Jet fuel - Knowledge (XXG)

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Further, the Chicago Convention is not applicable to domestic aviation. It is often suggested that the Chicago Convention exempts aviation fuel from taxation. However, the Chicago Convention only exempts fuels already on-board aircraft when landing, and retained on board when leaving, from taxation. Article 24 states: 'Fuel... on board an aircraft of a contracting State, on arrival in the territory of another contracting State and retained on board on leaving the territory of that State shall be exempt from customs duty, inspection fees or similar national or local duties and charges.' Therefore, Article 24 does not prohibit the taxing of fuel taken on board in a particular country but rather prohibits the taxation of fuel that was already on board the aircraft when it landed, i.e. Member States cannot tax aviation fuel purchased in another country that arrives on board the aircraft. The purpose of this Article is to prevent double taxation.

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which may contain up to 260+ aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbon compounds including toxicants such as benzene, n-hexane, toluene, xylenes, trimethylpentane, methoxyethanol, naphthalenes. While time-weighted average hydrocarbon fuel exposures can often be below recommended exposure limits, peak exposure can occur, and the health impact of occupational exposures is not fully understood. Evidence of the health effects of jet fuels comes from reports on both temporary or persisting biological from acute, subchronic, or chronic exposure of humans or animals to kerosene-based hydrocarbon fuels, or the constituent chemicals of these fuels, or to fuel combustion products. The effects studied include:

1462:(SPK) synthetic fuels are certified for use in United States and international aviation fleets at up to 50% in a blend with conventional jet fuel. As of the end of 2017, four other pathways to SPK are certified, with their designations and maximum blend percentage in brackets: Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA SPK, 50%); synthesized iso-paraffins from hydroprocessed fermented sugars (SIP, 10%); synthesized paraffinic kerosene plus aromatics (SPK/A, 50%); alcohol-to-jet SPK (ATJ-SPK, 30%). Both FT and HEFA based SPKs blended with JP-8 are specified in MIL-DTL-83133H. 45: 162: 239: 1078:, Marine Corps air stations and Coast Guard air stations host both sea and land based naval aircraft, these installations will also typically fuel their shore-based aircraft with JP-5, thus precluding the need to maintain separate fuel facilities for JP-5 and non-JP-5 fuel. Chinese also named their navy fuel RP-5. Its freezing point is −46 °C (−51 °F). It does not contain antistatic agents. JP-5 is also known as NCI-C54784. JP-5's NATO code is 1759: 390:. Because the exact composition of jet fuel varies widely based on petroleum source, it is impossible to define jet fuel as a ratio of specific hydrocarbons. Jet fuel is therefore defined as a performance specification rather than a chemical compound. Furthermore, the range of molecular mass between hydrocarbons (or different carbon numbers) is defined by the requirements for the product, such as the freezing point or smoke point. 235: 551: 914:. This causes precipitation of the dissolved water from the fuel. The separated water then drops to the bottom of the tank, because it is denser than the fuel. Since the water is no longer in solution, it can form droplets which can supercool to below 0 °C (32 °F). If these supercooled droplets collide with a surface they can freeze and may result in blocked fuel inlet pipes. This was the cause of the 1431:

diesels before ULSD were able to contain up to 500 ppm of sulfur and were called Low Sulfur Diesel or LSD. In the United States LSD is now only available to the off-road construction, locomotive and marine markets. As more EPA regulations are introduced, more refineries are hydrotreating their jet fuel production, thus limiting the lubricating abilities of jet fuel, as determined by ASTM Standard D445.

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turns green if the fuel exceeds the specification limit of 30 ppm (parts per million) free water. A critical test to rate the ability of jet fuel to release emulsified water when passed through coalescing filters is ASTM standard D3948 Standard Test Method for Determining Water Separation Characteristics of Aviation Turbine Fuels by Portable Separometer.

1321: 324: 240: 1179:. It is specified by MIL-DTL-83133 and British Defence Standard 91-87. JP-8 is a kerosene-based fuel, projected to remain in use at least until 2025. The United States military uses JP-8 as a "universal fuel" in both turbine-powered aircraft and diesel-powered ground vehicles. It was first introduced at NATO bases in 1978. Its NATO code is 383:. It is colorless to straw-colored in appearance. The most commonly used fuels for commercial aviation are Jet A and Jet A-1, which are produced to a standardized international specification. The only other jet fuel commonly used in civilian turbine-engine powered aviation is Jet B, which is used for its enhanced cold-weather performance. 1819:

Article 15 of the Chicago Convention is also sometimes said to ban fuel taxes. Article 15 states: "No fees, dues or other charges shall be imposed by any contracting State in respect solely of the right of transit over or entry into or exit from its territory of any aircraft of a contracting State or

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General health hazards associated with exposure to jet fuel vary according to its components, exposure duration (acute vs. long-term), route of administration (dermal vs. respiratory vs. oral), and exposure phase (vapor vs. aerosol vs. raw fuel). Kerosene-based hydrocarbon fuels are complex mixtures

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certified the B-52H as fully approved to use the FT blend, marking the formal conclusion of the test program. This program is part of the Department of Defense Assured Fuel Initiative, an effort to develop secure domestic sources for the military energy needs. The Pentagon hopes to reduce its use of

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Jet fuel contains more sulfur, up to 1,000 ppm, which therefore means it has better lubricity and does not currently require a lubricity additive as all pipeline diesel fuels require. The introduction of Ultra Low Sulfur Diesel or ULSD brought with it the need for lubricity modifiers. Pipeline

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There are several methods for detecting water in jet fuel. A visual check may detect high concentrations of suspended water, as this will cause the fuel to become hazy in appearance. An industry standard chemical test for the detection of free water in jet fuel uses a water-sensitive filter pad that

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New processes have allowed flexibility in the choice of crudes, the use of coal tar sands as a source of molecules and the manufacture of synthetic blend stocks. Due to the number and severity of the processes used, it is often necessary and sometimes mandatory to use additives. These additives may,

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The Chicago Convention provides no obstacle to placing a tax on domestic or intra-EU aviation fuel. The Convention bans parties from imposing taxes on fuel already on board an aircraft when it lands in another country but it contains no prohibition on taxing the fuel sold to aircraft in a country.

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Jet B is a naphtha-kerosene fuel that is used for its enhanced cold-weather performance. However, Jet B's lighter composition makes it more dangerous to handle. For this reason, it is rarely used, except in very cold climates. A blend of approximately 30% kerosene and 70% gasoline, it is known as

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Most jet fuels in use since the end of World War II are kerosene-based. Both British and American standards for jet fuels were first established at the end of World War II. British standards derived from standards for kerosene use for lamps—known as paraffin in the UK—whereas American standards

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of 7 December 1944 stipulates that when flying from one contracting state to another, the kerosene that is already on board aircraft may not be taxed by the state where the aircraft lands, nor by a state through whose airspace the aircraft has flown. This is to prevent double taxation. It is

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for the first time powered solely by a 50–50 blend of JP-8 and Syntroleum's FT fuel. The seven-hour flight test was considered a success. The goal of the flight test program was to qualify the fuel blend for fleet use on the service's B-52s, and then flight test and qualification on other

975:(relative to aviation gasoline) and a freezing point of −60 °C (−76 °F). The low freezing point requirement limited availability of the fuel and it was soon superseded by other "wide cut" jet fuels which were kerosene-naphtha or kerosene-gasoline blends. It was also known as 1465:

Some synthetic jet fuels show a reduction in pollutants such as SOx, NOx, particulate matter, and sometimes carbon emissions. It is envisaged that usage of synthetic jet fuels will increase air quality around airports which will be particularly advantageous at inner city airports.

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to use the fuel. To test these two aircraft, the USAF has ordered 281,000 US gal (1,060,000 L) of FT fuel. The USAF intends to test and certify every airframe in its inventory to use the fuel by 2011. They will also supply over 9,000 US gal (34,000 L;

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has been working with the USAF to develop a synthetic jet fuel blend that will help them reduce their dependence on imported petroleum. The USAF, which is the United States military's largest user of fuel, began exploring alternative fuel sources in 1999. On December 15, 2006, a

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On February 8, 2021, the world's first scheduled passenger flight flew with some synthetic kerosene from a non-fossil fuel source. 500 liters of synthetic kerosene was mixed with regular jet fuel. Synthetic kerosene was produced by Shell and the flight was operated by KLM.

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aircraft. A diesel engine may be more fuel-efficient than an avgas engine. However, very few diesel aircraft engines have been certified by aviation authorities. Diesel aircraft engines are uncommon today, even though opposed-piston aviation diesel powerplants such as the

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Worldwide demand of jet fuel has been steadily increasing since 1980. Consumption more than tripled in 30 years from 1,837,000 barrels/day in 1980, to 5,220,000 in 2010. Around 30% of the worldwide consumption of jet fuel is in the US (1,398,130 barrels/day in 2012).

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Jet fuel is often used in diesel-powered ground-support vehicles at airports. However, jet fuel tends to have poor lubricating ability in comparison to diesel, which increases wear in fuel injection equipment. An additive may be required to restore its

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As the aviation industry's jet kerosene demands have increased to more than 5% of all refined products derived from crude, it has been necessary for the refiner to optimize the yield of jet kerosene, a high-value product, by varying process techniques.

871:(OEMs); Kathon FP1.5 Microbiocide and Biobor JF. Biobor JF is currently the only biocide available for aviation use. Kathon was discontinued by the manufacturer due to several airworthiness incidents. Kathon is now banned from use in aviation fuel. 953:

Military organizations around the world use a different classification system of JP (for "Jet Propellant") numbers. Some are almost identical to their civilian counterparts and differ only by the amounts of a few additives; Jet A-1 is similar to

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which run on jet fuel which may simplify airport logistics by reducing the number of fuel types required. Jet fuel is available in most places in the world, whereas avgas is only widely available in a few countries which have a large number of

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sometimes suggested that the Chicago Convention precludes the taxation of aviation fuel. However, this is not correct. The Chicago Convention does not preclude a kerosene tax on domestic flights or on refuelling before international flights.

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crude oil from foreign producers and obtain about half of its aviation fuel from alternative sources by 2016. With the B-52 now approved to use the FT blend, the USAF will use the test protocols developed during the program to certify the

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Jet A and Jet A-1 fuel trucks and storage tanks, as well as plumbing that carries them, are all marked "Jet A" or "Jet A-1" in white italicized text within a black rectangle background, adjacent to one or two diagonal black stripes.

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derived from aviation gasoline practices. Over the subsequent years, details of specifications were adjusted, such as minimum freezing point, to balance performance requirements and availability of fuels. Very low temperature

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required to prevent boiloff caused by aerodynamic heating. Its thermal stability was high enough to prevent coke and varnish deposits when used as a heat-sink for aircraft air conditioning and hydraulic systems and engine

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jet recon-bomber, burned either a special synthetic "J2" fuel or diesel fuel. Gasoline was a third option but unattractive due to high fuel consumption. Other fuels used were kerosene or kerosene and gasoline mixtures.

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became the first airline to operate a commercial flight on a 50:50 blend of synthetic Gas to Liquid (GTL) jet fuel and conventional jet fuel. The natural gas derived synthetic kerosene for the six-hour flight from

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for sustained flight at Mach 3. It was similar to JP-5 but with a lower freezing point and improved thermal oxidative stability. When the XB-70 program was cancelled, the JP-6 specification, MIL-J-25656, was also

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described the specification as, "remarkably liberal, with a wide cut (range of distillation temperatures) and with such permissive limits on olefins and aromatics that any refinery above the level of a Kentucky

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Ritchie, Glenn; Still, Kenneth; Rossi III, John; Bekkedal, Marni; Bobb, Andrew; Arfsten, Darryl (2003-01-01). "Biological And Health Effects Of Exposure To Kerosene-Based Jet Fuels And Performance Additives".

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designates a series of experimental boron-containing "high energy fuels" intended for long range aircraft. The toxicity and undesirable residues of the fuel made it difficult to use. The development of the

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for enhanced cold-weather performance. It has somewhat higher volatility than Jet A-1 (flash point is 28 °C (82 °F) minimum). It has a very low freezing point, below −50 °C (−58 °F).

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establishes standards for both civil and military jet fuels. For reasons of inter-operational ability, British and United States military standards are harmonized to a degree. In Russia and the

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are to remediate microbial (i.e., bacterial and fungal) growth present in aircraft fuel systems. Two biocides were previously approved for use by most aircraft and turbine engine

337: 4201: 3594: 562: 1243:. It superseded JP-9 fuel, achieving a lower low-temperature service limit of −65 °F (−54 °C). It is also used by the Tomahawk jet-powered subsonic cruise missile. 3704:

Member States shall exempt the following from taxation... energy products supplied for use as fuel for the purpose of air navigation other than in private pleasure-flying.

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was the first United States airline to fly passengers on a commercial flight using a blend of sustainable, advanced biofuels and traditional petroleum-derived jet fuel.

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persons or property thereon." However, ICAO distinguishes between charges and taxes, and Article 15 does not prohibit the levying of taxes without a service provided.

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and F-15 are certified for use of hydrotreated renewable jet fuels. The USAF plans to certify over 40 models for fuels derived from waste oils and plants by 2013. The

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Jet A specification fuel has been used in the United States since the 1950s and is usually not available outside the United States and a few Canadian airports such as

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an obsolete type developed during World War II. JP-2 was intended to be easier to produce than JP-1 since it had a higher freezing point, but was never widely used.

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was an attempt to improve availability of the fuel compared to JP-1 by widening the cut and loosening tolerances on impurities to ensure ready supply. In his book

591: 249: 3573: 1427:. Jet fuel is more expensive than diesel fuel but the logistical advantages of using one fuel can offset the extra expense of its use in certain circumstances. 4159: 2690: 2136: 918:

accident. Removing all water from fuel is impractical; therefore, fuel heaters are usually used on commercial aircraft to prevent water in fuel from freezing.

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In 2015 ASTM approved a modification to Specification D1655 Standard Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuels to permit up to 50 ppm (50 mg/kg) of FAME (

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opening ceremony using a blend of traditional jet fuel and synthetic biofuels. This flyover made history as it was the first flyover to use biofuels in the

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r's pot still could convert at least half of any crude to jet fuel". It was even more volatile than JP-2 and had high evaporation loss in service.

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as the catalyst. The technology is expected to be deployed in the 2020s by U.S. Navy warships, especially nuclear-powered aircraft carriers.

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and an additive to improve thermal oxidative stability officially known as "Thermally Stable Jet Fuel". It was developed in 1956 for the

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The DEF STAN 91-091 (UK) and ASTM D1655 (international) specifications allow for certain additives to be added to jet fuel, including:

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developed the algae oil, which was refined utilizing Honeywell's UOP process technology, into jet fuel to power the commercial flight.

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emissions by 60 to 80 percent. One possible solution which has received more media coverage than others would be blending synthetic

1361: 3444: 2208: 4450: 4177: 3938:"Long-term exposure to jet fuel: an investigation on occupationally exposed workers with special reference to the nervous system" 3465: 2958: 2737: 1778: 1573: 1220: 2755: 3373: 2922: 2399: 2073: 1835: 1806: 1512:

who are developing a process to make jet fuel from seawater. The technology requires an input of electrical energy to separate

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for example, prevent the formation of harmful chemical species or improve a property of a fuel to prevent further engine wear.

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and Velocys have entered into a partnership in the UK to design a series of plants that convert household waste into jet fuel.

861:(Di-EGME); FSII is often mixed at the point-of-sale so that users with heated fuel lines do not have to pay the extra expense. 4499: 2567: 1490: 3051: 59: 3093: 618:

The differences between Jet A and Jet A-1 are twofold. The primary difference is the lower freezing point of Jet A-1 fuel:

4169: 2627: 1721: 1612: 1130: 4164: 3131: 1908: 1781:. Twenty-five airlines were bankrupted or stopped operations in the first six months of 2008, largely due to fuel costs. 971:

was an early jet fuel specified in 1944 by the United States government (AN-F-32). It was a pure kerosene fuel with high

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produced the world's first 100 percent algae-derived jet fuel, Solajet, for both commercial and military applications.

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to develop technologies to create jet fuels from biofeedstocks for use by the United States and NATO militaries.

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The JP-4 and JP-5 fuels, covered by the MIL-DTL-5624 and meeting the British Specification DEF STAN 91-86 AVCAT/

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Soloiu, Valentin; Covington, April; Lewis, Jeff; Duggan, Marvin; Lobue, James; Jansons, Marcis (January 2012).

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Mattie, David R.; Sterner, Teresa R. (2011-07-15). "Past, present and emerging toxicity issues for jet fuel".

2436: 910:. During flight, the temperature of the fuel in the tanks decreases, due to the low temperatures in the upper 3423: 4713: 4479: 4266: 2484: 1785: 1702: 1236: 1029: 3687: 445:) can operate with a wide range of fuels because fuel is injected into the hot combustion chamber. Jet and 4455: 4425: 4420: 4344: 4261: 1884: 1406: 1302: 1260: 1256: 1147: 426: 2607: 1672:

Green Flight International became the first airline to fly jet aircraft on 100% biofuel. The flight from

1331: 962:. Other military fuels are highly specialized products and are developed for very specific applications. 4718: 4692: 4460: 4430: 4410: 2976: 2779: 2241:"Performance of JP-8 Unified Fuel in a Small Bore Indirect Injection Diesel Engine for APU Applications" 1868: 1713: 1631: 1122: 1111:. These fuels require unique additives that are necessary for military aircraft and engine fuel systems. 1058:, where the risk from fire is particularly great. JP-5 is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons, containing 3398: 3074: 2834:"ASTM D7566 - 20a Standard Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuel Containing Synthesized Hydrocarbons" 2053: 305: 4677: 4640: 4592: 4354: 4102: 3886: 3826:"Modulation of bronchial epithelial cell barrier function by in vitro jet propulsion fuel 8 exposure" 3774: 2888: 1067: 935: 931: 473: 411: 4091:"A review of health effects associated with exposure to jet engine emissions in and around airports" 2003: 1203:(tetrahydrodimethyldicyclopentadiene) produced by catalytic hydrogenation of methylpentadiene dimer. 498:

products required for use on aircraft carriers are more expensive to produce. In the United States,

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large enough to potentially bring biofuels up to the volume production needed to reduce costs. The

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are collaborating with Tecbio Aquaflow Bionomic and other jet biofuel developers around the world.

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step wherein carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen are recombined into long-chain hydrocarbons, using

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Turbine Fuel, Aviation Kerosine Type, Jet A-1 NATO Code: F-35 Joint Service Designation: AVTUR

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Harris, D. T.; Sakiestewa, D.; Titone, D.; Robledo, R. F.; Young, R. S.; Witten, M. (2000).

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is working on development of jet fuel blends containing a substantial percentage of biofuel.

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is a yellow kerosene-based jet fuel developed in 1952 for use in aircraft stationed aboard

128: 91: 4687: 4630: 4324: 4252: 4221: 4181: 2800: 2694: 2659: 2614: 2540: 1922: 1860: 1727: 1690: 1684: 1394: 739: 518:) number, or a Technical Condition number, with the principal grade available being TS-1. 83: 30:

This article is about aviation turbine fuel. For the chain of European fuel stations, see

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Murray, B.J.; et al. (2011). "Supercooling of water droplets in jet aviation fuel".

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members, where TS-1 fuel type is the most common standard. Both Jet A and Jet A-1 have a

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and coconut and 80 percent conventional jet fuel, which was fed to a single engine on a

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on the thermal stability of the fuel. The one allowable additive is the chelating agent

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wide-cut fuel. It has a very low freezing point of −60 °C (−76 °F), and a low

4237: 4174: 4133: 4090: 4051: 2951: 2923:"Argonne GREET Publication: Life Cycle Analysis of Alternative Aviation Fuels in GREET" 2728: 1852: 1661: 1653: 1450: 1390: 1383: 1228: 752: 315: 55: 3469: 3189: 2214:. Isidoro Martínez Prof. of Thermodynamics, Ciudad Universitaria. 2014. Archived from 1489:. The world's first passenger aircraft flight to use only synthetic jet fuel was from 550: 4707: 4597: 4395: 4369: 4301: 3466:"Velocys press release, "Partnership formed, aimed at waste-to-jet-fuel plants in UK" 2812: 1880: 1615:

dubbed the "Green Hornet" at 1.7 times the speed of sound using a biofuel blend. The

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than JP-1, but was preferred because of its greater availability. It was the primary

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A sailor inspects a sample of JP-5 jet fuel aboard an amphibious transport dock ship

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Bendtsen, Katja M.; Bengtsen, Elizabeth; Saber, Anne T.; Vogel, Ulla (2021-02-06).

4075: 3215: 2793: 2707: 2652: 1892: 1577: 1264: 1210: 882: 477: 4520: 4515: 4334: 4232: 4224: 3011:"Qatar Airways Becomes First to Operate Commercial Flight on GTL Jet Fuel Blend" 1876: 1694: 1375: 1216: 1159: 1108: 1071: 1063: 1025: 972: 959: 878: 809: 773: 678: 603: 576: 568: 495: 458: 446: 438: 387: 380: 275: 31: 4115: 3898: 3729: 2466: 4291: 4217: 4034:

Kaufman, Laura R.; LeMasters, Grace K.; Olsen, Donna M.; Succop, Paul (2005).

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from 2003 to 2008, raising fears that world petroleum production is becoming

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distribution between about 8 and 16 (carbon atoms per molecule); wide-cut or

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Morata, Thais C.; Hungerford, Michelle; Konrad-Martin, Dawn (2021-08-18).

3025:"Sasol takes to the skies with the world's first fully synthetic jet fuel" 2389: 2338: 1965:"Ministry of Defence Standard 91-91: Turbine Fuel, Kerosine Type, Jet A-1" 1389:(fuel in spark-ignited internal combustion engine, which usually contains 4415: 4359: 4281: 4276: 4257: 3971: 2252: 2163: 1770: 1752: 1745: 1525: 1486: 1398: 1274: 1200: 1151: 1126: 418: 391: 376: 262: 255: 248: 221: 51: 461:, which are less flammable and therefore safer to transport and handle. 4271: 3954: 3937: 2794:

Planemakers challenged to find unleaded fuel option - The Wichita Eagle

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that weighs 6.8 pounds per U.S. gallon (0.81 kg/L) and has a high

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The air transport industry is responsible for 2–3 percent of man-made

4440: 4296: 3518:"United Airlines Flies First U.S. Commercial Advanced Biofuel Flight" 2736:. Coordinating Research Council. 1983. p. 3. CRC Report Nº 530. 1848: 1657: 1513: 1474: 1059: 816: 781: 777: 314:

Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their

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Knave, B.; Persson, H. E.; Goldberg, J. M.; Westerholm, P. (1976).

2587:. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. p. 33. 2137:"World Jet Fuel Specifications with Avgas Supplement: 2005 Edition" 1942:

The Chinese RP-3 jet fuel standard is very similar to Jet A-1 fuel.

402:-type jet fuel (including Jet B and JP-4), between about 5 and 15. 394:-type jet fuel (including Jet A and Jet A-1, JP-5, and JP-8) has a 4620: 1757: 1733:

24 commercial and military biofuel flights have taken place using

1616: 1498: 1386: 1382:. The possibility of environmental legislation banning the use of 944: 567: 549: 530: 422: 3276:"UOP To Develop Technology to Produce Bio JP-8 for Military Jets" 3246:"Fat Replaces Oil for F-16s as Biofuels Head to War: Commodities" 1524:) gas from seawater using an iron-based catalyst, followed by an 1562: 1478: 1438: 1434: 1250: 1170: 1141: 1033: 1019: 955: 515: 514:

members, grades of jet fuels are covered by the State Standard (

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cruise missile. It contains a mixture of (in decreasing order)

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in high compression aircraft engines. Turbine engines (as with

2543:- US Centennial of Flight Commission, Retrieved 3 January 2012 1314: 930:"JP-1", "JP-2", and "JP-3" redirect here. For other uses, see 911: 457:) aircraft engines typically use lower cost fuels with higher 3298:"Air Force jets perform first flyover using alternative fuel" 2560:

Mach 1 and Beyond: The Illustrated Guide to High-Speed Flight

1693:

successfully tested a biofuel blend consisting of 20 percent

3402: 3214:. The Official Website of the U.S. Air Force. Archived from 2875:

Lobo, Prem; Hagen, Donald E.; Whitefield, Philip D. (2011).

468:

jet engine in widespread production and combat service, the

145: 2585:

Ignition! An Informal History of Liquid Rocket Propellants

2299:

Characteristics of Petroleum Products Stored and Dispensed

2033:

Significance of Tests for Petroleum Products (8th Edition)

1001:

Ignition! An Informal History of Liquid Rocket Propellants

2708:"SR-71 Online - SR-71 Flight Manual: Section 1, Page 1-4" 720:

open air burn temperature: 1,030 °C (1,890 °F)

233: 3493:"United flies first US passengers using fuel from algae" 659:

Jet A fuel must reach ASTM specification D1655 (Jet A).

3545:"Solazyme completes first commercial flight on biofuel" 2617:

Marine Corps Schools Detachment — Ft. Leonard Wood

2273:"Resource Guide To Aircraft Fire Fighting & Rescue" 1107:(formerly DERD 2452), are intended for use in aircraft 655:

IATA Guidance Material (Kerosene Type), NATO Code F-35.

332: 3942:

Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health

3767:

Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part B

3113:"Guess What Could Fuel the Battleships of the Future?" 906:

It is very important that jet fuel be free from water

3824:

Robledo, R. F.; Barber, D. S.; Witten, M. L. (1999).

1906: 1215:

is a gas turbine fuel for missiles, specifically the

1195:

is a gas turbine fuel for missiles, specifically the

629:

The other difference is the mandatory addition of an

4095:

Environmental Health: A Global Access Science Source

3212:"Officials certify first aircraft for biofuel usage" 1660:

estimates that biofuels could reduce flight-related

502:

produces standards for civilian fuel types, and the

4665: 4639: 4606: 4563: 4508: 4487: 4478: 4378: 4315: 4245: 4231: 3169:"World First – Synthetic Kerosene Takes to the Air" 1441:diesel vehicles as part of the single-fuel policy. 4588:Engine-indicating and crew-alerting system (EICAS) 4040:Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 3520:. United Continental Holdings, Inc. Archived from 3244:Morales, Alex; Louise Downing (October 18, 2011). 3094:"Energy Independence: Creating Fuel from Seawater" 2414:"Fuel-quality evaluation requires pilot vigilance" 1813:Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation 1419:family had been used during the Second World War. 1074:(min. 60 °C or 140 °F). Because some US 1024:was a 50-50 kerosene-gasoline blend. It had lower 4621:Full Authority Digital Engine/Electronics (FADEC) 2391:Standard Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuels 2158: 2156: 2130: 2128: 1737:“Green Jet Fuel,” including a Navy F/A-18 Hornet. 1497:on September 22, 2010. The fuel was developed by 641:Typical physical properties for Jet A and Jet A-1 3649:Jasper Faber and Aoife O'Leary (November 2018). 3075:"How The Navy Might Spin Seawater Into Jet Fuel" 2054:"Summary of Debriefing of German pilot Hans Fey" 1823:In the European Union, commercial aviation fuel 1175:is a jet fuel, specified and used widely by the 663:Typical physical properties for Jet A / Jet A-1 1158:for sustained flight at Mach 3+. It had a high 877:can be added to reduce the negative effects of 563:Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport 237: 90: 82: 4578:Electronic centralised aircraft monitor (ECAM) 3570:"More airlines fold as fuel prices soar: IATA" 3376:. Greenflightinternational.com. Archived from 2977:"Alternative Aviation Fuel Experiment (AAFEX)" 2975:Anderson, B. E.; et al. (February 2011). 2551: 2549: 2508:. Shell Oil Company. p. 4. Archived from 2437:Aircraft Serious Incident Investigation Report 1773:. The fact that there are few alternatives to 1568:The USAF has certified the B-1B, B-52H, C-17, 1284:removed the principal application of zip fuel. 606:higher than 38 °C (100 °F), with an 4202: 3132:"The Navy Just Turned Seawater Into Jet Fuel" 2781:DTIC ADA186752: Military Jet Fuels, 1944-1987 1565:for testing in various aircraft and engines. 8: 3644: 3642: 3640: 2783:, Defense Technical Information Center, p. 5 1680:piloted by Carol Sugars and Douglas Rodante. 1619:(DARPA) funded a $ 6.7 million project with 1342:. There might be a discussion about this on 792:TS-1 is a jet fuel made to Russian standard 87: (kerosene, also called fuel oil no. 1) 3347:"A Promising Oil Alternative: Algae Energy" 3044:"Fueling the Fleet, Navy Looks to the Seas" 2164:"Aviation Fuel — Jet Fuel Information" 1595:The U.S. Air Force's C-17 Globemaster III, 734:0.820 kg/L (6.84 lb/US gal) 731:0.804 kg/L (6.71 lb/US gal) 4583:Electronic flight instrument system (EFIS) 4484: 4242: 4209: 4195: 4187: 3151:"U.S. Navy to turn seawater into jet fuel" 2068: 2066: 2027: 2025: 2023: 1712:A consortium consisting of Boeing, NASA's 1603:is considered one of the few customers of 1437:, which is similar to Jet A-1, is used in 1393:(TEL), a toxic substance added to prevent 847:used for civilian and military fuels, and 776:as well. It is primarily used in northern 160: 36: 4132: 4114: 4002: 3953: 3841: 2672:"Shell Fuels Technical Data Sheet - F-44" 2435:Jetstar Airways PTY LTD. (25 June 2020). 2368:(25 August 2008 ed.), 8 April 2008, 1617:Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency 1362:Learn how and when to remove this message 506:produces standards for military use. The 127: 2190:. Air BP. pp. 11–13. Archived from 2097:16 July 2020 to 0901Z 10 September 2020. 1508:is leading a team of researchers at the 661: 494:reduce the availability of fuel. Higher 3323:"Beginner's Guide to Aviation Biofuels" 3210:Dowdell, Richelle (February 10, 2011). 2964:from the original on February 24, 2017. 2442:(Report). Japan Transport Safety Board. 1955: 1935: 1913: 889:-bis(salicylidene)-1,2-propanediamine). 652:ASTM specification D1655 (Jet A-1), and 538:Jet A-1 refueller truck on the ramp at 156: 3692:Official Journal of the European Union 3328:. Air Transport Action Group. May 2009 3239: 3237: 3235: 3233: 2881:Environmental Science & Technology 1777:for aviation fuel adds urgency to the 837:(DINNSA) as a component, is an example 625:Jet A-1's is −47 °C (−53 °F) 386:Jet fuel is a mixture of a variety of 294:210 °C (410 °F; 483 K) 211:176 °C (349 °F; 449 K) 201:−47 °C (−53 °F; 226 K) 3759: 3757: 3755: 3624:"Jet fuel consumption on Index Mundi" 3073:Palmer, Roxanne (December 17, 2013). 2135:ExxonMobil Aviation (April 9, 2016). 1570:Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules 812:to prevent gumming, usually based on 747:43.02 MJ/kg (11.95 kWh/kg) 744:43.15 MJ/kg (11.99 kWh/kg) 614:Differences between Jet A and Jet A-1 280:38 °C (100 °F; 311 K) 7: 3468:. September 18, 2017. Archived from 3092:Tozer, Jessica L. (April 11, 2014). 3042:Parry, Daniel (September 24, 2012). 2640:10.3969/j.issn.1674-3407.2014.01.014 2562:, (McGraw-Hill Professional, 1994), 1378:, and in some cases, may be used in 1032:jet fuel between 1951 and 1995. Its 622:Jet A's is −40 °C (−40 °F) 3718:Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 3278:. Green Car Congress. June 28, 2007 3111:Koren, Marina (December 13, 2013). 3027:. Sasol. 2010-09-22. Archived from 2743:from the original on July 22, 2012. 2209:"FUEL DATA FOR COMBUSTION WITH AIR" 1767:Oil prices increased about fivefold 4052:10.1097/01.jom.0000155710.28289.0e 3130:Tucker, Patrick (April 10, 2014). 2247:. Vol. 1. SAE International. 25: 3875:"Jet fuel-induced immunotoxicity" 3651:"Taxing aviation fuels in the EU" 3543:Price, Toby (November 10, 2011). 3192:. Air & Space Forces Magazine 3149:Ernst, Douglas (April 10, 2014). 3013:. Green Car Congress. 2009-10-12. 1997:"Aviation Fuels Technical Review" 1792:Worldwide consumption of jet fuel 1592:to use the synthetic fuel blend. 414:powered aircraft (usually a high- 4451:Thrust specific fuel consumption 3879:Toxicology and Industrial Health 3491:Koch, Wendy (November 7, 2011). 2412:Lombardo, David A. (July 2005), 2059:. Zenos' Warbird Video Drive-In. 1916: 1319: 1221:endo-tetrahydrodicyclopentadiene 869:original equipment manufacturers 760:35.3 MJ/L (9.8 kWh/L) 757:34.7 MJ/L (9.6 kWh/L) 322: 43: 3576:from the original on 2011-07-03 2982:. NASA Langley Research Centre. 2756:"Revolutionizing Tomahawk fuel" 2400:West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania 1807:Aviation taxation and subsidies 1495:Cape Town International Airport 1481:came from Shell's GTL plant in 1460:Synthesized Paraffinic Kerosene 1225:exo-tetrahydrodicyclopentadiene 1199:cruise missile, containing the 819:, e.g., AO-30, AO-31, or AO-37; 581:La Aurora International Airport 546:hazardous material and JET A-1. 540:Vancouver International Airport 318:(at 25 °C , 100 kPa). 4729:Occupational safety and health 4500:Propeller speed reduction unit 3048:Naval Research Laboratory News 2760:Los Alamos National Laboratory 2628:"Rp-3和Rp-5煤油对飞机动力装置和燃油系统试飞的影响" 2372:Standard 91-91, archived from 1995:Chevron Products Corporation. 1510:U.S. Naval Research Laboratory 1491:Lanseria International Airport 718:2,230 °C (4,050 °F) 610:of 210 °C (410 °F). 1: 4175:Aviation Fuel Properties 1983 3991:American Journal of Audiology 3188:Sirak, Michael (2010-01-27). 3100:. U.S. Department of Defense. 1771:unable to keep up with demand 1722:Air Force Research Laboratory 1613:Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet 1574:McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom 1131:North American XB-70 Valkyrie 3079:International Business Times 2653:UK MOD DEF STAN 23-8 ISSUE 2 2166:. Csgnetwork.com. 2004-01-05 1582:McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle 1561:7,500 imp gal) to 1374:Jet fuel is very similar to 835:dinonylnaphthylsulfonic acid 542:. Note the signs indicating 4411:Engine pressure ratio (EPR) 2418:Aviation International News 1970:. p. 1. Archived from 1834:In the United States, most 1742:United Continental Holdings 1676:in Stead, Nevada was in an 1586:Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor 1554:Boeing C-17 Globemaster III 855:Fuel system icing inhibitor 728:at 15 °C (59 °F) 508:British Ministry of Defence 60:Prague Václav Havel Airport 4745: 4678:Auxiliary power unit (APU) 4307:Rotating detonation engine 4116:10.1186/s12940-020-00690-y 3899:10.1177/074823370001600702 3730:10.1016/j.taap.2010.04.022 3694:. Eur-Lex. 27 October 2002 2481:"The Shell Water Detector" 2467:10.1016/j.fuel.2010.08.018 2245:SAE Technical Paper Series 2035:ASTM International, 2010, 1804: 1645: 1540:USAF synthetic fuel trials 1448: 1255:was a combination of LF-1 929: 859:2-(2-Methoxyethoxy)ethanol 706:−40 °C (−40 °F) 703:−47 °C (−53 °F) 693:210 °C (410 °F) 504:U.S. Department of Defense 29: 4004:10.1044/2021_AJA-20-00226 3662:Transport and Environment 3549:Renewable Energy Magazine 3445:"2008 Environment Report" 2693:October 18, 2012, at the 2394:, ASTM D1655-09a (2010). 1829:Energy Taxation Directive 1626:In April 2011, four USAF 1263:engine which powered the 916:British Airways Flight 38 717: 692: 683:38 °C (100 °F) 682: 649:DEF STAN 91-91 (Jet A-1), 433:characteristics and high 312: 215: 172: 95: (Aviation Kerosene) 66: 42: 4386:Aircraft engine starting 3401:. Tecbio. Archived from 2730:Aviation Fuel Properties 2608:Characteristics of Fuels 2091:Canada Flight Supplement 2031:Salvatore J. Rand (ed), 1827:, according to the 2003 1720:(Germany), and the U.S. 1668:with existing jet fuel: 1156:Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird 851:used for military fuels; 689:Autoignition temperature 645:Jet A-1 fuel must meet: 608:autoignition temperature 435:autoignition temperature 4267:Pulse detonation engine 3843:10.1093/toxsci/51.1.119 3426:. NZ Herald. 2008-02-26 2754:Coggeshall, Katharine. 2688:The History of Jet Fuel 1865:hematological disorders 1825:is exempt from taxation 1786:fatty acid methyl ester 1779:search for alternatives 1666:fuel derived from algae 1407:aircraft diesel engines 1261:Pratt & Whitney J57 1237:catalytic hydrogenation 1148:Pratt & Whitney J58 1030:United States Air Force 4456:Thrust to weight ratio 4426:Overall pressure ratio 4421:Jet engine performance 4345:Centrifugal compressor 4262:Gluhareff Pressure Jet 3830:Toxicological Sciences 3787:10.1080/10937400306473 2499:"Shell Aviation Fuels" 2185:"Handbook of Products" 1763: 1762:Jet fuel vs oil prices 1405:, have begun offering 1303:Edwards Air Force Base 1257:charcoal lighter fluid 1146:was developed for the 1121:was developed for the 1040:. It is also known as 958:, Jet B is similar to 950: 829:and prevent sparking; 583: 565: 547: 244: 4693:Ice protection system 4461:Variable cycle engine 4431:Propulsive efficiency 2994:"Best Synth Jet Fuel" 2799:June 6, 2009, at the 2487:on February 19, 2012. 2074:"Aviation Lubricants" 1857:respiratory disorders 1761: 1714:Glenn Research Center 1636:Department of Defense 1632:Philadelphia Phillies 1123:General Electric YJ93 1068:aromatic hydrocarbons 948: 938:. For the movie, see 857:(FSII) agents, e.g., 571: 553: 534: 474:Messerschmitt Me 262A 361:aviation turbine fuel 243: 181:Straw-colored liquid 27:Type of aviation fuel 4593:Flight data recorder 4355:Constant speed drive 4335:Afterburner (reheat) 3572:. News.asiaone.com. 3256:on February 26, 2012 3218:on December 12, 2012 3190:"B-2 Goes Synthetic" 3155:The Washington Times 2253:10.4271/2012-01-1199 1869:neurological effects 1558:Rockwell B-1B Lancer 1332:confusing or unclear 1235:. It is produced by 1154:engines used in the 1129:engines used in the 1082:. It is also called 936:JP2 (disambiguation) 932:JP1 (disambiguation) 841:Corrosion inhibitors 375:designed for use in 226:(fire diamond) 4160:History of Jet Fuel 4107:2021EnvHe..20...10B 3891:2000ToxIH..16..261H 3779:2003JTEHB...6..357R 3352:The Washington Post 3054:on February 3, 2018 2893:2011EnST...4510744L 2887:(24): 10744–10749. 2515:on 19 December 2014 2370:Ministry of Defence 2331:"Aviation Jet Fuel" 1963:Defence Standards. 1836:states tax jet fuel 1628:F-15E Strike Eagles 1590:Northrop T-38 Talon 1546:Air Force Secretary 1544:On August 8, 2007, 1340:clarify the section 664: 631:antistatic additive 381:gas-turbine engines 367:, also abbreviated 39: 4724:Petroleum products 4495:Propeller governor 4180:2012-07-22 at the 3955:10.5271/sjweh.2809 3472:on January 5, 2018 3098:Armed with Science 2658:2005-05-17 at the 2634:(1): 49–51. 2014. 2613:2007-01-26 at the 2539:2012-04-20 at the 2396:ASTM International 2312:on 16 January 2017 1811:Article 24 of the 1764: 1707:Amsterdam Schiphol 1674:Reno Stead Airport 1445:Synthetic jet fuel 1076:naval air stations 951: 926:Military jet fuels 827:static electricity 662: 584: 566: 548: 500:ASTM International 345:Infobox references 245: 37: 4701: 4700: 4573:Annunciator panel 4559: 4558: 4474: 4473: 4365:Propelling nozzle 3524:on April 12, 2013 2901:10.1021/es201902e 2341:on 21 August 2019 2335:World Oil Traders 2041:978-1-61583-673-4 1877:hearing disorders 1611:has also flown a 1520:) and Hydrogen (H 1372: 1371: 1364: 1311:Piston engine use 1282:ballistic missile 1241:dicyclopentadiene 1056:aircraft carriers 940:Jurassic Park III 902:Water in jet fuel 875:Metal deactivator 823:Antistatic agents 764: 763: 715:burn temperature 633:to Jet A-1 fuel. 353:Chemical compound 351: 350: 300:Safety data sheet 141:CompTox Dashboard 16:(Redirected from 4736: 4688:Hydraulic system 4683:Bleed air system 4673:Air-start system 4536:Counter-rotating 4485: 4466:Windmill restart 4436:Specific impulse 4406:Compressor stall 4340:Axial compressor 4243: 4211: 4204: 4197: 4188: 4147: 4146: 4136: 4118: 4086: 4080: 4079: 4031: 4025: 4024: 4006: 3982: 3976: 3975: 3957: 3933: 3927: 3926: 3885:(7–8): 261–265. 3870: 3864: 3863: 3845: 3821: 3815: 3814: 3761: 3750: 3749: 3713: 3707: 3706: 3701: 3699: 3684: 3678: 3677: 3671: 3669: 3655: 3646: 3635: 3634: 3632: 3630: 3620: 3614: 3613: 3611: 3610: 3601:. 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Archived from 2856: 2848: 2842: 2841: 2830: 2824: 2823: 2821: 2819: 2809: 2803: 2791: 2785: 2777: 2771: 2770: 2768: 2766: 2751: 2745: 2744: 2742: 2735: 2725: 2716: 2715: 2704: 2698: 2685: 2679: 2678: 2676: 2668: 2662: 2650: 2644: 2643: 2624: 2618: 2605: 2599: 2598: 2577: 2571: 2556:Larry Reithmaier 2553: 2544: 2531: 2525: 2524: 2522: 2520: 2514: 2503: 2495: 2489: 2488: 2483:. Archived from 2477: 2471: 2470: 2450: 2444: 2443: 2441: 2432: 2426: 2425: 2420:, archived from 2409: 2403: 2402:, United States. 2387: 2381: 2380: 2378: 2367: 2357: 2351: 2350: 2348: 2346: 2337:. Archived from 2327: 2321: 2320: 2319: 2317: 2311: 2304: 2294: 2288: 2287: 2285: 2284: 2269: 2263: 2262: 2260: 2259: 2236: 2230: 2229: 2227: 2226: 2220: 2213: 2205: 2199: 2198: 2196: 2189: 2181: 2175: 2174: 2172: 2171: 2160: 2151: 2150: 2148: 2142:. Archived from 2141: 2132: 2123: 2122: 2115: 2109: 2104: 2098: 2093:. Effective 0901 2088: 2082: 2081: 2078:www.shell.com.au 2070: 2061: 2060: 2058: 2050: 2044: 2029: 2018: 2017: 2015: 2014: 2008: 2002:. Archived from 2001: 1992: 1986: 1985: 1983: 1982: 1976: 1969: 1960: 1943: 1940: 1921: 1920: 1919: 1912: 1889:gastrointestinal 1881:hepatic diseases 1718:MTU Aero Engines 1678:Aero L-29 Delfín 1648:Aviation biofuel 1506:Heather Willauer 1417:Junkers Jumo 205 1412:general aviation 1367: 1360: 1356: 1353: 1347: 1323: 1322: 1315: 665: 579:being fueled at 561:being fueled at 476:fighter and the 470:Junkers Jumo 004 466:axial compressor 335: 329: 326: 325: 265: 258: 251: 236: 165: 164: 149: 147: 131: 94: 86: 58:being fueled at 47: 40: 21: 4744: 4743: 4739: 4738: 4737: 4735: 4734: 4733: 4704: 4703: 4702: 4697: 4661: 4644: 4635: 4631:Thrust reversal 4608:Engine controls 4602: 4565: 4555: 4531:Contra-rotating 4504: 4470: 4374: 4325:Accessory drive 4317: 4311: 4253:Air turborocket 4235: 4227: 4215: 4182:Wayback Machine 4156: 4151: 4150: 4088: 4087: 4083: 4033: 4032: 4028: 3997:(3S): 922–927. 3984: 3983: 3979: 3935: 3934: 3930: 3872: 3871: 3867: 3823: 3822: 3818: 3763: 3762: 3753: 3715: 3714: 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1947: 1946: 1941: 1937: 1932: 1927: 1917: 1915: 1907: 1905: 1853:skin conditions 1844: 1809: 1803: 1794: 1728:British Airways 1703:London Heathrow 1691:Virgin Atlantic 1685:Air New Zealand 1650: 1644: 1542: 1526:oligomerization 1523: 1519: 1456:Fischer–Tropsch 1453: 1447: 1395:engine knocking 1368: 1357: 1351: 1348: 1337: 1324: 1320: 1313: 1109:turbine engines 943: 928: 904: 825:, to dissipate 803: 790: 769: 740:Specific energy 719: 643: 616: 529: 524: 492:freezing points 487: 429:to improve its 408: 371:) is a type of 354: 347: 342: 341: 340: ?) 331: 327: 323: 319: 291: 288: 270: 269: 268: 267: 260: 253: 246: 242: 234: 168: 150: 143: 134: 114: 98: 76: 62: 48: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4742: 4740: 4732: 4731: 4726: 4721: 4716: 4714:Aviation fuels 4706: 4705: 4699: 4698: 4696: 4695: 4690: 4685: 4680: 4675: 4669: 4667: 4663: 4662: 4660: 4659: 4654: 4648: 4646: 4637: 4636: 4634: 4633: 4628: 4623: 4618: 4612: 4610: 4604: 4603: 4601: 4600: 4595: 4590: 4585: 4580: 4575: 4569: 4567: 4561: 4560: 4557: 4556: 4554: 4553: 4551:Variable-pitch 4548: 4543: 4538: 4533: 4528: 4526:Constant-speed 4523: 4518: 4512: 4510: 4506: 4505: 4503: 4502: 4497: 4491: 4489: 4482: 4476: 4475: 4472: 4471: 4469: 4468: 4463: 4458: 4453: 4448: 4443: 4438: 4433: 4428: 4423: 4418: 4413: 4408: 4403: 4398: 4393: 4388: 4382: 4380: 4376: 4375: 4373: 4372: 4367: 4362: 4357: 4352: 4347: 4342: 4337: 4332: 4327: 4321: 4319: 4313: 4312: 4310: 4309: 4304: 4299: 4294: 4289: 4284: 4279: 4274: 4269: 4264: 4255: 4249: 4247: 4240: 4238:jet propulsion 4229: 4228: 4216: 4214: 4213: 4206: 4199: 4191: 4185: 4184: 4172: 4170:MIL-DTL-83133H 4167: 4162: 4155: 4154:External links 4152: 4149: 4148: 4081: 4046:(3): 212–218. 4026: 3977: 3948:(3): 152–164. 3928: 3865: 3836:(1): 119–125. 3816: 3773:(4): 357–451. 3751: 3724:(2): 127–132. 3708: 3679: 3636: 3615: 3586: 3561: 3535: 3509: 3483: 3457: 3436: 3415: 3390: 3365: 3338: 3314: 3289: 3267: 3229: 3202: 3180: 3160: 3141: 3122: 3103: 3084: 3065: 3034: 3031:on 2011-05-15. 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Clark 1002: 998: 995: 994: 993: 988: 985: 984: 983: 978: 974: 970: 967: 966: 965: 963: 961: 957: 947: 941: 937: 933: 925: 923: 919: 917: 913: 909: 908:contamination 901: 899: 895: 888: 884: 880: 876: 873: 870: 866: 863: 860: 856: 853: 850: 846: 842: 839: 836: 832: 828: 824: 821: 818: 815: 811: 808: 807: 806: 800: 798: 795: 787: 785: 783: 779: 775: 766: 759: 756: 754: 751: 750: 746: 743: 741: 738: 737: 733: 730: 727: 724: 723: 714: 710: 709: 705: 702: 700: 697: 696: 690: 687: 686: 680: 677: 676: 672: 669: 667: 666: 660: 654: 651: 648: 647: 646: 640: 638: 634: 632: 624: 621: 620: 619: 613: 611: 609: 605: 601: 597: 593: 589: 582: 578: 575: 570: 564: 560: 557: 552: 545: 541: 537: 533: 526: 521: 519: 517: 513: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 484: 482: 479: 478:Arado Ar 234B 475: 471: 467: 462: 460: 456: 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 428: 425:) has a high 424: 420: 417: 413: 412:piston-engine 405: 403: 401: 397: 396:carbon number 393: 389: 384: 382: 378: 374: 373:aviation fuel 370: 366: 362: 358: 346: 339: 334: 317: 311: 308: 306: 304: 301: 298: 297: 293: 290: 284: 283: 279: 277: 274: 273: 266: 259: 252: 228: 225: 224: 220: 219: 214: 210: 208: 207:Boiling point 205: 204: 200: 198: 197:Melting point 195: 194: 190: 188: 185: 184: 180: 177: 176: 171: 163: 159: 155: 154: 152: 142: 138: 137: 130: 126: 125: 123: 121: 118: 117: 110: 109: 107: 105: 102: 101: 93: 89: 85: 81: 80: 78: 75: 71: 70: 65: 61: 57: 53: 46: 41: 33: 19: 4719:Liquid fuels 4656: 4652:Flame holder 4626:Thrust lever 4616:Autothrottle 4446:Thrust lapse 4401:Bypass ratio 4233:Gas turbines 4225:gas turbines 4098: 4094: 4084: 4043: 4039: 4029: 3994: 3990: 3980: 3945: 3941: 3931: 3882: 3878: 3868: 3833: 3829: 3819: 3770: 3766: 3721: 3717: 3711: 3703: 3696:. 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