504:, "hands-off housewife"). This stereotype describes women who typically have jobs and are not around the children as much, essentially becoming the female version of the stereotypical absent Japanese father, a "leisure-time parent" or "Sunday friend". These mothers are said to not do a lot of homemaking, commonly making large, freezable meals that are easy to reheat in case they are not home or too busy to do the cooking. They do not attempt to represent their families in the community through participation in their children's school PTA and other community functions.
433:. Other mothers who pass by the house will see the child's bedroom light off, assuming that the child has shirked his or her studies to watch television. The next morning, the mother will report what happened on the shows to her child, who will go to school and talk about it to his or her classmates, who will also assume that their friend is a slacker, lowering their expectations of their friend and for themselves. However, when examination time rolls around, the "slacker" will be admitted into an elite school while his or her friends will drop behind.
154:, a prestigious kindergarten for children who are three or four years old. Because of the kindergarten's affiliation with an elite university, parents are willing to go to extreme lengths to get their children enrolled. Aoyama Gakuin has room for 40 new students a year. Every year, it receives more than 2000 hopeful applicants. The tests the potential students take are known to be extremely difficult.
183:, and more children: siblings and cousins. Children who grew up in that time learned responsibilities through the care of younger siblings. These children relied on themselves in the outside world through much of their childhood lives. In those days, child-raising was more of a private matter, handled only by the child's surrounding family.
369:. While students' enrollment in high school slightly improved, academic achievement level remained lower than the national average. This study revealed that students' academic problems were deeply related to their home environments. Most students had parents who were uneducated and not involved in their children's education.
195:
in their child-raising abilities. Indeed, most
Japanese mothers today grew up in smaller families with only one or two children. Their mothers provided them with everything they needed and gave them little to no responsibilities involving their siblings. Thus, that generation of children has grown up
424:
Some mothers are beginning their children's education at even younger ages. A 30-year-old mother in Japan says, "This is my first baby, and I didn't know how to play with her or help her develop". She sends her 6-month-old daughter to a pre-pre-school in Tokyo. A headmaster at another pre-pre-school
364:
mothers are not as intensely active in their children's education as middle-class mothers. An ethnographic study by
Shimizu Tokuda (1991) portrayed one middle school that faced persistent academic problems in a working-class neighborhood of Osaka. The study illustrated efforts by teachers to improve
428:
Mothers are essentially in heavy competition with other mothers who want their children to get into the elite universities. In some cases, to make it seem like her own child is not studying as much, mothers will let their child use the parents' bedroom to study while the mothers watch television in
420:
Many
Japanese mothers dedicate much time to get their children from one entrance exam to another. At the national university entrance exams, held in Tokyo, most mothers travel with their children to the examination hall. They arrive and stay at a nearby hotel, grilling their children on last-minute
239:
When compared to
American mothers, Japanese mothers have a stronger belief in effort as opposed to innate ability. Japanese children see their efforts as necessary to fulfill a social obligation to family, peers, and community. Children are forced to focus on their effort, seeing it as the cause of
557:
In 2001, the
National Education Research Institute found that 33 percent of teachers and principals polled said that they had witnessed a complete breakdown of class "over a continuous period" due to defiant children "engaging in arbitrary activity". In 2002, the Japanese Education Ministry —
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about juku and education mamas occurred at the same time, in the 1970s. "As 'second schools', the juku, as consumer services, appealed to mothers’ anxieties about their children, shaping the image of the 'normal' mother as one who sends her children to juku and stays up to date with commercialized
243:
It is very hard to find daycare in some parts of Japan, and it is socially looked down upon if a mother sends her child to one. The mother is seen as insufficient, not having the skills to raise a child on her own, or selfish, giving her child over to a caretaker while she pursues her own separate
190:
In contemporary Japan, couples are having fewer children and teaching the children self-reliance. This involves consulting child-raising professionals. This new need in professional advice is commonly termed "child-raising neurosis" by professionals. Reliance on professionals has largely created a
138:
that blame women rather than political conditions. Getting a good, steady job in the future very much depends on getting into a good university, which depends on attaining high scores on the national university exams in a student's last year of high school. Ordinary people, including mothers, feel
302:
In the post-World War II era in Japan, the mother was the creator of a new child-centered world stamped with middle-class values. The mother was linked with the success of the child's education. A woman was expected to be a "good wife, wise mother" and became the single most important figure in
523:
has admitted that the education system and parental pressure are taking their toll on children. Education reforms that the
Ministry of Education has enacted beginning in the 1970s have challenged Japan's egalitarian school system. To decrease academic pressure among students from examination
146:
that leads to the right kindergarten, the best elementary school, junior high school, and high school, all of which may be associated with prestigious universities. To ensure these results, some parents have been known to commit unethical or illegal acts to promote their child's success.
303:
raising the child to become a successful future adult. Mothers needed to put their efforts into raising and teaching their children. Through self-cultivation and rearing of the children, the woman was crucial to a family's ability to claim a place in the so-called middle stratum.
240:
success. According to society, if a child does not succeed, they were not trying hard enough. This is unrelated to the child's grades; children always need to put forth more effort. Mothers pressure children because they are held strongly accountable for their children's actions.
120:). This encompassed a major responsibility to "rear children, especially the males, to successfully pass the competitive tests needed to enter high school and college". No such idiom emerged that deemed men "education papas"; it was "mamas" who became a social phenomenon.
540:
Post-war Japan in the 1950s made it a "national mission to accelerate its education program. Children of this era had to distinguish themselves from peers at an early age if they hoped to get into a top university. Entrance exams for these children began in kindergarten.
161:. In addition, which university a student attends is believed to affect one's choices for a future spouse. Because a child's life appears to be determined by what schools he or she attends, many mothers take extraordinary measures to get children into good schools.
527:
In 2002, the central government reduced school hours again, decreased content, and introduced a new curriculum at all public elementary schools to encourage individual students' learning interests and motivation. The
Japanese Ministry of Education published a
554:(after its global economic dominance in the previous decade) led to a loss of motivation by students. The once highly touted academic ratings of Japan in math and science fell behind those of American levels. The stress began to lead to classroom disruption.
209:), who adds psychosociological elements into child-raising. In addition to providing for her a good education, she develops an emotional and psychological relationship with her children. One way to do this is through "skinship"—being in constant close
186:
In the 1970s, men's wages decreased and women left home earlier to find jobs. These women "considered themselves free" after the child's junior high education. The previous generation did not feel this until after the child had finished high school.
411:
in Reagan's second term, praised Japan's "one parent on the scene" who "stays in touch with the teachers, supervises the homework, arranges extra instructional help if needed, and buttresses the child's motivation to do well in school and beyond".
456:), where children may stay until 10 or 11pm. Japan has over 35,000 cram schools for college examinations. In addition to cram schools, children are sent to calligraphy, keyboard, abacus, or kendo classes. As revealed by Marie Thorsten,
275:, magazines, products, and services for mothers are largely focused on improving the home and raising the children. Thus, the job of motherhood is taken very seriously by mothers in Japan. A common description of a mother's
72:'s drive for her children to succeed academically and professionally, resulting in a push for perfection and a continual dissatisfaction with anything less or the critical, self-sacrificing mother who coerces her child into
520:
231:
In Japan, a mother who works is commonly seen as selfish in a society where child-raising is linked directly with the physical closeness between mother and child. This emphasis can be a cause of the development of a
358:. For the education mother, making the child into a superior student was a concern that began with the child's entrance into elementary school at age six and extended to all aspects of the child's education.
287:
Kyōiku mamas, preparatory preschools, and heavily academic curricula exist in Japan, yet they are relatively rare and concentrated in urban, wealthy areas. Kyōiku mamas are prominent in the middle classes.
532:
stating that children do not have opportunities such as "coming into contact with nature, feeling awe and respect for life, and experiencing the importance of hard work learning from difficulties".
41:
is a stereotyped figure in modern
Japanese society, portrayed as a mother who relentlessly drives her child to study, to the detriment of the child's social and physical development, and emotional
107:
women's labor began at a few major corporations in Japan and was adopted by other companies within a decade. It became popular among married women in the 1970s and even more so by 1985.
68:
who takes an enormous amount of effort to direct much of her maternal influence towards developing their children's educational and intellectual achievement, and the stereotypical
569:, meaning "irritating and troublesome", has been rising in use among students as a description of the feelings they experience of being fed up with teachers, parents, and life.
544:
By the mid-1970s, pressure to achieve in children created the need for specialty schools. Seventy percent of students continued their long school day at juku or "cram schools".
110:
Women's return to the workplace is often explained two-fold: by financial demands to complement the family budget, and by psychological demands to relate themselves to society.
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The education system and larger political economy it serves influence why mothers become obsessed with children's education. Social prejudices influence media stereotypes of
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the student's academic performance: providing tests, promoting monthly teacher discussions, painting walls to enhance the study environment, and restricting hours spent in
425:
claims that the school, for children one year or older, helps to nurture and develop the children's curiosity through "tangerine-peeling or collecting and coloring snow".
487:, and school phobia. Children were aware they were their mother's purpose in life. Mothers played the role of their children's school teachers while they were at home.
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with her children. This could, for example, involve carrying her child on her back wherever she goes or bathing with her children every night. Through skinship,
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competition, the
Ministry of Education cut school hours and increased non-academic activities such as recess and clubs in elementary and junior high schools.
252:
381:, American leaders who put forth the image of "superhuman Japan" to boost American education performance extolled Japan's education-minded mothers. Both of
199:
In addition, in contemporary Japan there are mothers who completely devote themselves to child-raising. Another subtype, described by
Nishioka Rice, is the
385:'s education secretaries focused attention on Japanese mothers as mirrors to improve American families and schools. Reagan's first Secretary of Education,
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In the 1980s, a series of suicides linked to school pressures began. Elementary and middle school students took their lives after failing entrance exams.
2200:
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who always worries about her children's education success. This produces children that society views as lacking self-reliance, antisocial, and selfish.
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823:. Diss. University of California, Berkeley, 2006. ProQuest Digital Dissertations. ProQuest. University of Texas at Austin Libraries 30 October 2007
902:. Diss. University of California, Berkeley, 2006. ProQuest Digital Dissertations. ProQuest. University of Texas at Austin Libraries 30 Oct. 2007
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women train the children, the next generation of the middle class. In a speech at the 1909 Mitsukoshi children's exhibition, First Higher
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women in the 1960s inspired the media to produce the idiom kyōiku mama, which referred to "the domestic counterpart of sararii-man" (
808:. Diss. Columbia University, 2001. ProQuest Digital Dissertations. ProQuest. University of Texas at Austin Libraries 30 October 2007
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The issue is compounded by the notion that most important job positions in business and government are held by graduates of the
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asserted, "The education of a citizenry begins not with the infant but with the education of a country's mothers."
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The older generation of Japanese grew up in larger households than those normally found in Japan today. Back then,
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Unequal beginnings: Socioeconomic differences in Japanese mothers' support of their children's early schooling
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Unequal beginnings: Socioeconomic differences in Japanese mothers' support of their children's early schooling
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As education credentials became the recognized prerequisite to social advancement in the early 20th century,
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for its approach and initiatives in guiding industrial growth, in a manner similar to the definition of a
596:, a similar parenting style in Mainland China and other parts of East Asia, South Asia and Southeast Asia
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511:, although these may be caused due to harsher laws and intrinsic social values in the Japanese culture.
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Elliot, Julian. Bempechat, Janine. Learning in Culture and Context. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2002.
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Compared to modern American children, Japanese youths have less drug use, depression, violence, and
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223:) is achieved, a "one-ness and balanced, positively valenced dependency" between mother and child.
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Japan-think, Ameri-think: An Irreverent Guide to Understanding the Cultural Differences Between Us
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In one case, a restaurant owner paid a $ 95,000 bribe in an attempt to get his child enrolled in
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95:, and envied and resented by the mothers of children who study less and fare less well on exams.
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who forces her child to achieve show-business success in Hollywood, the stereotypical Chinese
34:
562:. This freed up time for students to learn in groups according to the students' chosen path.
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179:, "child-raising") included a larger surrounding environment, made up of more relatives and
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449:), where the mothers "parade their offspring around the neighborhood parks for approval".
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The Tea Ceremony and Women's Empowerment in Modern Japan: Bodies Re-presenting the Past
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Children as treasures: Childhood and the middle class in early twentieth-century Japan
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In the 1950s, full-time mothers devoted themselves to a smaller number of children.
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often give their children a big first appearance in the neighborhood through a
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722:. Rydalmere, New South Wales: Hodder Headline Australia Pty Limited, 1996.
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Housewives are surrounded by popular media that encourages their actions.
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to middle school and girls' higher school became intense, creating the
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pejorative term which translates literally as "education mother". The
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Superhuman Japan: Nation, Knowledge and Culture in US-Japan Relations
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resulted in the commonality of new childhood problems; these include
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pressured by the need to reform — eliminated 30 percent of its
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for boys and higher school for girls, to help improve the family's
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actively looked to the education system, especially admission into
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As a result, there is a clear map pointing students to the right
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to become mothers who have no idea how to raise their children.
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Preschool in Three Cultures: Japan, China and the United States
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statistics and making sure that they are not late to the exam.
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became used in other similar contexts. For example, the former
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Intelligence and How to Get It: Why Schools and Cultures Count
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Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology
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System in Transition. Tokyo: Yoshikaku Publishing Co., 1994.
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exemplified by Japanese mothers could reinvigorate America.
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Perfectly Japanese: Making Families in an Era of Upheaval
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634:. WW Norton (published January 26, 2010). p. 180.
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Tobin, Joseph J., David Y.H. Wu, and Dana Davidson.
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Kriman, Alfred. "SBF Glossary: Jo. to J-2". 10/25/07
2012:
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350:call of the mass of the middle class, there was no
87:is feared by her children, blamed by the press for
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691:. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.
377:In contrast to Japan's mostly negative images of
60:is analogous to American stereotypes such as the
661:. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1989.
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395:) wrote an enthusiastic foreword to Guy Odom's
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99:Factors influencing development of kyōiku mama
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452:Mothers send their children to cram schools (
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253:Ministry of International Trade and Industry
929:. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
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483:, stammering, poor appetite, proneness to
191:new generation of young mothers with low
52:is one of the best-known and least-liked
2126:Simultaneous recruiting of new graduates
885:. Tokyo: Yoshikaku Publishing Co., 1994.
883:The Japanese Family System in Transition
2161:Academic pressure in East Asian culture
857:The Japanese: Strange But Not Strangers
794:, Harvard University Press, 1979, p. 70
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651:
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490:Sometimes, a child who grows up with a
536:Japanese education and related stress
7:
461:trends in examination preparation."
763:Elliot, Julian. Bempechat, Janine.
346:), or rising in the world, was the
56:figures in contemporary Japan. The
767:. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2002
14:
2201:Stereotypes of middle class women
139:powerless to change this system.
735:. New York: Penguin Books, 1992.
765:Learning in Culture and Context
397:Mothers, Leadership and Success
1134:Light skin in Japanese culture
318:. The competition to pass the
1:
1000:Blood type personality theory
966:Japanese social concepts and
389:(credited for the wording of
2050:Japanese blue collar workers
630:Nisbett, Richard E. (2010).
279:is “three meals and a nap.”
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336:): examination hell. While
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2191:Pejorative terms for women
704:. London: Routledge, 2004.
552:economic collapse in Japan
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367:extracurricular activities
165:Changing family structures
127:
2176:Japanese family structure
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1111:Japanese political values
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416:Contemporary kyōiku mamas
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83:The stereotype is that a
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16:Japanese pejorative term
2055:Japanese business terms
2027:Business card etiquette
1838:Japanese street fashion
859:. London: Viking, 1993.
409:Department of Education
2196:Social issues in Japan
720:Japan Behind the Lines
550:During the 1990s, the
515:Government regulations
2166:Behavior modification
2087:Labor unions in Japan
975:Sociocultural values
565:The use of the term
320:entrance examination
124:The education system
103:In the early 1960s,
2092:Lifetime employment
1444:Japanese honorifics
791:Japan as Number One
731:Collins, Robert J.
465:Effects on children
159:University of Tokyo
2186:Maternity in Japan
2171:Education in Japan
2097:Management culture
1517:Sitting positions
925:Nathan, Jonathan.
872:. Routledge, 2012.
837:. Routledge, 2012.
804:Jones, Mark Alan.
589:Hong Kong children
579:Education in Japan
405:William J. Bennett
283:Class distinctions
273:Daytime television
130:Education in Japan
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2007:
1053:Hara hachi bun me
1023:Celibacy syndrome
868:Thorsten, Marie.
833:Thorsten, Marie.
584:Helicopter parent
509:teenage pregnancy
324:social phenomenon
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392:A Nation at Risk
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294:School principal
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211:physical contact
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178:
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32:
30:
29:
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2211:
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2181:Japanese values
2146:
2145:
2144:
2139:
2004:
1817:
1775:Parasite single
1685:
1550:Types of people
1545:
1539:Other positions
1469:
1418:Bowing in Japan
1401:
1392:
1271:
1265:Yamato-damashii
1005:Brother complex
970:
964:
934:
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924:
907:
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881:Ochiai, Emiko.
880:
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832:
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748:Japanese Family
744:Ochiai, Emiko.
743:
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594:Tiger parenting
575:
560:core curriculum
538:
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477:Parental stress
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316:social position
285:
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193:self-confidence
181:extended family
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1138:Mental states
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1077:Ichi-go ichi-e
1072:
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1011:
1009:Sister complex
1002:
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700:Kato, Etsuko.
693:
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641:978-0393337693
640:
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485:bone fractures
466:
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417:
414:
407:, head of the
374:
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352:risshin shusse
338:risshin shusse
284:
281:
268:
265:
228:
227:Societal views
225:
166:
163:
144:nursery school
125:
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100:
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89:school phobias
74:medical school
15:
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2022:Black company
2020:
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2015:
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1701:Herbivore men
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1095:Ishin-denshin
1091:
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927:Japan Unbound
922:
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855:Joseph, Joe.
852:
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496:tenuki okusan
494:turns into a
493:
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398:
394:
393:
388:
384:
383:Ronald Reagan
380:
373:American view
372:
370:
368:
363:
362:Working-class
359:
357:
353:
349:
339:
329:
328:shiken jigoku
325:
321:
317:
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312:middle school
309:
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202:
201:kosodate mama
197:
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188:
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172:
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162:
160:
155:
153:
152:Aoyama Gakuin
148:
145:
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114:Child-rearing
111:
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98:
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79:
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71:
70:Jewish mother
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
46:
44:
40:
36:
23:
22:
2102:Nenko system
2014:Work culture
1804:Yakuza ranks
1746:
1681:
1465:
1402:social norms
1180:
926:
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882:
877:
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834:
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820:
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805:
799:
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764:
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719:
718:Hills, Ben.
701:
696:
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614:
566:
564:
556:
549:
546:
543:
539:
526:
518:
506:
495:
491:
489:
474:
458:moral panics
451:
440:
437:Kyōiku mamas
436:
435:
427:
423:
419:
396:
390:
379:kyōiku mamas
378:
376:
360:
355:
351:
337:
327:
307:
305:
301:
297:Nitobe Inazō
290:Middle-class
286:
270:
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248:
246:
242:
238:
233:
230:
214:
200:
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185:
170:
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156:
149:
141:
136:kyōiku mamas
135:
133:
112:
109:
102:
84:
82:
66:tiger mother
62:stage mother
57:
49:
47:
38:
20:
19:
18:
2107:Office lady
1905:Netto-uyoku
1822:Subcultures
1749:Kyōiku mama
1686: [
1470: [
1461:Gift-giving
786:Vogel, Ezra
530:white paper
492:kyōiku mama
431:living room
387:Terrel Bell
356:kyōiku mama
308:kyōiku mama
261:nanny state
257:kyōiku mama
255:was dubbed
249:kyōiku mama
234:kyōiku mama
85:kyōiku mama
58:kyōiku mama
54:pop-culture
50:kyōiku mama
39:kyōiku mama
21:Kyōiku mama
2150:Categories
2080:Kyariaūman
1843:Genderless
1708:Hikikomori
1491:Giri choco
1277:Aesthetics
1211:Omotenashi
606:References
600:Soccer mom
471:Hikikomori
469:See also:
441:kōen debyū
401:Super Moms
354:without a
128:See also:
91:and youth
78:law school
43:well-being
2112:Salaryman
2043:Ho-Ren-Sō
1932:Akiba-kei
1763:Otokonoko
1648:Burakumin
1398:Etiquette
1368:Wabi-sabi
1305:Jo-ha-kyū
1202:Nemawashi
1193:Mottainai
1104:Isagiyosa
567:mukatsuku
326:known as
277:free time
247:The term
118:salaryman
105:part-time
2133:Zaibatsu
2071:Keiretsu
1968:Shotacon
1942:moe zoku
1914:Omorashi
1831:Bōsōzoku
1740:Jouhatsu
1666:Chūnibyō
1639:Bishōnen
1238:Tsundoku
1144:Fudōshin
1127:Kotodama
1035:Gekokujō
573:See also
215:ittaikan
93:suicides
35:Japanese
2119:Shinise
2062:Karoshi
1977:Reki-jo
1960:Lolicon
1951:Fujoshi
1939:Figure
1891:Visual
1859:Ganguro
1696:Freeter
1630:Bishōjo
1610:Sukeban
1581:Shizoku
1449:Manual
1411:Aizuchi
1229:Sontaku
1220:Shuhari
1171:Zanshin
1162:Shoshin
1068:tatemae
1016:Bushido
348:clarion
244:goals.
1998:fandom
1886:Lolita
1868:Gyaruo
1791:Senpai
1782:Sensei
1731:Ikemen
1722:Iemoto
1657:Chikan
1601:Banchō
1590:Heimin
1572:Kazoku
1511:Kamiza
1425:Dogeza
1359:Shibui
1332:Miyabi
1314:Kawaii
1153:Mushin
1118:Kaizen
1086:Ikigai
1044:Hansei
968:values
638:
501:手抜き奥さん
446:公園デビュー
2034:Haken
1923:Otaku
1877:Kogal
1850:Gyaru
1797:kōhai
1690:]
1683:Ebune
1675:Denpa
1621:Bijin
1532:Seiza
1523:Agura
1500:Ninjō
1474:]
1452:keigo
1386:Yūgen
1247:Ukiyo
1062:Honne
267:Media
206:子育てママ
171:ikuji
33:is a
1995:Yaoi
1986:Wota
1794:and
1756:NEET
1715:Idol
1482:Giri
1467:Gimu
1377:Yabo
1287:Ensō
1183:Miai
1065:and
1028:Face
993:Amae
984:Aiki
746:The
636:ISBN
519:The
454:juku
429:the
343:立身出世
333:試験地獄
48:The
28:教育ママ
1894:kei
1400:and
1341:Moe
1296:Iki
220:一体感
76:or
2152::
1964:/
1688:ja
1472:ja
1323:Ma
1256:Wa
1007:/
908:^
890:^
842:^
788:,
756:^
709:^
666:^
650:^
263:.
176:育児
80:.
45:.
959:e
952:t
945:v
644:.
498:(
443:(
340:(
330:(
217:(
203:(
173:(
31:)
25:(
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