2069: 1879: 1864: 1742: 1590: 1176: 1166: 1161: 1105: 1099:. The furnaces were dug into the crests of hills, and the wind was diverted into the 1065: 996: 968: 945: 862: 537: 336: 312: 300: 238: 181: 4256: 4229: 3967: 3622:

Gjordes stål i norr samtidigt som i romarriket – nu väntas historien skrivas om: SVT

3547:"Heads and Tails – Minds and Bodies: Reconsidering the Late Bronze Age Vestby Hoard" 3274:

Chen, Jianli, Mao, Ruilin, Wang, Hui, Chen, Honghai, Xie, Yan, Qian, Yaopeng, 2012.

3120:

Juleff, G. (1996). "An ancient wind powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka".

2883: 2846: 7249: 7244: 6971: 6967: 6583: 6539: 6520: 6475: 6347: 6275: 6199: 6021: 5956: 5951: 5907: 5534: 5416: 5380: 5360: 5212: 5190: 5102: 4320: 3257:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. 2979:

G. Juleff (1996). "An ancient wind powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka".

2361: 1981: 1969: 1936: 1867: 1834: 1807: 1803: 1790: 1582: 1574: 1566: 1500: 1401: 1306: 1235: 1184: 1160:

to make wrought iron from pig iron. The righthand illustration shows men working a

1153: 1122: 1085: 1008: 1004: 878: 855: 784: 759:

One of the earliest smelted iron artifacts, a dagger with an iron blade found in a

733: 685: 545: 349: 341: 304: 280: 169: 107: 91: 6632: 4600: 4277:

Reibold, M.; Levin A. A.; Kochmann W.; Pätzke N.; Meyer D. C. (16 November 2006).

4228:

Levin, A. A.; Meyer D. C.; Reibold M.; Kochmann W.; Pätzke N.; Paufler P. (2005).

4213: 4140: 4123: 3943: 3287:

p. xl, Historical Dictionary of Ancient Greek Warfare, J, Woronoff & I. Spence

2345: 2060: 1706:, the first clear documentary evidence for this is the accounts of a forge of the 4775: 4452:

King, P. W. (2001). "Sir Clement Clerke and the adoption of coal in metallurgy".

3633:

Tre frågor om: Så avancerad var ståltillverkningen i norr för 2 000 år sedan; SVT

3488:

From bronze to iron : The occurrence of iron in the British later Bronze Age

7292: 7196: 7053: 7019: 6622: 6612: 6568: 6563: 6515: 6453: 6389: 6290: 6135: 6057: 5978: 5966: 5759: 5727: 5712: 5702: 5673: 5631: 5546: 5514: 5462: 5395: 5232: 5107: 4705: 2254: 2186: 2128: 2102:

was developed, and later basic lining was adopted for the open hearths as well.

2091: 2055: 1928: 1625: 1609: 1578: 1530: 1508: 1493: 1481: 1445: 1437: 1436:

originated in numerous centers of Africa; the centers of origin were located in

1390: 1311: 1264: 1243: 1195: 1073: 1037: 898: 780: 768: 737: 717: 150: 134: 122: 41: 3994: 3752: 3735: 3718: 1992: 1759:

The preferred method of iron production in Europe until the development of the

1088:

carried the technology from South India to Europe, where it was mass-produced.

7181: 7024: 6934: 6766: 6659: 6617: 6433: 6396: 6359: 5842: 5754: 5619: 5581: 5482: 5455: 5375: 5288: 5205: 5173: 5127: 5038: 5006: 4866: 4185: 4168: 3808: 3388: 2875: 2468: 2304: 2182: 2009: 1940: 1932: 1769: 1691: 1570: 1286: 1209:

Cast iron is rather brittle and unsuitable for striking implements. It can be

1049: 894: 843: 803: 792: 681: 522: 380: 64: 52: 4713: 4559: 4221: 4124:"Iron Smelting in Sudan: Experimental Archaeology at The Royal City of Meroe" 3744: 2580: 1514:

Iron and copper working spread southward through the continent, reaching the

1381:. The spread of ironworking in Central and Western Europe is associated with 1246:(202 BC–220 AD), the government established ironworking as a state monopoly, 948:

period and during a period of peaceful settlements in the 1st millennium BC.

873:

it in water or oil. This procedure turned the outer layers of the piece into

94:(worked iron) was known by the 1st millennium BC, and its spread defined the 7302: 7216: 6987: 6939: 6896: 6831: 6674: 6573: 6465: 6443: 6428: 6243: 6026: 6011: 5936: 5919: 5837: 5722: 5653: 5648: 5571: 5450: 5338: 5264: 5031: 5021: 2080: 2038: 2032: 1726: 1653: 1650: 1586: 1386: 1282: 1138: 1100: 1092: 1041: 1000: 992: 921: 866: 788: 653: 284: 130: 99: 86:

began, but by the end of the 2nd millennium BC iron was being produced from

72: 17: 4815: 4312: 4248: 3959: 2596: 221:. That source can often be identified with certainty because of the unique 4846:(2nd ed.). London: Maney Publishing, for the Institute of Materials. 4023:

Avery, Donald; Schmidt, Peter (1996). "Preheating: Practice or illusion".

3065: 1183:. They have been dated to the 14th century BC, belonging to the period of 1007:

had high regard for the excellence of steel from India in the time of the

30: 7186: 6928: 6914: 6906: 6448: 6384: 6189: 5929: 5924: 5832: 5707: 5529: 5492: 5472: 4964: 4893:

Mastering Iron: The Struggle to Modernize an American Industry, 1800–1868

4465: 2244: 1977: 1838: 1819: 1799: 1719: 1685: 1673: 1613: 1504: 1496:

of central Nigeria by about 550 BC and possibly a few centuries earlier.

1271: 976: 890: 835: 827: 764: 760: 692: 570: 372: 253: 146: 126: 111: 103: 95: 87: 79: 37: 34: 4520:

G. R. Morton and N. Mutton, 'The transition to Cort's puddling process'

4422:. Vol. 14 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 803. 3694:

The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World

3644:

Wells, Peter (1995). "Resources and Industry". In Green, Miranda (ed.).

2285:"5,000 years old Egyptian iron beads made from hammered meteoritic iron" 1747: 999:

account of the use of iron in India. The Indian mythological texts, the

861:

Concurrent with the transition from bronze to iron was the discovery of

344:

iron in the metallic state occurs rarely as small inclusions in certain

6510: 6416: 6302: 6260: 6236: 6016: 5822: 5732: 5586: 5487: 5445: 5308: 5227: 5180: 5168: 4921: 3951: 1715: 1711: 1703: 1661: 1638: 1629: 1594: 1523: 1477: 1343:

The earliest smelted iron object from Europe is a knife blade from the

1294: 1199: 831: 783:, who died in 1323 BC, including an iron dagger with a golden hilt, an 771:, Anatolia and Egypt. Nineteen meteoric iron objects were found in the 721: 665: 288: 265: 222: 2353: 1725:

The Catalan Forge was a variety of powered bloomery. Bloomeries with

1714:

in 1408, but that was certainly not the first such ironworks. In the

6578: 6255: 6115: 6093: 5946: 5882: 5827: 5217: 5195: 5163: 5137: 4407: 4122:

Humphris J, Charlton MF, Keen J, Sauder L, Alshishani F (June 2018).

3143: 3002: 2233: 1777: 1773: 1699: 1604:

One of the most famous steels produced in the medieval Near East was

1598: 1537:

that date back between the 7th and 6th centuries BC, particularly in

1473: 1305:

In the 11th century, there is evidence of the production of steel in

1290: 1226:

An illustration of furnace bellows operated by waterwheels, from the

1061: 984: 960: 941: 905: 889:

The development of iron smelting was traditionally attributed to the

870: 850:. Workers then repeatedly beat and folded it to force out the molten 816: 812: 808: 796: 753: 729: 725: 696: 673: 661: 345: 324: 276: 261: 257: 4582:

Congressional Record V. 148, Pt. 4, April 11, 2002 to April 24, 2002

4303: 4278: 3606: 3589: 3572: 3470: 1698:

as early as 1135, but it was certainly in use in early 13th century

1633:

whole remain tough and flexible. A team of researchers based at the

744:

in grey, iron in reddish brown, gold in yellow, silver in white and

4010:

Historical Archaeology: A Structural Approach in an African Culture

3871: 3717:

Bandama, Foreman; Babalola, Abidemi Babatunde (13 September 2023).

3546: 2816:

Muhly, James D. 'Metalworking/Mining in the Levant' pp. 174–183 in

2510: 1907:, usually cast in ingots, was more homogeneous than blister steel. 6866: 6644: 6364: 6248: 6098: 6052: 5914: 5769: 5717: 5663: 5293: 5259: 4338:"Legendary Swords' Sharpness, Strength From Nanotubes, Study Says" 2588: 2239: 2160: 2059: 2037:

The efficiency of the blast furnace was improved by the change to

1991: 1746: 1642: 1617: 1543: 1538: 1534: 1485: 1466: 1455: 1421: 1405: 1382: 1251: 1215: 1180: 1148: 1126: 1112: 1013: 988: 972: 964: 956: 920: 874: 820: 776: 711: 701: 242: 218: 200: 185: 154: 68: 60: 29: 1281:

During the Han dynasty, the Chinese were also the first to apply

1003:, have mentions of weaving, pottery and metallurgy, as well. The 6862: 6590: 6551: 6231: 6031: 5887: 5817: 5737: 5609: 5122: 3719:"Science, Not Black Magic: Metal and Glass Production in Africa" 1130: 1084:

who spread it through the Middle East. In the 16th century, the

1081: 1057: 851: 772: 745: 320: 249: 234: 230: 133:

appears in 5th-century BC China. New methods of producing it by

115: 56: 6835: 6158: 5797: 5063: 4968: 4433:

King, P. W. (2002). "Dud Dudley's contribution to metallurgy".

3510:"Life and Belief in the Bronze Age: Belt Disc from Heegermühle" 2083:, England. (An early converter can still be seen at the city's 6194: 5902: 5668: 5626: 1620:, in the period from 900 to 1750. This was produced using the 1333: 1157: 1048:

for its durability and ability to hold an edge. When asked by

980: 909: 834:

were used to force air through a pile of iron ore and burning

741: 657: 316: 292: 153:

for charcoal emerged, and these were later applied to produce

83: 4027:. Gainesville: University of Florida Press. pp. 267–276. 1518:

around AD 200. The widespread use of iron revolutionized the

4509:

Technological change and the British iron industry 1700–1870

1117:

One of the world's foremost metallurgical curiosities is an

695:

is conventionally defined by the widespread replacement of

121:

By the 4th century BC southern India had started exporting

1018:

Dagger and its scabbard, India, 17th–18th century. Blade:

4279:"Materials:Carbon nanotubes in an ancient Damascus sabre" 3872:"Iron and its influence on the prehistoric site of Lejja" 3852:. Charlottesville: University of Virginia, pp. 136, 137 3577:. Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH, Bonn. pp. 204–206. 2791:. Oxford, England: Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 2–5. 1806:, which seems to have been devised in the region around 319:. Another example of a late use of meteoric iron is an 4539:

Economic History of the British Iron and Steel Industry

3688:

Craddock, Paul T. (2008): "Mining and Metallurgy", in:

2008:

from about 1785. However, this was largely replaced by

1810:

in the 15th century. By the end of that century, this

1585:

in the east. There are also 10th-century references to

688:

artifacts remained a rarity until the 12th century BC.

4740:"Steel Industry, in Slump, Looks to Federal Stimulus" 4055:

The Culture and Technology of African Iron Production

4025:

The Culture and Technology of African Iron Production

3672:"East Lothian's Broxmouth fort reveals edge of steel" 2165:

Steel production (in million tons) by country in 2007

1649:

to examine Damascus steel discovered the presence of

1565:. By the 11th century, every province throughout the 4768:

East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History

4526:

Henry Cort: The great finer: creator of puddled iron

4524:

205(7) (1967), 722–728; R. A. Mott (ed. P. Singer),

1939:

may have smelted iron with coke at Coalbrookdale in

1488:(Eze-Uzomaka 2009) and to 750 BC and at the site of 7320: 7235: 7167: 7144: 7134: 7104: 7073: 7033: 7018: 6960: 6905: 6892: 6688: 6501: 6328: 6175: 6040: 6004: 5853: 5810: 5600: 5431: 5404: 5329: 5246: 5151: 5076: 4907:

Iron in Archaeology. The European Bloomery Smelters

4836:

Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 3

4832:

Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 2

3611:. Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH, Bonn. p. 211. 3594:. Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH, Bonn. p. 214. 3475:. Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH, Bonn. p. 204. 1984:. The reason for the delay remains controversial. 1976:(with partners) opened a new coke-using furnace at 1826:in the early 17th century and was used to make the 1393:was famous for its quality and sought-after by the 598: 275:Meteoric iron was also fashioned into tools in the 4865:. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology, vol. LIV. 4543:Technological Change and the British iron industry 3230:"List of Publications on Indian Archaeometallurgy" 1529:The earliest records of bloomery-type furnaces in 1434:scientific knowledge and technological development 854:. This laborious, time-consuming process produced 652:Iron smelting—the extraction of usable metal from 307:shipped the largest piece of the meteorite to the 4914:Annals of the Association of American Geographers 4042:. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell. pp. 267–288. 4777:Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context 4657:"Long-term planning needed to meet steel demand" 1557:Iron technology was further advanced by several 1250:, and built a series of large blast furnaces in 1104:traded extensively within the region and in the 264:, at a rate of 40 times the iron's weight, with 4601:"India's steel industry steps onto world stage" 4057:. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press. 3301:. Chinese University of Hong Kong. p. 519. 2719:. New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 37. 1044:from around 300 BC. Wootz steel is famous from 90:in the region from Greece to India, The use of 3528:"Der Depotfund von Heegermühle bei Eberswalde" 2420:. Research Group for South Asian Archaeology. 1569:had these industrial mills in operation, from 1533:are discoveries of smelted iron and carbon in 67:iron artifacts, from the 4th millennium BC in 6847: 4980: 3329:Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 3, p. 563 g 2773: 2771: 2681: 2679: 2677: 2667: 2665: 633: 141:were devised in the 17th century. During the 8: 4230:"Microstructure of a genuine Damascus sabre" 4098:The Nubian Past: An Archaeology of the Sudan 4068:Collins, Robert O.; Burns, James M. (2007). 3255:The Archaeometallurgy of the Asian Old World 2621: 2619: 2145:History of the steel industry (1970–present) 1837:. This became the main method of producing 3895: 3893: 3790: 3788: 3786: 3772: 3770: 3426:. Princeton University Press. p. 336. 3408: 3406: 2609: 2607: 2605: 1389:after circa 490 BC. By the 1st century BC, 1113:Steel § Wootz steel and Damascus steel 881:, with an inner core of less brittle iron. 7141: 7030: 6902: 6854: 6840: 6832: 6172: 6155: 5807: 5794: 5252: 5073: 5060: 4987: 4973: 4965: 4528:(1983); P. W. King, 'Iron Trade', 185–193. 3712: 3710: 3278:Wenwu (Cult. Relics) 8, 45–53 (in Chinese) 1917:Industrial Revolution § Iron industry 1855:In the early 17th century, ironworkers in 1426:Examples of African bloomery furnace types 1129:. The pillar is made of wrought iron (98% 640: 626: 359: 4936:Ancient Construction (Ancient Technology) 4934:Woods, Michael and Mary B. Woods (2000). 4630:. World Steel Association. Archived from 4398: 4396: 4332: 4330: 4302: 4184: 4139: 3734: 3490:(PhD). Edinburgh University. p. 24. 3213:"Review: Delhi Iron Pillar: New Insights" 3064: 2974: 2972: 2970: 2954: 2952: 2950: 2865: 2837: 2835: 2571:Williams, David (1867), "The Iron Age ", 2492: 2490: 2488: 2486: 2392:Early Antiquity By I.M. Drakonoff. 1991. 2327: 2325: 2323: 2321: 2319: 2317: 2315: 2303: 2141:History of the steel industry (1850–1970) 2131:and was not widely used until the 1920s. 2064:Schematic drawing of a Bessemer converter 1351:Iron metallurgy began to be practised in 295:and other edged tools from pieces of the 4895:(University of Chicago Press) 334 pages 4780:. Frankfurt: Africa Magna Verlag Press. 4587:United States Government Printing Office 4390:, Academia.edu, accessdate=30 March 2017 3044: 3042: 2820:ed. Suzanne Richard (2003), pp. 179–180. 2812: 2810: 2808: 2735: 2733: 2541: 2539: 2537: 2450: 2448: 2446: 2444: 1327: 1221: 193:, the sixth largest in the world, is an 4694:Current Opinion in Chemical Engineering 3878:. University of Nigeria,Nsukka, Nigeria 3365:Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 2, p. 371. 3356:Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 2, p. 370. 3347:Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 1, p. 282. 3320:Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 3, p. 277. 3311:Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 3, p. 197. 3166:"ANSYS Fluent Software: CFD Simulation" 2275: 1996:Schematic drawing of a puddling furnace 1891:, producing the so-called shear steel. 1589:, as well as archeological evidence of 885:Theories on the origin of iron smelting 371: 315:in 1897, it still weighed over 33 3830:Iron in Africa: Revisiting the History 3338:Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 3, p. 86. 2715:Collins, Rober O. and Burns, James M. 802:Although iron objects dating from the 4951:"Iron and Steel, Metallurgy of" 4358: 4154: 2388: 2386: 2384: 2023:before decarburisation was complete. 1095:from 300 BC by furnaces blown by the 858:, a malleable but fairly soft alloy. 842:produced by the charcoal reduced the 748:in black. The yellow area stands for 7: 4909:, Praha, Archeologický Ústav Av Cr. 1624:method, based on the earlier Indian 233:from the 5th millennium BC found in 78:. It is not known when or where the 4770:. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. 4522:Journal of Iron and Steel Institute 3545:Lund, Julie; Melheim, Lene (2011). 3202:. Aryan Books International, Delhi 3049:Sanderson, Katharine (2006-11-15). 1484:: dating to 2000 BC at the site of 728:in red (the important mines of the 684:in the 3rd millennium BC. However, 4902:, Chinese University of Hong Kong 3424:The Horse, the Wheel, and Language 2909:The New Cambridge History of India 1454:Inhabitants of Termit, in eastern 1270:According to legend, the sword of 309:American Museum of Natural History 237:and spear tips and ornaments from 25: 6111:Megalithic architectural elements 4599:Chopra, Anuj (12 February 2007). 3025:"Suspension bridge – engineering" 2717:The History of Sub-Saharan Africa 2292:Journal of Archaeological Science 2260:Non-ferrous extractive metallurgy 1947:, there was no demand for these. 1830:favoured by English steelmakers. 752:, while grey area stands for tin 656:iron ores—is more difficult than 213:, which comprise about 6% of all 27:Metallurgy of iron and its alloys 7381:4th-millennium BC establishments 7009: 4766:Ebrey, Walthall, Palais (2006). 4266:from the original on 2007-08-09. 4012:. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. 3100:The Cambridge History of Science 3035:from the original on 2007-10-16. 2893:from the original on 2016-03-05. 1951:Abraham Darby and his successors 1668:Medieval and early modern Europe 125:, with a carbon content between 6730:Evolutionary origin of religion 4929:Iron and Steel in Ancient China 4237:Crystal Research and Technology 4202:Journal of Alloys and Compounds 4071:A History of Sub-Saharan Africa 3608:Bronze Age Fortresses in Europe 3591:Bronze Age Fortresses in Europe 3574:Bronze Age Fortresses in Europe 3551:European Journal of Archaeology 3472:Bronze Age Fortresses in Europe 3236:from the original on 2007-03-12 3219:from the original on 2007-09-27 3200:Delhi Iron Pillar: New Insights 3172:from the original on 2009-02-21 3081:from the original on 2006-11-19 2645:Mesopotamia : Annäherungen 2548:Iron and Steel in Ancient China 1458:, smelted iron around 1500 BC. 1076:, the technology passed to the 826:Iron was originally smelted in 260:iron (meteoric or smelted) for 110:. All these processes required 4957:New International Encyclopedia 4074:. Cambridge University Press. 4040:A Companion to African History 3102:. Cambridge University Press. 2912:. Cambridge University Press. 2068:Apart from some production of 1400:The annual iron output of the 1336:made of iron, dating from the 356:Iron smelting and the Iron Age 268:in the first centuries of the 1: 6879:History of ferrous metallurgy 6343:Art of the Middle Paleolithic 5873:British megalith architecture 4891:Knowles, Anne Kelly. (2013). 4492:Industrial Archaeology Review 4214:10.1016/j.jallcom.2003.10.005 4167:R. L. Miller (October 1988). 4141:10.1080/00934690.2018.1479085 3944:10.1126/science.201.4361.1085 3723:African Archaeological Review 2346:10.1080/00438243.1989.9980081 1911:Transition to coke in England 1259:, this process is now called 1056:is said to have chosen, over 1034:as early as the 4th century. 740:, are missing from the map), 549: 526: 509:Southeast Asia (1000–200 BC) 323:from around 1000 AD found in 7122:Argon oxygen decarburization 6338:Art of the Upper Paleolithic 5878:Nordic megalith architecture 4663:. 2008-03-01. Archived from 4128:Journal of Field Archaeology 3983:Journal of Field Archaeology 2575:, New York: David Williams, 2149:Global steel industry trends 2127:was developed on the eve of 2120:Second Industrial Revolution 1833:A variation on this was the 1559:inventions in medieval Islam 1499:There is also evidence that 716:Mining areas of the ancient 7283:Differential heat treatment 4706:10.1016/j.coche.2019.09.001 4342:news.nationalgeographic.com 3912:Tylecote (1975) (see below) 3850:The Civilizations of Africa 3848:Ehret, Christopher (2002). 3797:Journal of World Prehistory 3696:, Oxford University Press, 3377:Journal of Economic History 3253:Pigott, Vincent C. (1999). 3198:R. Balasubramaniam (2002), 2936:. Oxford University Press. 2671:Waldbaum (1978). pp. 56–58. 2394:University of Chicago Press 2153:Steel production by country 1818:on the eastern boundary of 1072:in the metal. According to 145:, new methods of producing 102:, in this context known as 7407: 6486:British Isles and Brittany 6407:Gwion Gwion rock paintings 4861:Waldbaum, Jane C. (1978). 4834:; Needham, Joseph (1986). 4545:(Princeton 1977), 146–159. 4095:Edwards, David N. (2004). 3995:10.1179/009346983791504228 3736:10.1007/s10437-023-09545-6 3650:. Routledge. p. 218. 2648:. Saint-Paul. p. 84. 2457:Journal of African History 2138: 2053: 2030: 1954: 1914: 1848: 1788: 1740: 1683: 1415: 1319:Early Japanese Ironworking 1316: 1110: 1040:was produced in India and 334: 179: 7258: 7207:Ferritic nitrocarburizing 7007: 6874: 6171: 6154: 5806: 5793: 5255: 5072: 5059: 5002: 4625:"Top Steelmakers in 2017" 4488:A dynasty of Ironfounders 4379:Belford and Ross, Paper: 4186:10.1017/s0025727300048602 4111:– via Google Books. 4084:– via Google Books. 3809:10.1007/s10963-009-9030-6 3389:10.1017/S0022050700061842 2961:The Story of Civilization 2876:10.1017/s0003598x00092590 2685:Marco Ceccarelli (2000). 2546:Donald B. Wagner (1993). 2469:10.1017/s0021853700025949 2305:10.1016/j.jas.2013.06.002 2207:British Geological Survey 1795:An alternative method of 1755:" vol.VII, published 1894 1751:Ironmaking described in " 1733:in the mid-19th century. 1612:, and mostly produced in 1418:Iron metallurgy in Africa 604:Archaeometallurgical slag 63:. The earliest surviving 7298:Post weld heat treatment 4898:Lam, Wengcheong (2014). 4842:Tylecote, R. F. (1992). 4830:Needham, Joseph (1986). 4605:Cristian Science Monitor 4101:. Taylor & Francis. 3456:Encyclopaedia Britannica 2963:I: Our Oriental Heritage 2818:Near Eastern Archaeology 2236:, a type of refined iron 2100:Gilchrist–Thomas process 1753:The Popular Encyclopedia 1507:by the ancestors of the 893:of Anatolia of the Late 209:Iron was extracted from 6884:List of steel producers 6718:Evolutionary musicology 6121:Oldest extant buildings 6048:Archaeological features 5567:Prepared-core technique 4927:Wagner, Donald (1996). 4844:A History of Metallurgy 4541:, 181–189; C. K. Hyde, 4419:Encyclopædia Britannica 4370:Tylecote (1992). p. 76. 4008:Schmidt, Peter (1978). 3486:Turnbull, Anne (1984). 3422:Anthony, David (2007). 3297:Wengcheong Lam (2014). 2754:accessed on 2010-02-11. 2157:List of steel producers 1404:is estimated at 84,750 951:Iron artifacts such as 877:, an alloy of iron and 823:, Anatolia and Egypt). 166:new steelmaking process 7112:Electro-slag remelting 6680:Unchambered long cairn 6528:Mound Builders culture 5861:Neolithic architecture 4996:Prehistoric technology 4931:. Leiden: E.J. Brill. 4816:10.1353/tech.2005.0026 4804:Technology and Culture 4494:12(2) (1990), 127–144. 4409:"Iron and Steel" 4249:10.1002/crat.200410456 2625:Tylecote (1992). p. 3. 2550:. Brill. p. 408. 2417:Iron Age in South Asia 2240:History of steelmaking 2218:trading as a commodity 2203:largest steel producer 2197:. As of 2017, though, 2166: 2065: 2050:Industrial steelmaking 2043:James Beaumont Neilson 1997: 1756: 1553:Medieval Islamic world 1549: 1427: 1340: 1239: 1234:, 1313 AD, during the 1171: 1091:Steel was produced in 1023: 929: 756: 553: 400 BC – 100 AD 227:Widmanstätten patterns 206: 198: 45: 7386:History of metallurgy 7322:Production by country 6355:List of Stone Age art 5557:Microblade technology 5505:Langdale axe industry 5103:Ard / plough 4916:47#1, pp. 3–14. 4435:Historical Metallurgy 3870:Eze–Uzomaka, Pamela. 3066:10.1038/news061113-11 2787:Smil, Vaclav (2016). 2222:London Metal Exchange 2216:In 2008, steel began 2164: 2135:Modern steel industry 2079:at his steelworks in 2063: 1995: 1915:Further information: 1750: 1729:were used in upstate 1547: 1461:In the region of the 1425: 1331: 1225: 1152: 1017: 924: 715: 204: 195:iron-nickel meteorite 189: 143:Industrial Revolution 33: 7308:Superplastic forming 7227:Quench polish quench 7117:Vacuum arc remelting 7096:Basic oxygen process 7091:Electric arc furnace 6762:Prehistoric medicine 6757:Prehistoric counting 6740:Prehistoric religion 6735:Paleolithic religion 6713:Behavioral modernity 6070:Causewayed enclosure 5962:Abri de la Madeleine 5086:Neolithic Revolution 4905:Pleiner, R. (2000). 4466:10.1179/tns.2001.002 4157:, p. 10–11, 27. 2777:Waldbaum (1978): 23. 2499:Current Anthropology 2171:economic development 2112:electric arc furnace 2107:basic oxygen process 2085:Kelham Island Museum 2002:potting and stamping 1635:Technical University 1503:was made in Western 1476:region of southeast 1431:Archaeometallurgical 927:iron pillar of Delhi 530: 2000 – 100 BC 270:second millennium BC 215:meteorites that fall 191:Willamette Meteorite 137:bars of iron in the 7263:Cryogenic treatment 7086:Open hearth furnace 7074:Primary (Post-1850) 7065:Cementation process 6952:Direct reduced iron 6801:Prehistoric warfare 5547:Magdalenian culture 5510:Levallois technique 5441:Earliest toolmaking 4454:Trans. Newcomen Soc 4295:2006Natur.444..286R 3936:1978Sci...201.1085S 3930:(4361): 1085–1089. 3899:Eggert (2014). pp. 3776:Eggert (2014). pp. 3136:1996Natur.379...60J 3098:Roy Porter (2003). 2995:1996Natur.379...60J 2283:Rehren, T. (2013). 1988:New forge processes 1861:cementation process 1851:Cementation process 1845:Cementation process 1647:electron microscopy 1577:in the west to the 1170:encyclopedia, 1637) 1046:Classical Antiquity 917:Indian subcontinent 599:Iron Age metallurgy 404:Bronze Age collapse 297:Cape York meteorite 139:cementation process 7034:Primary (Pre-1850) 6752:Origin of language 6745:Spiritual drug use 6655:Rectangular dolmen 6557:Dartmoor kistvaens 6370:Carved stone balls 6082:Circular enclosure 6041:Other architecture 5984:Alp pile dwellings 5572:Solutrean industry 5483:Gravettian culture 5133:Secondary products 4744:The New York Times 4637:on August 23, 2018 4404:Howe, Henry Marion 4386:2018-05-10 at the 3835:2008-10-25 at the 3690:Oleson, John Peter 3678:. 15 January 2014. 3532:askanier-welten.de 2789:Still the Iron Age 2750:2010-03-14 at the 2167: 2077:Bessemer converter 2066: 1998: 1859:had developed the 1757: 1722:until about 1770. 1680:Powered bloomeries 1593:being used in the 1563:Islamic Golden Age 1550: 1428: 1412:Sub-Saharan Africa 1387:Broxmouth Hillfort 1341: 1240: 1172: 1052:to select a gift, 1032:suspension bridges 1028:crucible technique 1024: 930: 757: 581:(2600 BC – 500 AD) 517:(1000 BC – 200 AD) 454:(1100 BC – 150 AD) 256:are known to have 211:iron–nickel alloys 207: 199: 160:In the late 1850s 49:Ferrous metallurgy 46: 7368: 7367: 7316: 7315: 7130: 7129: 7005: 7004: 6996:Induction furnace 6829: 6828: 6825: 6824: 6821: 6820: 6774:Prehistoric music 6723:music archaeology 6380:Cup and ring mark 6205:Clothing/textiles 6150: 6149: 6146: 6145: 5789: 5788: 5785: 5784: 5592:Yubetsu technique 5577:Striking platform 5542:Lithic technology 5427: 5426: 5412:Game drive system 5331:Projectile points 5223:Mortar and pestle 3702:978-0-19-518731-1 3433:978-0-691-05887-0 2725:978-0-521-68708-9 2655:978-3-525-53452-6 2557:978-90-04-09632-5 2427:978-4-9909150-1-8 2376:Brill's New Pauly 2334:World Archaeology 2298:(12): 4785–4792. 1901:Benjamin Huntsman 1367:Hallstatt culture 1355:during the later 1080:and from them to 830:, furnaces where 708:Ancient Near East 674:bronze metallurgy 650: 649: 573:(500 BC – 300 AD) 540:(500 BC – 200 AD) 486:(500 BC – 800 AD) 478:(800 BC – 100 AD) 396:Ancient Near East 71:, were made from 16:(Redirected from 7398: 7142: 7081:Bessemer process 7031: 7013: 6903: 6856: 6849: 6842: 6833: 6789:Divje Babe flute 6696:Archaeoastronomy 6439:Petrosomatoglyph 6173: 6156: 6005:Water management 5808: 5795: 5698:Denticulate tool 5520:Lithic reduction 5253: 5074: 5061: 4989: 4982: 4975: 4966: 4961: 4953: 4938:Runestone Press 4880: 4857: 4827: 4798: 4796: 4794: 4754: 4753: 4751: 4750: 4736:Uchitelle, Louis 4732: 4726: 4725: 4691: 4682: 4676: 4675: 4673: 4672: 4653: 4647: 4646: 4644: 4642: 4636: 4629: 4621: 4615: 4614: 4612: 4611: 4596: 4590: 4577: 4571: 4570: 4568: 4567: 4558:. Archived from 4556:"Steel Industry" 4552: 4546: 4535: 4529: 4518: 4512: 4501: 4495: 4484: 4478: 4477: 4449: 4443: 4442: 4430: 4424: 4423: 4411: 4400: 4391: 4377: 4371: 4368: 4362: 4356: 4350: 4349: 4344:. Archived from 4334: 4325: 4324: 4306: 4274: 4268: 4267: 4265: 4234: 4225: 4208:(1–2): L15–L19. 4197: 4191: 4190: 4188: 4164: 4158: 4152: 4146: 4145: 4143: 4119: 4113: 4112: 4092: 4086: 4085: 4065: 4059: 4058: 4050: 4044: 4043: 4035: 4029: 4028: 4020: 4014: 4013: 4005: 3999: 3998: 3978: 3972: 3971: 3919: 3913: 3910: 3904: 3897: 3888: 3887: 3885: 3883: 3867: 3861: 3846: 3840: 3827: 3821: 3820: 3792: 3781: 3774: 3765: 3764: 3738: 3714: 3705: 3686: 3680: 3679: 3668: 3662: 3661: 3647:The Celtic World 3641: 3635: 3630: 3624: 3619: 3613: 3612: 3602: 3596: 3595: 3585: 3579: 3578: 3568: 3562: 3561: 3542: 3536: 3535: 3524: 3518: 3517: 3506: 3500: 3499: 3483: 3477: 3476: 3466: 3460: 3459: 3448: 3442: 3441: 3419: 3413: 3410: 3401: 3400: 3372: 3366: 3363: 3357: 3354: 3348: 3345: 3339: 3336: 3330: 3327: 3321: 3318: 3312: 3309: 3303: 3302: 3294: 3288: 3285: 3279: 3272: 3266: 3251: 3245: 3244: 3242: 3241: 3227: 3225: 3224: 3196: 3190: 3187: 3181: 3180: 3178: 3177: 3162: 3156: 3155: 3144:10.1038/379060a0 3117: 3111: 3096: 3090: 3089: 3087: 3086: 3068: 3046: 3037: 3036: 3021: 3015: 3014: 3003:10.1038/379060a0 2976: 2965: 2958:Will Durant (), 2956: 2945: 2930:Patrick Olivelle 2927: 2921: 2901: 2895: 2894: 2892: 2869: 2860:(297): 536–544. 2851: 2839: 2830: 2829:Muhly 2003: 180. 2827: 2821: 2814: 2803: 2802: 2784: 2778: 2775: 2766: 2761: 2755: 2737: 2728: 2713: 2707: 2704: 2698: 2683: 2672: 2669: 2660: 2659: 2632: 2626: 2623: 2614: 2613:Tylecote (1992). 2611: 2600: 2599: 2568: 2562: 2561: 2543: 2532: 2531:Waldbaum (1978). 2529: 2523: 2522: 2494: 2481: 2480: 2452: 2439: 2438: 2436: 2434: 2411: 2405: 2390: 2379: 2372: 2366: 2365: 2329: 2310: 2309: 2307: 2289: 2280: 2265:Roman metallurgy 2021:puddling process 1974:Abraham Darby II 1761:puddling process 1708:Bishop of Durham 1658:carbon nanotubes 1379:Cap of the North 1372:From 500 BC the 1362:Carpathian Basin 1345:Catacomb culture 1338:Swedish Iron Age 1070:carbon nanotubes 995:wrote the first 720:. Boxes colors: 642: 635: 628: 564: 556: 554: 551: 541: 533: 531: 528: 518: 495: 487: 479: 471: 463: 455: 447: 439: 422: 407: 360: 245:around 4000 BC. 149:by substituting 21: 7406: 7405: 7401: 7400: 7399: 7397: 7396: 7395: 7371: 7370: 7369: 7364: 7312: 7288:Decarburization 7254: 7231: 7172: 7163: 7126: 7100: 7069: 7041:Pattern welding 7022: 7014: 7001: 6956: 6945:Anthracite iron 6894: 6893:Iron production 6888: 6870: 6860: 6830: 6817: 6684: 6670:Stone box grave 6640:Megalithic tomb 6545:Cotswold-Severn 6497: 6402:Guardian stones 6330:Prehistoric art 6324: 6167: 6142: 6131:Timber trackway 6036: 6000: 5996:Wattle and daub 5849: 5828:Standing stones 5802: 5781: 5596: 5423: 5400: 5325: 5242: 5152:Food processing 5147: 5096:New World crops 5068: 5055: 4998: 4993: 4948: 4945: 4888: 4886:Further reading 4883: 4877: 4869:: Paul Åström. 4860: 4854: 4841: 4801: 4792: 4790: 4788: 4773: 4762: 4757: 4748: 4746: 4734: 4733: 4729: 4689: 4684: 4683: 4679: 4670: 4668: 4655: 4654: 4650: 4640: 4638: 4634: 4627: 4623: 4622: 4618: 4609: 4607: 4598: 4597: 4593: 4578: 4574: 4565: 4563: 4554: 4553: 4549: 4536: 4532: 4519: 4515: 4502: 4498: 4485: 4481: 4451: 4450: 4446: 4432: 4431: 4427: 4402: 4401: 4394: 4388:Wayback Machine 4378: 4374: 4369: 4365: 4357: 4353: 4336: 4335: 4328: 4304:10.1038/444286a 4276: 4275: 4271: 4263: 4232: 4227: 4226: 4199: 4198: 4194: 4173:Medical History 4166: 4165: 4161: 4153: 4149: 4121: 4120: 4116: 4109: 4094: 4093: 4089: 4082: 4067: 4066: 4062: 4052: 4051: 4047: 4037: 4036: 4032: 4022: 4021: 4017: 4007: 4006: 4002: 3980: 3979: 3975: 3921: 3920: 3916: 3911: 3907: 3898: 3891: 3881: 3879: 3869: 3868: 3864: 3847: 3843: 3839:– Unesco (2002) 3837:Wayback Machine 3828: 3824: 3794: 3793: 3784: 3775: 3768: 3716: 3715: 3708: 3687: 3683: 3670: 3669: 3665: 3658: 3643: 3642: 3638: 3631: 3627: 3620: 3616: 3604: 3603: 3599: 3587: 3586: 3582: 3570: 3569: 3565: 3544: 3543: 3539: 3526: 3525: 3521: 3508: 3507: 3503: 3485: 3484: 3480: 3468: 3467: 3463: 3450: 3449: 3445: 3434: 3421: 3420: 3416: 3411: 3404: 3374: 3373: 3369: 3364: 3360: 3355: 3351: 3346: 3342: 3337: 3333: 3328: 3324: 3319: 3315: 3310: 3306: 3296: 3295: 3291: 3286: 3282: 3273: 3269: 3252: 3248: 3239: 3237: 3228: 3222: 3220: 3211: 3197: 3193: 3188: 3184: 3175: 3173: 3164: 3163: 3159: 3119: 3118: 3114: 3097: 3093: 3084: 3082: 3048: 3047: 3040: 3023: 3022: 3018: 2978: 2977: 2968: 2957: 2948: 2928: 2924: 2902: 2898: 2890: 2867:10.1.1.403.4300 2849: 2841: 2840: 2833: 2828: 2824: 2815: 2806: 2799: 2786: 2785: 2781: 2776: 2769: 2762: 2758: 2752:Wayback Machine 2741:The Age of Iron 2739:Richard Cowen, 2738: 2731: 2714: 2710: 2705: 2701: 2684: 2675: 2670: 2663: 2656: 2634: 2633: 2629: 2624: 2617: 2612: 2603: 2570: 2569: 2565: 2558: 2545: 2544: 2535: 2530: 2526: 2496: 2495: 2484: 2454: 2453: 2442: 2432: 2430: 2428: 2413: 2412: 2408: 2391: 2382: 2373: 2369: 2331: 2330: 2313: 2287: 2282: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2230: 2205:. In 2005, the 2201:is the world's 2159: 2137: 2125:Stainless steel 2058: 2052: 2035: 2029: 1990: 1963:Abraham Darby I 1959: 1957:Abraham Darby I 1953: 1924: 1919: 1913: 1897: 1853: 1847: 1828:oregrounds iron 1814:spread to the 1812:Walloon process 1793: 1787: 1745: 1739: 1702:and Sweden. In 1688: 1682: 1670: 1555: 1480:in what is now 1420: 1414: 1374:La Tène culture 1326: 1324:Iron Age Europe 1321: 1312:bituminous coke 1147: 1135:Chandragupta II 1121:located in the 1115: 934:Gangetic plains 919: 887: 840:carbon monoxide 710: 646: 616:Ancient history 609: 608: 594: 586: 585: 563:(5 BC – 500 AD) 559: 552: 544: 536: 529: 521: 513: 494:(800 BC – 1 AD) 490: 484:Northern Europe 482: 474: 466: 458: 450: 442: 434: 410: 402: 390: 358: 339: 333: 303:polar explorer 184: 178: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7404: 7402: 7394: 7393: 7388: 7383: 7373: 7372: 7366: 7365: 7363: 7362: 7357: 7352: 7347: 7342: 7337: 7332: 7326: 7324: 7318: 7317: 7314: 7313: 7311: 7310: 7305: 7300: 7295: 7290: 7285: 7280: 7274: 7269: 7259: 7256: 7255: 7253: 7252: 7247: 7241: 7239: 7233: 7232: 7230: 7229: 7224: 7219: 7214: 7209: 7204: 7199: 7194: 7192:Carbonitriding 7189: 7184: 7178: 7176: 7174:Case-hardening 7165: 7164: 7162: 7161: 7156: 7150: 7148: 7139: 7136:Heat treatment 7132: 7131: 7128: 7127: 7125: 7124: 7119: 7114: 7108: 7106: 7102: 7101: 7099: 7098: 7093: 7088: 7083: 7077: 7075: 7071: 7070: 7068: 7067: 7062: 7060:Tatara furnace 7057: 7050:Damascus steel 7046:Crucible steel 7043: 7037: 7035: 7028: 7016: 7015: 7008: 7006: 7003: 7002: 7000: 6999: 6992:Cupola furnace 6985: 6964: 6962: 6958: 6957: 6955: 6954: 6949: 6948: 6947: 6942: 6937: 6922: 6911: 6909: 6900: 6890: 6889: 6887: 6886: 6881: 6875: 6872: 6871: 6861: 6859: 6858: 6851: 6844: 6836: 6827: 6826: 6823: 6822: 6819: 6818: 6816: 6815: 6814: 6813: 6803: 6798: 6797: 6796: 6791: 6786: 6781: 6779:Alligator drum 6771: 6770: 6769: 6759: 6754: 6749: 6748: 6747: 6742: 6737: 6727: 6726: 6725: 6715: 6710: 6709: 6708: 6706:lunar calendar 6703: 6692: 6690: 6689:Other cultural 6686: 6685: 6683: 6682: 6677: 6672: 6667: 6662: 6657: 6652: 6647: 6642: 6637: 6636: 6635: 6630: 6620: 6615: 6610: 6609: 6608: 6603: 6593: 6588: 6587: 6586: 6576: 6571: 6566: 6561: 6560: 6559: 6549: 6548: 6547: 6537: 6536: 6535: 6525: 6524: 6523: 6518: 6507: 6505: 6499: 6498: 6496: 6495: 6493:Venus figurine 6490: 6489: 6488: 6483: 6473: 6468: 6463: 6462: 6461: 6456: 6446: 6441: 6436: 6431: 6426: 6424:Megalithic art 6421: 6420: 6419: 6414: 6404: 6399: 6394: 6393: 6392: 6382: 6377: 6375:Cave paintings 6372: 6367: 6362: 6357: 6352: 6351: 6350: 6340: 6334: 6332: 6326: 6325: 6323: 6322: 6321: 6320: 6315: 6305: 6300: 6295: 6294: 6293: 6288: 6283: 6278: 6273: 6268: 6258: 6253: 6252: 6251: 6241: 6240: 6239: 6234: 6224: 6219: 6214: 6213: 6212: 6202: 6197: 6192: 6187: 6181: 6179: 6177:Material goods 6169: 6168: 6159: 6152: 6151: 6148: 6147: 6144: 6143: 6141: 6140: 6139: 6138: 6128: 6123: 6118: 6113: 6108: 6107: 6106: 6096: 6091: 6090: 6089: 6079: 6078: 6077: 6067: 6066: 6065: 6055: 6050: 6044: 6042: 6038: 6037: 6035: 6034: 6029: 6024: 6019: 6014: 6008: 6006: 6002: 6001: 5999: 5998: 5993: 5988: 5987: 5986: 5976: 5971: 5970: 5969: 5964: 5959: 5949: 5944: 5939: 5934: 5933: 5932: 5922: 5917: 5912: 5911: 5910: 5900: 5895: 5893:Cliff dwelling 5890: 5885: 5880: 5875: 5870: 5869: 5868: 5857: 5855: 5851: 5850: 5848: 5847: 5846: 5845: 5840: 5835: 5825: 5820: 5814: 5812: 5804: 5803: 5798: 5791: 5790: 5787: 5786: 5783: 5782: 5780: 5779: 5778: 5777: 5767: 5762: 5757: 5752: 5751: 5750: 5740: 5735: 5730: 5725: 5720: 5715: 5710: 5705: 5700: 5695: 5690: 5689: 5688: 5678: 5677: 5676: 5671: 5661: 5656: 5651: 5646: 5645: 5644: 5634: 5629: 5624: 5623: 5622: 5612: 5606: 5604: 5598: 5597: 5595: 5594: 5589: 5584: 5579: 5574: 5569: 5564: 5559: 5554: 5549: 5544: 5539: 5538: 5537: 5532: 5527: 5517: 5512: 5507: 5502: 5501: 5500: 5490: 5485: 5480: 5478:Fire hardening 5475: 5470: 5468:Clovis culture 5465: 5460: 5459: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5437: 5435: 5429: 5428: 5425: 5424: 5422: 5421: 5420: 5419: 5408: 5406: 5402: 5401: 5399: 5398: 5393: 5391:Manis Mastodon 5388: 5383: 5378: 5373: 5368: 5363: 5358: 5353: 5348: 5347: 5346: 5335: 5333: 5327: 5326: 5324: 5323: 5322: 5321: 5316: 5311: 5306: 5301: 5291: 5286: 5285: 5284: 5274: 5273: 5272: 5270:throwing stick 5262: 5256: 5250: 5244: 5243: 5241: 5240: 5235: 5230: 5225: 5220: 5215: 5210: 5209: 5208: 5203: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5178: 5177: 5176: 5166: 5161: 5155: 5153: 5149: 5148: 5146: 5145: 5140: 5135: 5130: 5125: 5120: 5115: 5110: 5105: 5100: 5099: 5098: 5093: 5082: 5080: 5070: 5069: 5064: 5057: 5056: 5054: 5053: 5048: 5047: 5046: 5036: 5035: 5034: 5029: 5024: 5019: 5014: 5003: 5000: 4999: 4994: 4992: 4991: 4984: 4977: 4969: 4963: 4962: 4944: 4943:External links 4941: 4940: 4939: 4932: 4925: 4910: 4903: 4896: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4881: 4875: 4858: 4853:978-0901462886 4852: 4839: 4828: 4799: 4787:978-3937248462 4786: 4771: 4763: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4755: 4738:(2009-01-01). 4727: 4677: 4648: 4616: 4591: 4572: 4547: 4530: 4513: 4507:; C. K. Hyde, 4503:A. Raistrick, 4496: 4486:A. Raistrick, 4479: 4444: 4425: 4414:Chisholm, Hugh 4392: 4372: 4363: 4351: 4348:on 2016-01-28. 4326: 4269: 4243:(9): 905–916. 4192: 4179:(4): 466–467. 4159: 4147: 4134:(5): 399–416. 4114: 4108:978-0203482766 4107: 4087: 4081:978-0521867467 4080: 4060: 4045: 4030: 4015: 4000: 3989:(4): 421–434. 3973: 3914: 3905: 3889: 3862: 3841: 3822: 3803:(4): 415–438. 3782: 3766: 3729:(3): 531–543. 3706: 3681: 3663: 3656: 3636: 3625: 3614: 3597: 3580: 3563: 3557:(3): 441–464. 3537: 3519: 3501: 3478: 3461: 3452:"The Iron Age" 3443: 3432: 3414: 3402: 3367: 3358: 3349: 3340: 3331: 3322: 3313: 3304: 3289: 3280: 3267: 3246: 3191: 3182: 3157: 3112: 3091: 3038: 3029:britannica.com 3016: 2966: 2946: 2922: 2906:et al. (2005). 2904:J. F. Richards 2896: 2843:Tewari, Rakesh 2831: 2822: 2804: 2798:978-0128042335 2797: 2779: 2767: 2756: 2745:Online version 2729: 2708: 2699: 2673: 2661: 2654: 2636:Veenhof, Klaas 2627: 2615: 2601: 2563: 2556: 2533: 2524: 2511:10.1086/200878 2482: 2440: 2426: 2406: 2380: 2367: 2340:(3): 403–421. 2311: 2274: 2272: 2269: 2268: 2267: 2262: 2257: 2252: 2250:List of alloys 2247: 2242: 2237: 2229: 2226: 2191:Baosteel Group 2185:(which bought 2136: 2133: 2054:Main article: 2051: 2048: 2041:, patented by 2031:Main article: 2028: 2025: 1989: 1986: 1955:Main article: 1952: 1949: 1945:Nine Years War 1923: 1920: 1912: 1909: 1905:crucible steel 1899:In the 1740s, 1896: 1895:Crucible steel 1893: 1885:Forest of Dean 1857:Western Europe 1849:Main article: 1846: 1843: 1789:Main article: 1786: 1783: 1741:Main article: 1738: 1735: 1684:Main article: 1681: 1678: 1669: 1666: 1622:crucible steel 1606:Damascus steel 1591:blast furnaces 1554: 1551: 1442:Central Africa 1416:Main article: 1413: 1410: 1395:Roman military 1325: 1322: 1285:power (i.e. a 1167:Tiangong Kaiwu 1146: 1143: 1066:trace elements 1020:Damascus steel 938:Southern India 918: 915: 886: 883: 750:arsenic bronze 709: 706: 648: 647: 645: 644: 637: 630: 622: 619: 618: 611: 610: 607: 606: 601: 595: 593:Related topics 592: 591: 588: 587: 584: 583: 575: 567: 566: 565: 557: 542: 534: 519: 506: 498: 497: 496: 492:Western Europe 488: 480: 472: 468:Central Europe 464: 462:(900 – 650 BC) 460:Eastern Europe 456: 448: 440: 425: 424: 423: 408: 406:(1200–1150 BC) 391: 388: 387: 384: 383: 376: 375: 369: 368: 357: 354: 335:Main article: 332: 329: 180:Main article: 177: 174: 162:Henry Bessemer 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7403: 7392: 7389: 7387: 7384: 7382: 7379: 7378: 7376: 7361: 7360:United States 7358: 7356: 7353: 7351: 7348: 7346: 7343: 7341: 7338: 7336: 7333: 7331: 7328: 7327: 7325: 7323: 7319: 7309: 7306: 7304: 7301: 7299: 7296: 7294: 7291: 7289: 7286: 7284: 7281: 7278: 7275: 7273: 7270: 7268: 7264: 7261: 7260: 7257: 7251: 7248: 7246: 7243: 7242: 7240: 7238: 7234: 7228: 7225: 7223: 7222:Precipitation 7220: 7218: 7215: 7213: 7210: 7208: 7205: 7203: 7200: 7198: 7195: 7193: 7190: 7188: 7185: 7183: 7180: 7179: 7177: 7175: 7170: 7166: 7160: 7159:Short circuit 7157: 7155: 7152: 7151: 7149: 7147: 7143: 7140: 7137: 7133: 7123: 7120: 7118: 7115: 7113: 7110: 7109: 7107: 7103: 7097: 7094: 7092: 7089: 7087: 7084: 7082: 7079: 7078: 7076: 7072: 7066: 7063: 7061: 7058: 7055: 7051: 7047: 7044: 7042: 7039: 7038: 7036: 7032: 7029: 7026: 7021: 7017: 7012: 6997: 6993: 6989: 6986: 6983: 6980: 6977: 6976:Reverberatory 6973: 6969: 6966: 6965: 6963: 6959: 6953: 6950: 6946: 6943: 6941: 6938: 6936: 6933: 6932: 6930: 6926: 6925:Blast furnace 6923: 6920: 6916: 6913: 6912: 6910: 6908: 6904: 6901: 6898: 6891: 6885: 6882: 6880: 6877: 6876: 6873: 6868: 6864: 6857: 6852: 6850: 6845: 6843: 6838: 6837: 6834: 6812: 6809: 6808: 6807: 6804: 6802: 6799: 6795: 6792: 6790: 6787: 6785: 6782: 6780: 6777: 6776: 6775: 6772: 6768: 6765: 6764: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6755: 6753: 6750: 6746: 6743: 6741: 6738: 6736: 6733: 6732: 6731: 6728: 6724: 6721: 6720: 6719: 6716: 6714: 6711: 6707: 6704: 6702: 6699: 6698: 6697: 6694: 6693: 6691: 6687: 6681: 6678: 6676: 6673: 6671: 6668: 6666: 6665:Simple dolmen 6663: 6661: 6658: 6656: 6653: 6651: 6650:Passage grave 6648: 6646: 6643: 6641: 6638: 6634: 6631: 6629: 6626: 6625: 6624: 6621: 6619: 6616: 6614: 6611: 6607: 6604: 6602: 6599: 6598: 6597: 6596:Gallery grave 6594: 6592: 6589: 6585: 6582: 6581: 6580: 6577: 6575: 6572: 6570: 6567: 6565: 6562: 6558: 6555: 6554: 6553: 6550: 6546: 6543: 6542: 6541: 6538: 6534: 6531: 6530: 6529: 6526: 6522: 6519: 6517: 6514: 6513: 6512: 6511:Burial mounds 6509: 6508: 6506: 6504: 6500: 6494: 6491: 6487: 6484: 6482: 6479: 6478: 6477: 6474: 6472: 6471:Statue menhir 6469: 6467: 6464: 6460: 6459:Stone carving 6457: 6455: 6452: 6451: 6450: 6447: 6445: 6442: 6440: 6437: 6435: 6432: 6430: 6427: 6425: 6422: 6418: 6415: 6413: 6410: 6409: 6408: 6405: 6403: 6400: 6398: 6395: 6391: 6388: 6387: 6386: 6383: 6381: 6378: 6376: 6373: 6371: 6368: 6366: 6363: 6361: 6358: 6356: 6353: 6349: 6346: 6345: 6344: 6341: 6339: 6336: 6335: 6333: 6331: 6327: 6319: 6316: 6314: 6311: 6310: 6309: 6306: 6304: 6301: 6299: 6298:Sewing needle 6296: 6292: 6289: 6287: 6284: 6282: 6279: 6277: 6274: 6272: 6269: 6267: 6264: 6263: 6262: 6259: 6257: 6254: 6250: 6247: 6246: 6245: 6242: 6238: 6235: 6233: 6230: 6229: 6228: 6225: 6223: 6220: 6218: 6215: 6211: 6208: 6207: 6206: 6203: 6201: 6198: 6196: 6193: 6191: 6188: 6186: 6183: 6182: 6180: 6178: 6174: 6170: 6166: 6162: 6157: 6153: 6137: 6134: 6133: 6132: 6129: 6127: 6126:Timber circle 6124: 6122: 6119: 6117: 6114: 6112: 6109: 6105: 6102: 6101: 6100: 6097: 6095: 6092: 6088: 6085: 6084: 6083: 6080: 6076: 6075:Tor enclosure 6073: 6072: 6071: 6068: 6064: 6063:fulacht fiadh 6061: 6060: 6059: 6056: 6054: 6051: 6049: 6046: 6045: 6043: 6039: 6033: 6030: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6015: 6013: 6010: 6009: 6007: 6003: 5997: 5994: 5992: 5989: 5985: 5982: 5981: 5980: 5977: 5975: 5972: 5968: 5965: 5963: 5960: 5958: 5955: 5954: 5953: 5950: 5948: 5945: 5943: 5940: 5938: 5935: 5931: 5928: 5927: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5916: 5913: 5909: 5906: 5905: 5904: 5901: 5899: 5896: 5894: 5891: 5889: 5886: 5884: 5881: 5879: 5876: 5874: 5871: 5867: 5864: 5863: 5862: 5859: 5858: 5856: 5852: 5844: 5841: 5839: 5836: 5834: 5831: 5830: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5821: 5819: 5816: 5815: 5813: 5809: 5805: 5801: 5796: 5792: 5776: 5773: 5772: 5771: 5768: 5766: 5763: 5761: 5758: 5756: 5753: 5749: 5746: 5745: 5744: 5741: 5739: 5736: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5721: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5709: 5706: 5704: 5701: 5699: 5696: 5694: 5691: 5687: 5684: 5683: 5682: 5679: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5666: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5643: 5640: 5639: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5625: 5621: 5618: 5617: 5616: 5613: 5611: 5608: 5607: 5605: 5603: 5599: 5593: 5590: 5588: 5585: 5583: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5550: 5548: 5545: 5543: 5540: 5536: 5533: 5531: 5528: 5526: 5523: 5522: 5521: 5518: 5516: 5513: 5511: 5508: 5506: 5503: 5499: 5496: 5495: 5494: 5491: 5489: 5486: 5484: 5481: 5479: 5476: 5474: 5471: 5469: 5466: 5464: 5461: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5443: 5442: 5439: 5438: 5436: 5434: 5430: 5418: 5415: 5414: 5413: 5410: 5409: 5407: 5403: 5397: 5394: 5392: 5389: 5387: 5384: 5382: 5379: 5377: 5374: 5372: 5369: 5367: 5364: 5362: 5359: 5357: 5354: 5352: 5349: 5345: 5342: 5341: 5340: 5337: 5336: 5334: 5332: 5328: 5320: 5317: 5315: 5312: 5310: 5307: 5305: 5302: 5300: 5299:spear-thrower 5297: 5296: 5295: 5292: 5290: 5287: 5283: 5280: 5279: 5278: 5277:Bow and arrow 5275: 5271: 5268: 5267: 5266: 5263: 5261: 5258: 5257: 5254: 5251: 5249: 5245: 5239: 5236: 5234: 5231: 5229: 5226: 5224: 5221: 5219: 5216: 5214: 5211: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5198: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5187: 5186:Grinding slab 5184: 5182: 5179: 5175: 5172: 5171: 5170: 5167: 5165: 5162: 5160: 5157: 5156: 5154: 5150: 5144: 5141: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5129: 5126: 5124: 5121: 5119: 5118:Domestication 5116: 5114: 5113:Digging stick 5111: 5109: 5106: 5104: 5101: 5097: 5094: 5092: 5091:Founder crops 5089: 5088: 5087: 5084: 5083: 5081: 5079: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5062: 5058: 5052: 5049: 5045: 5042: 5041: 5040: 5037: 5033: 5032:New Stone Age 5030: 5028: 5025: 5023: 5020: 5018: 5015: 5013: 5010: 5009: 5008: 5005: 5004: 5001: 4997: 4990: 4985: 4983: 4978: 4976: 4971: 4970: 4967: 4959: 4958: 4952: 4947: 4946: 4942: 4937: 4933: 4930: 4926: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4911: 4908: 4904: 4901: 4897: 4894: 4890: 4889: 4885: 4878: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4859: 4855: 4849: 4845: 4840: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4800: 4789: 4783: 4779: 4778: 4772: 4769: 4765: 4764: 4759: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4731: 4728: 4723: 4719: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4688: 4681: 4678: 4667:on 2024-05-25 4666: 4662: 4658: 4652: 4649: 4633: 4626: 4620: 4617: 4606: 4602: 4595: 4592: 4588: 4584: 4583: 4576: 4573: 4562:on 2009-06-18 4561: 4557: 4551: 4548: 4544: 4540: 4534: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4517: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4500: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4483: 4480: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4448: 4445: 4440: 4436: 4429: 4426: 4421: 4420: 4415: 4410: 4405: 4399: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4382: 4376: 4373: 4367: 4364: 4361:, p. 19. 4360: 4355: 4352: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4333: 4331: 4327: 4322: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4305: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4289:(7117): 286. 4288: 4284: 4280: 4273: 4270: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4231: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4196: 4193: 4187: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4163: 4160: 4156: 4151: 4148: 4142: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4118: 4115: 4110: 4104: 4100: 4099: 4091: 4088: 4083: 4077: 4073: 4072: 4064: 4061: 4056: 4049: 4046: 4041: 4034: 4031: 4026: 4019: 4016: 4011: 4004: 4001: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3977: 3974: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3918: 3915: 3909: 3906: 3902: 3896: 3894: 3890: 3877: 3873: 3866: 3863: 3859: 3858:0-8139-2085-X 3855: 3851: 3845: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3831: 3826: 3823: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3791: 3789: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3773: 3771: 3767: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3742: 3737: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3713: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3685: 3682: 3677: 3673: 3667: 3664: 3659: 3657:9781135632434 3653: 3649: 3648: 3640: 3637: 3634: 3629: 3626: 3623: 3618: 3615: 3610: 3609: 3601: 3598: 3593: 3592: 3584: 3581: 3576: 3575: 3567: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3541: 3538: 3533: 3529: 3523: 3520: 3515: 3511: 3505: 3502: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3482: 3479: 3474: 3473: 3465: 3462: 3457: 3453: 3447: 3444: 3440: 3435: 3429: 3425: 3418: 3415: 3409: 3407: 3403: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3371: 3368: 3362: 3359: 3353: 3350: 3344: 3341: 3335: 3332: 3326: 3323: 3317: 3314: 3308: 3305: 3300: 3293: 3290: 3284: 3281: 3277: 3271: 3268: 3264: 3263:0-924171-34-0 3260: 3256: 3250: 3247: 3235: 3231: 3218: 3214: 3209: 3208:81-7305-223-9 3205: 3201: 3195: 3192: 3186: 3183: 3171: 3167: 3161: 3158: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3124: 3116: 3113: 3109: 3108:0-521-57199-5 3105: 3101: 3095: 3092: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3067: 3062: 3058: 3057: 3052: 3045: 3043: 3039: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3020: 3017: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2983: 2975: 2973: 2971: 2967: 2964: 2962: 2955: 2953: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2942:0-19-283576-9 2939: 2935: 2931: 2926: 2923: 2919: 2918:0-521-36424-8 2915: 2911: 2910: 2905: 2900: 2897: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2868: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2848: 2844: 2838: 2836: 2832: 2826: 2823: 2819: 2813: 2811: 2809: 2805: 2800: 2794: 2790: 2783: 2780: 2774: 2772: 2768: 2765: 2760: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2746: 2742: 2736: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2712: 2709: 2703: 2700: 2696: 2695:0-7923-6372-8 2692: 2688: 2682: 2680: 2678: 2674: 2668: 2666: 2662: 2657: 2651: 2647: 2646: 2641: 2640:Eidem, Jesper 2637: 2631: 2628: 2622: 2620: 2616: 2610: 2608: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2567: 2564: 2559: 2553: 2549: 2542: 2540: 2538: 2534: 2528: 2525: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2493: 2491: 2489: 2487: 2483: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2451: 2449: 2447: 2445: 2441: 2429: 2423: 2419: 2418: 2410: 2407: 2403: 2402:0-226-14465-8 2399: 2395: 2389: 2387: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2371: 2368: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2328: 2326: 2324: 2322: 2320: 2318: 2316: 2312: 2306: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2286: 2279: 2276: 2270: 2266: 2263: 2261: 2258: 2256: 2253: 2251: 2248: 2246: 2243: 2241: 2238: 2235: 2232: 2231: 2227: 2225: 2223: 2219: 2214: 2210: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2199:ArcelorMittal 2196: 2195:Shagang Group 2192: 2188: 2184: 2179: 2178:economic boom 2174: 2172: 2163: 2158: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2134: 2132: 2130: 2126: 2121: 2115: 2113: 2108: 2105:Finally, the 2103: 2101: 2095: 2093: 2088: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2073: 2071: 2070:puddled steel 2062: 2057: 2049: 2047: 2044: 2040: 2034: 2026: 2024: 2022: 2018: 2013: 2011: 2007: 2006:West Midlands 2003: 1994: 1987: 1985: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1964: 1958: 1950: 1948: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1921: 1918: 1910: 1908: 1906: 1902: 1894: 1892: 1890: 1886: 1881: 1880:Coalbrookdale 1877: 1876:blister steel 1873: 1869: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1852: 1844: 1842: 1840: 1836: 1831: 1829: 1825: 1824:Louis de Geer 1821: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1798: 1797:decarburising 1792: 1784: 1782: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1765: 1762: 1754: 1749: 1744: 1743:Blast furnace 1737:Blast furnace 1736: 1734: 1732: 1728: 1723: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1687: 1679: 1677: 1675: 1667: 1665: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1602: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1571:Islamic Spain 1568: 1564: 1561:, during the 1560: 1552: 1546: 1542: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1527: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1512: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1497: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1470: 1468: 1464: 1463:Aïr Mountains 1459: 1457: 1452: 1449: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1432: 1424: 1419: 1411: 1409: 1407: 1403: 1398: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1375: 1370: 1369:from 800 BC. 1368: 1363: 1358: 1354: 1349: 1346: 1339: 1335: 1330: 1323: 1320: 1315: 1313: 1308: 1303: 1301: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1279: 1277: 1273: 1268: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1224: 1220: 1217: 1212: 1207: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1192:ancient China 1188: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1169: 1168: 1163: 1162:blast furnace 1159: 1155: 1151: 1144: 1142: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1114: 1109: 1107: 1106:Islamic world 1102: 1098: 1097:monsoon winds 1094: 1089: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1033: 1029: 1021: 1016: 1012: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 990: 986: 982: 978: 974: 970: 966: 962: 958: 954: 949: 947: 943: 940:(present day 939: 935: 928: 923: 916: 914: 911: 907: 902: 900: 896: 892: 884: 882: 880: 879:iron carbides 876: 872: 868: 864: 863:carburization 859: 857: 853: 849: 845: 841: 837: 833: 829: 824: 822: 818: 814: 810: 805: 800: 798: 794: 791:as well as a 790: 786: 782: 778: 774: 770: 766: 762: 755: 751: 747: 743: 739: 735: 731: 727: 723: 719: 714: 707: 705: 703: 698: 694: 689: 687: 683: 677: 675: 671: 667: 663: 659: 655: 643: 638: 636: 631: 629: 624: 623: 621: 620: 617: 613: 612: 605: 602: 600: 597: 596: 590: 589: 582: 580: 576: 574: 572: 568: 562: 558: 547: 543: 539: 535: 524: 520: 516: 512: 511: 510: 507: 505: 504:(1200–200 BC) 503: 499: 493: 489: 485: 481: 477: 476:Great Britain 473: 470:(800 – 50 BC) 469: 465: 461: 457: 453: 449: 446:(1100–700 BC) 445: 441: 438:(1200–700 BC) 437: 433: 432: 431: 430: 426: 421: 417: 413: 409: 405: 401: 400: 399: 398:(1200–550 BC) 397: 393: 392: 386: 385: 382: 378: 377: 374: 370: 366: 362: 361: 355: 353: 351: 347: 343: 338: 337:Telluric iron 330: 328: 326: 322: 318: 314: 313:New York City 310: 306: 302: 298: 294: 290: 287:began making 286: 282: 278: 273: 271: 267: 263: 259: 255: 251: 246: 244: 240: 239:ancient Egypt 236: 232: 228: 224: 220: 216: 212: 203: 196: 192: 188: 183: 182:Meteoric iron 176:Meteoric iron 175: 173: 171: 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