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already confirmed the situation of blood smears at the provincial health department and verified the conditions of the disease and its onset. The investigation proposed two theories: one was that the epidemic originated from elsewhere and spread to Ningbo, as there had been a plague outbreak in
Qingyuan, southern Zhejiang; the other was that Japanese aircraft had spread fleas and other substances by dropping wheat and grains. However, the transport from Qingyuan to Ningbo was extremely inconvenient, and no outbreaks occurred along the way. The areas where Japanese aircraft dropped the most wheat and grains also had the highest death tolls. Additionally, strange fleas were found in the epidemic area, slightly smaller in size and red in color, distinct from local fleas. After the investigation, Rong Qirong supported Pollitzer's judgment, believing there was not enough scientific evidence for biological warfare.
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setters. The perimeter was tightly guarded by military and police forces, and the entire city's fire brigade was mobilized to protect the safety of buildings outside the epidemic area. At around six or seven in the evening, fires were simultaneously ignited at 11 locations within the epidemic area, and flames shot up into the sky, lasting for a full four hours. All the residences, shops, and factories within the epidemic area were engulfed by the blaze. A total of 115 households, comprising 137 houses, and 5000 square meters of buildings were reduced to rubble overnight. The fire spread to the houses across East Avenue, blackening their outer walls and sending sparks flying. The fire brigade then aimed their hoses at these row houses and activated the water pumps. In North
Taiping Lane, where the road was narrow, houses were specifically protected by sprinkler heads.
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This development pleased Shiro Ishii. Ishii concluded that for successful attacks, bacteria should not be dispersed from high altitude; instead, fleas and pathogens should be released together. Additionally, Shiro Ishii specifically filmed the Ningbo plague as a documentary to publicise his achievements. On 25 November 1940, the
Imperial Japanese Army instructed to terminate the experiments, with all participants instructed to return to their original units and maintain secrecy. By the end of 1940, the Emperor ordered the expansion of Unit 731, increasing its personnel to 3,000 and establishing the Hailar Detachment, Sunwu Detachment, Hailin Detachment, and Linkou Detachment. Starting from 1940, an annual budget of 10 million yen was allocated to Unit 731. Shiro Ishii, the commander of Unit 731, was promoted to Major General on 1 March 1941.
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764:, the Magistrate of Yin County, requesting the submission of post-growing photographs of airdropped wheat as evidence, to be forwarded to Chongqing for verification. He also mentioned that detailed records of plague cases from the previous year and investigations related to patient onset needed to be provided urgently in response to central government requests. Chen Wanli further instructed Zhang, the director of the Yin County Health Bureau, to submit detailed records of plague cases from the previous year and to send a copy of the plague patient investigation form. He emphasized that all documents needed to be submitted within ten days for transmission to the central authorities, including information on the isolation status of all patients and the entire period of quarantine work.
771:, resulting in 2810 being infected with the plague. Immediately after the attack, Chen Wengui led a team to investigate. He personally performed autopsies on the bodies and injected lymph node puncture blood from patients into guinea pigs, which died five days later. By observing patient samples and conducting pathological analysis, it was concluded that the patients died from septicemia caused by Yersinia pestis. Chen Wengui compiled the evidence gathered into the "Investigation Report on the Plague in Changde, Hunan," confirming Japanese bacteriological warfare. However, the Nationalist government, considering the matter's impact on international credibility, altered the report. It was not until 1950 that the report resurfaced from the archives.
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bacteriological weapons. The committee confirmed that the experiments and production conducted by the
Japanese Kwantung Army's Unit 731, Unit 100, and Unit 1644 of the Japanese Expeditionary Forces in China were aimed at exploring and manufacturing bacteriological weapons, as well as researching methods for their use. The committee also confirmed that in 1940, under the leadership of Shiro Ishii, a combat expedition equipped with large quantities of bacillus anthracis, vibrio cholerae, and plague-infected fleas was sent to Ningbo. The aerial dissemination of plague-infected fleas by aircraft resulted in a plague epidemic in the Ningbo area.
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wall to prevent the spread of the epidemic, ensuring that plague-infested fleas could not escape. To prevent the spread of the disease, the disinfection team implemented a series of measures. They primarily sealed the cracks along the street walls with white paper and sprayed lime water along the way. Shops and houses were sealed and subjected to 12 hours of sulphur fumigation for disinfection. Furthermore, ceilings and floors were pried open and filled with lime water to thoroughly remove the bodies of dead rats. Additionally, all domestic animals such as dogs and cats within the epidemic area were culled.
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450:, an acute disease outbreak was reported in Kaiming Street of Ningbo, spreading severely. Within just three days, over 10 deaths were reported. Subsequently, people from neighbouring establishments such as Wang Shunxing's bakery, Hu Yuanxing's dominoes shop, Yuan Tai Hotel, Bao Changxiang underwear shop on East Zhongshan Road, and the vicinity of Donghou Street, all experienced fatalities. Infected individuals exhibited symptoms including high fever, headache, dizziness, staggering gait, sometimes confusion, swelling and pain in the lymph nodes, and diarrhoea before death. Initially, people mistook it for
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initially suspected to be caused by enemy aircraft spreading poison. However, based on factual inference, several factors may have contributed to the outbreak: the
Donghou Street area used to have a city moat, which was filled with garbage when the riverbed was filled. In the garbage pile, dead rats were inevitably mixed in. Due to the long decomposition of dead rats or the breeding of toxins in the garbage, once they entered the human body, it would trigger a plague-like outbreak. From this report, it can be inferred that the source of the plague in Ningbo this time was similar to the
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vaccination team, covering an area from the epidemic area centred around
Kaiming Street, extending east to Qizha Street, south to Daliang Street, west to the North and South Main Roads, and north to Cangshui Street in the city centre. All residents, including primary and secondary school students, were required to receive the vaccination. On 10 November, Chen Wanli, Director of the Zhejiang Provincial Health Bureau, led the 17th Epidemic Prevention Team of the National Health Administration to Ningbo with the vaccines. In total, 23,343 individuals received the injections.
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November onwards, concerns about personal safety were openly expressed by those responsible for sealing off and isolating the area. Since 23 November, there had been public complaints and protests against the isolation measures. Local media also began questioning the authenticity of the epidemic, with those raising doubts and objections being officially rebutted and condemned. However, there were few who questioned the isolation measures themselves, indicating community understanding of the corresponding risks and support for such actions.
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October, with 3 cases reported on the 31st, increasing to 9 cases on 1 November, peaking at 13 cases on the 6th, 10 cases on the 8th, 8 cases on the 9th, and 7 cases on the 12, gradually declining thereafter until the last case on 7 December, lasting a total of 39 days with 112 reported cases. Patients who escaped from the epidemic area created conditions for a "second infection." According to research conducted by the
Japanese military in Ningbo, it was found that 1450 people died in the second round of infections.
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October, the
Japanese launched a total of six attacks on Ningbo, none of which resulted in a plague outbreak. Despite fleas being dropped in Quzhou on 4 October, there were no apparent effects by the end of October.On 22 October, Japanese military aircraft flew over Ningbo and dropped wheat and other items. The airstrikes in Quzhou did not attract the attention of the provincial government, which instead focused on a plague outbreak in Qiyuan, not associated with the Imperial Japanese Army.
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p.m. on 30 November and was overseen by officials from the
Provincial Health Department and local residents of Ningbo. Prior to the burning, nearby streets were closed to traffic, and surrounding buildings were protected by the fire brigade. Except for valuable items that could be disinfected and removed, all other belongings within the epidemic area were incinerated. Provincial Health Department Director Chen Wanli inspected the area and approved the decision.
439:, so it was common for households to collect rainwater in one or two large jars placed under the eaves of their courtyards for drinking and cooking. On the evening of 27 October, heavy rain in Ningbo washed wheat grains from rooftops into these water jars. Some poultry that consumed the wheat grains died the following day. People noticed a sudden increase in fleas in Donghou Street and Kaiming Street, but there were no reports of deaths among
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source of the epidemic, experts concluded that the area was relatively concentrated and situated in a bustling urban district. Additionally, beneath these houses, there used to be a small river that was purchased and filled in by homeowners during the expansion of East Main Road. However, in some areas, remnants of the river remained, filled with debris, making it challenging to disinfect using conventional methods.
414:, an American missionary in Ningbo, noted in his diary that while Japanese aircraft usually flew in groups when arriving in Ningbo, this time there was only one aircraft, which was unusual, and observed that after the aircraft passed, it seemed to release a cloud that dispersed downward. Local residents had no experience of a plague outbreak, and no one mentioned that this was a biological weapons attack that day.
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Donghou Street. Additionally, there were 8 upstairs houses, 5 front and back small coverings, and 3 high-level flat-roofed houses in the
Kaiming Street temple, and 28 third-floor market houses and 3 second-floor market houses in Taiping Lane. Until the 1960s, this burned area was still referred to as the "plague field." After the Imperial Japanese Army entered Ningbo in 1941, they demolished the isolation walls.
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397:, a plan was implemented to release bacteria among ordinary residents, with pathogens being introduced into residents' water pools, wells, and even placed hundreds of seemingly abandoned desserts and fruits injected with large quantities of typhoid and paratyphoid bacteria by the Imperial Japanese Army at doorsteps and treesides, deceiving local residents who lacked food to consume.
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Party and Mass Service Center. The curved wall on the right side of the entrance of the exhibition hall lists the names of all the victims. In the centre of the hall, there is a sand table displaying a model of the buildings in the Kaiming Street epidemic area, reconstructed according to the "Epidemic Area Map" provided by the family of the victim Hu Dingyang.
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constructed on the open ground of Kaiming Lane in the southwest corner of the epidemic area for boiling and disinfection purposes. Disinfection personnel wore protective clothing and hats, and based on the household information in the registration book, items were removed for disinfection house by house, with family members responsible for collection.
977:." In 2005, the monument was relocated to the original site of the bacteriological epidemic area on the west side of Tianyi Haoting. The new monument's front is engraved with the words "Do Not Forget National Humiliation, Strive to Strengthen the Nation," with bacteriological warfare historical materials and a list of victims carved on both sides.
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Ningbo, including when and where it first occurred, which household was initially affected, whether there was aircraft dispersal of wheat, and whether there were accusations from the local population against the Japanese military, among other details. This questioning lasted for about two hours, and the contents were meticulously recorded.
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involved in bacteriological warfare in Khabarovsk. During the Khabarovsk trial, Japanese prisoners admitted to the events of the "aerial dissemination of pathogens" that took place in Ningbo in 1940. Susumu Hatano testified that the experiment in Ningbo was the first actual field test and, because it
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and Wang Xuan, a descendant of victims of bacterial warfare in China, held a press conference in Tokyo. They urged the Japanese government to disclose information on bacterial warfare and face up to historical truths. The organization discovered the first part of a classified military report from the
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At the 19th anti-epidemic meeting held on 28 November, due to the poor condition of the houses in the epidemic area and its low-lying location, which made it an ideal breeding ground for rats and fleas, the county government decided to burn down the epidemic area. The burning operation commenced at 7
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On the evening of 2 November, the county government imposed a blockade and isolation on the area and conducted routine disinfection of households. As a preventive measure, bed sheets and cloth were burned, and officials promptly began vaccinations. Wang Shunxing's bakery, Hu Yuanxing's dominoes shop,
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invited physicians to form a prevention and control committee, with Zhang Fangqing, the director of the Central Hospital, appointed as the head of the Medical Affairs Department, and Sun Jinshi as the attending physician. Based on Sun Jinshi's preliminary diagnosis of patient symptoms, they suspected
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On 4 October 1940, wheat and barley items dropped by Japanese aircraft were found in Quzhou. That afternoon, the county magistrate ordered the residents of Quzhou to gather and burn the air-dropped items. Starting from 10 October, the area began to see deaths from the diseases. From 18 September to 8
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Committee, the District Radio, Television, and News Bureau, the District Cultural Relics Management Office, and the Ningbo New Fourth Army Historical Research Association jointly established the "Ningbo Kaiming Street Plague Disaster Exhibition Hall" on the second floor of the Tianyi Business Circle
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In 1996, a group of Japanese anti-war activists came to China to investigate the victims of bacteriological warfare and expressed their willingness to help the victims sue the Japanese government for its crimes. Subsequently, in 1997 and 1999, a total of 180 plaintiffs from Zhejiang (Quzhou, Ningbo,
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in 1981 that the unit's activities were first revealed to the public. In the first half of the 20th century, including during World War II, dozens of lawsuits for wartime compensation were filed against the Japanese government and companies associated with Japanese aggression. However, almost all of
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to discuss the plague in Ningbo. During the meeting, Chen Wengui, a microbiologist, who attended the meeting, pointed out that the Japanese had conducted bacteriological warfare in China, but he was accused of being overly sensitive by the conference chairman. During the Zhejiang Plague Consultation
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that there was a strong correlation between the Ningbo plague and the suspected Japanese aircraft dissemination, citing evidence of Japanese aircraft dispersing plague bacilli in Jinhua, which could prove Japan's use of bacteriological warfare. While Zhejiang's provincial government introduced a law
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reported that Japanese aircraft attacked Jinhua on 28 November 28, and in addition to releasing poison gas, also dispersed Gram-negative bacilli, attempting to attack civilians. By December 3, the Shishi Gongbao suggested that the source of the plague in Ningbo was "enemy aircraft spreading poison,"
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During the three-month-long bacteriological warfare, six areas including Ningbo were subjected to various forms of bacteriological attacks. In Quzhou, the Japanese employed aircraft to scatter grain and wheat seeds carrying bacteria; in Ningbo, aircraft were used to spread bacterium-laden grains and
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used biological and chemical weapons against Soviet and Mongolian troops. On June 13, large quantities of white powder were airdropped in the vicinity of Lihai, Shaoxing. On June 15, chemical tests conducted by the local river police did not reveal any abnormalities, but subsequent bacterial culture
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After the outbreak of the plague, the city authorities in Ningbo built a 4.3-meter-high isolation wall around the epidemic area, segregating patients and suspected cases, and eventually burned down the Kaiming Street area to eradicate the disease. Until the 1960s, this burned area was still referred
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On 29 December 1949, a forensic medical examination committee composed of six medical biologists, including academician Zhukov-Verezhnikov, from the Soviet Academy of Medical Sciences, studied all the materials related to the criminal case against Japanese prisoners charged with preparing and using
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From 8 November onwards, a wall measuring over one yard high was erected around the perimeter of the epidemic area. The wall's surface was plastered with mud and covered with arched white iron sheets on the top. Additionally, a three-foot wide and four-foot deep isolation trench was dug outside the
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both inside and outside the epidemic area. The Class A and Class C hospitals were located at Tongshun Store and Kaiming Hermitage. The Class B hospital was within the Yongyao Power Building. Residents' clothing, miscellaneous items, and furniture were disinfected and transported by stretcher teams.
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Starting from 7 November, three quarantine hospitals—designated as Class A, Class B, and Class C—were established. Class A was tasked with treating confirmed plague patients, while Part B oversaw asymptomatic residents under observation within the affected area. Part C dealt with suspected patients
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became one of the important seaports for China to obtain international aid supplies, with a daily throughput of over 10,000 tons of goods. As a port city with a population of 260,000, Ningbo had numerous streets, dense housing, crowded residents, relatively poor sanitary conditions, high population
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dropped infected wheat, rice, or cotton, leading to mysterious disease outbreaks in villages. Despite a series of confessions from former soldiers, the Japanese government acknowledged the unit's existence but still refused to disclose the scope of scientists' activities. During the debates in the
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Union's trial of Japanese bacteriological warfare criminals. The report criticized the Zhejiang Health Department at the time for not taking action when the Japanese military continuously disseminated plague bacteria in various areas of Zhejiang, instead covering up for the Imperial Japanese Army.
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The county secretary, Zhang Hongbin, assumed temporary control of the county government, and on 6 November, the Yin County Epidemic Prevention Office was established, concurrently forming a team to search for fugitive patients. Township governments under the county also issued a notice refusing to
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in Nanjing. It was decided during the discussions that the main cities in Zhejiang would be targeted, and the method of operation would involve dispersing bacterial liquids from aircraft and air-dropping fleas infected with plague. On August 6, a heavily guarded train departed from the barracks of
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In June 1940, the Imperial Japanese Army headquarters formally discussed the use of biological weapons and issued orders to begin biological warfare. On 5 June 1940, discussions on the implementation of bacteriological warfare were held by Colonel Kozo Aramaki from the Operations Department of the
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On 3 September 1995, the Ningbo Municipal People's Government erected a monument on the pedestrian walkway of Kaiming Street, inscribed with the words "Site of the Plague Field in Ningbo Infected by the Bacteriological Warfare of the Japanese Invaders," with the central inscription reading "Never
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After news of the Khabarovsk trial reached China, the Zhejiang Daily published a news article on 7 February 1950, stating that personnel from the Zhejiang Provincial Health Department, including Wang Yuzhen, Zheng Jie'an, Yu Hanjie, and Jin Qiu, submitted a written report in support of the Soviet
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The Japanese military monitored the local media reports and regularly dispatched military aircraft to surveil the situation. The air raids resulted in a plague outbreak, leading to the success of bacteriological warfare attacks by rapidly disseminating a certain bacterial vector through aircraft.
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On 10 December 1940, Chen Wanli reported to the Nationalist Government, stating, "About a week before the onset of the illness, enemy aircraft dropped about 2 liters of wheat over the epidemic area. Whether this is related to the epidemic is yet to be determined." By mid-December, Chen Wanli, Liu
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At around 7 a.m. on 27 October, air raid sirens sounded in downtown Ningbo, and Japanese military aircraft flew over the streets of the city, dropping leaflets instead of bombs. According to eyewitness Hu Xianzhong, the leaflets depicted flags of Japan, Germany, and Italy, and a cartoon depicting
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to as the "plague field". According to the doctoral thesis of Junichi Kaneko, a military doctor of Unit 731, on October 27, 1940, Unit 731 spread 2 kilograms of plague bacteria over Ningbo, Zhejiang, using aircraft, resulting in a total of 1,554 deaths from the first- and second-round infections.
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During the five-year trial, veterans of Unit 731 admitted to participating in live dissections, cultivating agents such as anthrax, typhoid, and cholera, and releasing plague-infected fleas into villages. Plaintiffs from China flew to Japan to testify, describing how Japanese planes flew low and
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According to the doctoral thesis of Junichi Kaneko, a military doctor of Unit 731, on 27 October 1940, Unit 731 scattered 2 kilograms of plague bacteria over Ningbo, Zhejiang Province, using aircraft. According to the data shown in the thesis's charts, the plague began to spread in Ningbo on 30
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received accusations stating that the epidemic was not the plague and that burning down houses was unnecessary. In January 1941, Jin Baoshan dispatched the Director of the Epidemic Prevention Department, Rong Qirong, and others to investigate in Zhejiang. Before arriving in Ningbo, Pollitzer had
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On 30 November 1940, the authorities of Yin County carried out their plan to burn down all the houses in the epidemic area. Several points were selected within the epidemic area as ignition points, where straw was laid down, soaked with petrol, and designated routes were established for the fire
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On 14 November, the search team for escaped patients successfully apprehended 14 individuals.Subsequently, a total of 38 residents who had fled the epidemic area were gradually recovered. Shockingly, the number of deaths among those who escaped the area reached as high as 32 individuals. From 15
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observed under a microscope. Within days after the airdrop, the weather in Shaoxing was clear and sunny, with abundant sunlight, which was not conducive to bacterial growth, so no epidemic outbreak occurred. This is the earliest recorded instance of the Japanese military's bacteriological weapon
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The specific areas burned included 224 to 268 East Zhongshan Road, Jiang Zhongji to Jiuhe Xiang Smoke Shop, 64 to 98 Kaiming Street, 139, 133, 129, 128, 127, 126, 125, 124, 123, 122, 121, 120, 118, 130 (Tongshun Store), 131, 134, 136 (Wang Renlin), 138, 132, 140, 141 (Xu Shenglai), 142, and 143
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The epidemic area comprised over 200 houses, mostly of brick and wood construction. Along East Main Road and Kaiming Street, the street-facing houses typically had three or pseudo-three floors, while those within the alleys were mostly two or single-storey buildings. To thoroughly eradicate the
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From 4 November onwards, an isolation zone spanning over 5000 square metres around the affected area was demarcated. Considering the inconvenience of transporting patients to Dayuwangmiao, due to its distance from the outbreak site, a Class A Isolation Hospital was established in Tongshun Store
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in investigating the effectiveness of the plague attack in Ningbo. In early May, eleven senior Japanese generals visited the vicinity of the epidemic area to meet with Jin Tirong, who was responsible for epidemic prevention work in 1940. They extensively queried the occurrence of the plague in
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from hospitals, but it proved ineffective. On the morning of 1 November, nearly ten households in Kaiming Street, East Main Road, Donghou Street, and Taiping Alley reported deaths, with an increasing number suffering from colds and fever. Nine people succumbed to the disease on that day alone.
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To address the issue of handling materials within the epidemic area, a property registration office was established to register all houses and items within the epidemic area. For valuable or movable items, disinfection was mandatory before removal from the epidemic area. Two large stoves were
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published an article titled "Investigating the Origin of the Disease," which rejected the speculation of Japanese biological weapons and put forward the "local origin" theory. The article pointed out that a similar plague event occurred in the Donghou Street area of Kaiming Street, which was
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within the isolation zone to admit patients exhibiting clear symptoms. Additionally, a Class B Isolation Hospital was established at Kaiming Lecture Hall on Kaiming Street adjacent to the outbreak area to accommodate individuals suspected of being infected. On 5 November, the local newspaper
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in Zhejiang did not experience a plague epidemic. However, people may have been aware of the plague near Ningbo in Shanghai in 1910. The incubation period of the plague is 2 to 8 days. At the time of the outbreak, sulfa drugs, streptomycin, and other antibiotics had not yet been invented, so
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On 8 November, the Yin County government held its second epidemic prevention meeting, mandating that residents within the epidemic area and other relevant individuals must receive preventive injections of the plague vaccine. To facilitate this, the county government established a dedicated
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in Nanjing to conduct research on biological and chemical weapons. Units 1644 and 731 studied the effects of various chemicals and pathogens that could be used as biological weapons on soldiers and civilians and developed weapons to further expand the Japanese Empire's territory in Asia.
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By November 3, 16 deaths had occurred, followed by another 7 on the next day. The highest recorded death toll in a single day was 20. Wails echoed along Kaiming Street, with mourners clad in mourning attire abound. Ding Licheng, the director of Hua Mei Hospital, obtained samples through
707:, the Chairman of the Zhejiang Provincial Government, telegraphed all county magistrates, instructing them to immediately report any outbreaks and establish epidemic prevention committees to promptly seal off affected areas and isolate patients. He also reported the finding to
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accommodate residents from the affected area. Schools, public places, hotels, and restaurants ceased operations one after another. From that day onwards, families were prohibited from burying bodies privately, and all deceased patients were required to be buried deep in
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but stopped short of making a definitive statement, only stating that "the enemy's intentions are sinister, and poisoning is possible." However, Ningbo health officials remained divided on whether the epidemic in Ningbo originated from Japanese biological weapons.
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mobility, and frequent goods entering and leaving, making it easy for the plague to spread and proliferate through people and goods transmission. Kaiming Street is a north-south urban main road in Ningbo and is the main commercial centre of the old city.
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In April 1941, following the Japanese occupation of Ningbo, a further investigation into the effectiveness of the plague attack in Ningbo was launched. The Kwantung Army transferred five researchers from Unit 731 to Nanjing to collaborate with
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himself, along with cotton, shredded cloth, and other materials to protect the fleas. Corn and cloth were infested with fleas carrying pathogens of cholera and plague to infect rats, which would then transmit the diseases to human hosts.
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was conducted on enemy territory, the results were inconclusive. However, the Japanese military drew conclusions about the bacteriological warfare experiment based on information recorded in Ningbo newspapers and laboratory test data.
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puncture fluid examination, and had the plague bacillus detected by Hua Mei's examiner Xu Guofang, followed by multiple tests and rechecks by the provincial health department. On 4 November, Ding Licheng issued a statement to the
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was suffering from famine and hardship while the Japanese people were well-fed and had surplus food to help them. Around 2 p.m., Japanese aircraft reappeared and air-dropped barley, millet, flour, and clusters of cotton balls.
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since July 1940. The Japanese army also referred to this operation as the "Operation Hangzhou.". According to the plan, aircraft would take off from Hangzhou Jianqiao Airport and drop ceramic bacteriological bombs developed by
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Jingbang, and Ke Zhuguang confirmed that the plague in Qu County and Jinhua was the result of "enemy aircraft spreading poison." Huang Shaoheng, Chairman of the Zhejiang Provincial Government, pointed out in his report to the
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residents of Ningbo could not have access to antibiotics and were primarily treated with serum. Without treatment, the mortality rate of the plague was almost 100%, and there was not enough serum supply prepared in advance.
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Huang Ketai pointed out that unlike previous epidemics, the Ningbo plague in 1940 occurred in winter rather than summer and was carried by fleas that were not native to the region, killing humans without affecting mice.
836:. This report directly documented Japan's conduct of bacterial warfare in China, challenging the Japanese government's claim of "no evidence" in response to Chinese accusations of Unit 731's bacterial warfare.
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853:, and it calculates the effectiveness of spreading bacteria bombs on the battlefield. The report lists the quantities of PX used and the number of infected individuals in various locations in China, including
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Jiangshan, Yiwu), and Hunan (Changde) filed lawsuits against Japan, demanding that the Japanese government acknowledge its crimes of bacteriological warfare in China and apologise and compensate the victims.
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upheld the ruling of the Tokyo District Court in 2002 and rejected the request for an apology from the Japanese government for its biological warfare in China before and during World War II. The
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these lawsuits were rejected by Japanese courts. Nevertheless, the Japanese government has never formally acknowledged that the Japanese military conducted bacteriological warfare.
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In 2002, based on 28 hearings and a large amount of evidence, the Tokyo District Court wrote a written summary confirming for the first time that the Japanese military conducted
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from the Zhejiang Provincial Health Department and others involved in the prevention and control of plague in Zhejiang, such as Liu Jingbang, did not believe that the plague in
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After the failure of the rapid decisive victory plan in the war against China, the Japanese military began using bacteriological weapons. In the summer of 1939, during the
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On 15 October 2011, representatives of the Tokyo-based citizen organization "Revealing the Truth of Unit 731's Bacterial Warfare" and five others, including Professor
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to manage airdrops from Japanese aircraft, Chen Wanli and other Zhejiang health officials were disbelieved by the experts of National Health Administration, including
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546:, along with the publication of the first epidemic prevention special edition. Subsequently, daily updates on epidemic prevention measures continued to be featured.
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877:. It states that over 26,000 people were infected once or twice, defining PX as "the best bacterial bomb, capable of causing psychological and economic panic."
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Imperial Japanese Army General Staff, Major Kumaomi Imoto from the China Expeditionary Army Staff, and Lieutenant Colonel Tomosada Masuda, acting commander of
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subsequently rejected the appeal, stating that international law prohibits foreign citizens from directly seeking compensation from the Japanese government.
2030:[Message from the Health Department of the Zhejiang Provincial Government to the Commissioners of Yin County, Qu County and the Fifth District].
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and the Nara Unit, responsible for bacteriological warfare and composed of personnel from Unit 731 and Unit 1644, to select the targets for the attacks:
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1404:"Historical reconstruction of the community response, and related epidemiology, of a suspected biological weapon attack in Ningbo, China (1940)"
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on August 16, 1937, the Japanese military had directly attacked Ningbo at least 7 times. On 17 July 1940, the Japanese military first invaded
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Conference chaired by Jin Baoshan, Robert Pollitzer expressed skepticism about the theory of bacteriological warfare causing the plague.
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plague in 1938, both originating locally due to "rotting dead rats" or "garbage brewing toxins" leading to the occurrence of the plague.
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Yuan Tai Hotel, Bao Changxiang underwear shop on East Zhongshan Road, and the vicinity of Donghou Street, all experienced fatalities.
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On 28 November 1940, the Japanese bombed Jinhua, scattering granular particles resembling fish eggs, which were confirmed to contain
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Army Medical School's Epidemic Research Institute, titled "Estimation of PX's Effectiveness," at the Kansai Branch of the
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216:. He planned and raised funds for Japan's biological weapons program. In 1939, the Imperial Japanese Army established
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tests revealed turbidity in one test tube and cotton-like floating substances in another, with pathogens such as
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and recorded the content on December 14, 1943. The report explains that "PX" refers to fleas infected with
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2525:
2406:
970:
949:
753:
724:
567:
371:
229:
172:
1859:
1685:
2314:
2199:
1767:
1727:
829:
2317:[The Great Scourge That Must Not Be Forgotten - Kaimingjie Plague Disaster Exhibition Centre].
2357:
1274:
729:
501:
411:
1403:
929:
820:
870:
793:
2027:
1498:
1961:
1311:
941:
866:
188:
152:
1829:
670:
1348:
Hidden Atrocities: Japanese Germ Warfare and American Obstruction of Justice at the Tokyo Trial
1190:
960:
711:
via telegram, asserting that his province was under the attack of Japanese biological weapons.
2434:
2284:
2246:
2238:
2207:
2165:
1533:
1423:
1146:
1075:
1013:
854:
844:
761:
489:
1997:
1645:
1415:
945:
497:
485:
320:
17:
1640:
622:
2454:
1113:
911:
After the war, the activities of Unit 731 remained confidential and did not appear in the
849:
824:
708:
699:
443:. Rumours circulated that the Japanese air raid was actually a biological weapons attack.
335:
287:
209:
156:
1931:
1108:
1553:
981:
933:
704:
493:
376:
307:
213:
191:
until the end of October 1940, when the attacks triggered a plague epidemic in Ningbo.
175:'s Unit 731 and Unit 1644, this attack was operated by military planes taking off from
2122:
2514:
1584:
1240:
874:
394:
2460:
803:
315:
217:
1419:
1243:[Ningbo Bubonic Plague Tragedy｜Diseased father, nailed alive in coffin].
760:
On 5 March 1941, Chen Wanli, the highest health official of Zhejiang, informed
2089:
630:
513:
238:
2288:
2250:
2211:
2169:
1889:
1427:
393:, explosions from bombs dropped by aircraft produced a pale yellow smoke; in
83:
70:
2498:
2490:
2484:
2480:
2470:
2424:
2092:[Records of Bacterial Warfare by the Japanese Army Found in Kyoto].
745:
436:
327:. The train was loaded with 700 aerial bombs, 20 vehicles, 70 kilograms of
2356:(PhD thesis) (in Japanese). Tokyo: The University of Tokyo. Archived from
2061:[Evidence of Japanese germ warfare against China found in Kyoto].
2450:
2440:
2430:
2420:
347:
324:
251:
180:
164:
2474:
2464:
2444:
862:
843:" and contains the name of a senior military doctor who graduated from
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440:
234:
1461:
858:
674:
480:
390:
363:
359:
355:
263:
259:
255:
184:
160:
1366:"Imperial Japan's Human Experiments Before And During World War Two"
504:, stated that it was still uncertain whether it was genuine plague.
959:
833:
792:
629:
621:
600:
588:
572:
556:
548:
528:
470:
426:
302:
168:
767:
On 4 November 1941, using the same method, the Japanese attacked
446:
On 30 October, according to the local Chinese-language newspaper
303:
451:
340:
2379:
1074:(in Simplified Chinese). Beijing: China Social Sciences Press.
797:
The wall of plague field after the Japanese occupation in 1941
533:
Shishi Gongbao, 5 November special issue for disease control
2200:"Japan guilty of germ warfare against thousands of Chinese"
544:
Great Disaster: All Citizens Unite to Eradicate the Plague
343:. Shiro Ishii was the overall director of this operation.
677:
at that time was caused by Japanese biological weapons.
151:'Kaiming Street Plague Disaster') was a secret
593:
A shop assistant died in a boat when escaping the city
187:, and other places were subjected to various forms of
2410:
Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department
744:
convened a national health technology conference in
1402:Wilson, James M.; Daniel, Mari (23 February 2019).
159:in October 1940 against the Kaiming Street area of
115:
107:
99:
60:
52:
44:
521:, officially declaring the epidemic as "plague."
346:On September 10, 1940, negotiations were held in
1532:. Hangzhou: Zhejiang People's Publishing House.
488:, with the majority of patients suffering from
1282:(PhD thesis). Tokyo: The University of Tokyo.
1072:Plague Wars Launched by Japanese Army in China
366:as a backup, to coincide with the blockade of
2391:
2158:"Japanese court rejects germ warfare damages"
8:
890:On 25 December 1949, the Soviet Union began
30:
2321:(in Simplified Chinese). 3 September 2021.
2277:"Japan rejects appeal for war compensation"
146:
2398:
2384:
2376:
405:"Sino-Japanese friendship," claiming that
36:
29:
839:The cover of the report bears the words "
2123:"'Japan bombed China with plague-fleas'"
1823:
1821:
1819:
500:detected. Ding Licheng, the director of
2193:
2191:
2152:
2150:
2148:
2117:
2115:
1968:(in Simplified Chinese). 23 June 2023.
1925:
1923:
1921:
1919:
1917:
1915:
1817:
1815:
1813:
1811:
1809:
1807:
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1711:
1397:
1395:
1393:
1391:
1389:
1387:
1065:
1063:
1061:
993:
542:issued an official announcement titled
2257:from the original on 17 September 2021
1991:
1989:
1987:
1761:
1759:
1680:
1678:
1676:
1674:
1672:
1670:
1668:
1634:
1632:
1630:
1493:
1491:
1489:
1487:
1350:. New York: Columbia University Press.
1341:
1339:
1337:
1306:
1304:
1268:
1266:
1103:
1101:
1099:
1097:
1095:
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1059:
1057:
1055:
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1051:
1049:
1047:
1045:
1043:
1041:
1001:
999:
997:
975:War of Resistance Against the Japanese
892:the trial of Japanese prisoners of war
2350:Collection of Junichi Kaneko's theses
2176:from the original on 24 February 2024
2100:from the original on 24 February 2024
2069:from the original on 24 February 2024
2038:from the original on 24 February 2024
2008:from the original on 24 February 2024
1972:from the original on 24 February 2024
1942:from the original on 24 February 2024
1870:from the original on 23 February 2024
1840:from the original on 24 February 2024
1784:from the original on 24 February 2024
1744:from the original on 24 February 2024
1696:from the original on 23 February 2024
1653:from the original on 23 February 2024
1628:
1626:
1624:
1622:
1620:
1618:
1616:
1614:
1612:
1610:
1595:from the original on 24 February 2024
1509:from the original on 24 February 2024
1472:from the original on 24 February 2024
1455:
1453:
1451:
1449:
1434:from the original on 24 February 2024
1359:
1357:
1251:from the original on 24 February 2024
1234:
1232:
1230:
1228:
1226:
1224:
1222:
1220:
1218:
1216:
1184:
1182:
1180:
1178:
1176:
1174:
1121:from the original on 24 February 2024
1012:. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 75–80.
980:In 2009, the Publicity Department of
915:. It wasn't until the publication of
389:cotton within or around the city; in
282:Since the first Japanese air raid on
7:
2325:from the original on 28 October 2021
1322:from the original on 3 February 2024
1239:Gong, Jingjing (19 September 2018).
2541:Japanese biological weapons program
2237:Watts, Jonathan (25 January 2001).
1159:from the original on 13 August 2023
1026:from the original on 13 August 2023
964:The Ningbo Plague Memorial Monument
605:Construction of the quarantine wall
553:Map showing where the escapees went
2295:from the original on 4 August 2023
2218:from the original on 6 August 2019
2198:Watts, Jonathan (28 August 2002).
2133:from the original on 28 March 2020
1900:from the original on 16 April 2021
1408:Intelligence and National Security
25:
2239:"Japan 'bombed city with plague'"
1564:from the original on 20 June 2015
1480:– via Zhejiang Media Group.
1372:from the original on 12 June 2020
1289:from the original on 15 July 2023
1201:from the original on 4 April 2022
1145:. DIANE Publishing. p. 485.
1142:Military Medical Ethics, Volume 2
561:The burial team of the government
479:On 1 November, the government of
27:Event in Second Sino-Japanese War
2088:Lin, Chao-Yi (16 October 2011).
1932:"据之以史实: 1940 年宁波鼠疫 "敌机散毒" 记忆之形塑"
435:In 1940, Ningbo had yet to have
352:Central China Expeditionary Army
204:Japanese biological warfare plan
2546:Second Sino-Japanese War crimes
2016:– via China News Service.
1661:– via China News Service.
1191:"5000多平方"鼠疫场"被焚 日军细菌战宁波1554人罹难"
208:In June 1925, Japan signed the
2057:Tong, Qian (16 October 2011).
2034:(in Chinese). 15 August 2014.
1641:"宁波 开明街鼠疫灾难陈列馆"让更多人看到这段黑色的历史""
1639:Li, Cong (16 September 2022).
742:National Health Administration
142:
134:
1:
1860:"宁波抗击鼠疫战又添新史料：25张收藏照见证侵华日军暴行"
1686:"宁波抗击鼠疫战又添新史料：25张收藏照见证侵华日军暴行"
1585:"浙江首次公布日军细菌战档案，3次大规模攻击致6万人死亡"
1420:10.1080/02684527.2018.1536351
669:In October to November 1940,
127:Kaimingjie germ weapon attack
111:Xu Guofang & Ding Licheng
2521:Japanese war crimes in China
693:Theory of biological warfare
339:, and 5 kilograms of plague
246:Strategic location of Ningbo
18:Kaimingye germ weapon attack
1998:"陈文贵1942年写鼠疫报告 首次揭露侵华日军细菌战"
577:Class B quarantine hospital
171:. A joint operation of the
2567:
2551:Military history of Ningbo
2096:(in Traditional Chinese).
2028:"《浙江省政府卫生处致鄞县、衢县、第五区专员等电》"
1996:Lu, Yup (26 August 2014).
1890:"毋忘国耻，励志图强——日军在浙细菌战暴行罄竹难书"
1583:Lu, Mei (14 August 2014).
1364:Vanderbrook, Alan (2013).
270:After the outbreak of the
2416:
2065:(in Simplified Chinese).
2004:(in Simplified Chinese).
1462:"抹不去的浙江抗战伤痕 侵华日军731部队细菌战"
1247:(in Simplified Chinese).
1009:Unit 731: Testimkhtvgcony
714:On 29 November 1940, the
634:Kaiming Street after fire
570:in the southwest suburbs.
35:
2347:Junichi, Kaneko (1949).
1836:. 宁波: 中国人民政治协商会议宁波市委员会.
1830:"日本侵华战争中的罪行——宁波鼠疫的发生和经过"
1554:"731细菌战诉讼判决书(节选29页至42页)"
1241:"宁波鼠疫惨案｜得病的父亲，被活生生钉进了棺木"
886:Khabarovsk, Soviet Union
272:Second Sino-Japanese War
1528:宁波市海曙区地方志编纂委员会 (2014).
1460:Hu, Hao (19 May 2015).
1189:Hu, Hao (26 May 2015).
942:bacteriological warfare
665:Theory of local origins
2407:Imperial Japanese Army
1962:"侵华日军在浙江实施细菌战相关档案情况介绍"
1936:Social Science Journal
1930:Zhou, Donghua (2023).
1766:Zhou, Donghua (2020).
1726:Zhou, Donghua (2020).
1499:"侵华日军在浙江实施细菌战相关档案情况介绍"
1070:Chen, Zhiyuan (2018).
965:
950:Japanese Supreme Court
798:
775:Imperial Japanese Army
754:Nationalist Government
740:In December 1940, the
736:Further investigations
725:Nationalist Government
660:Nationalist government
635:
627:
626:Fire of Kaiming Street
606:
594:
578:
562:
554:
534:
492:, and a minority from
476:
475:Kaiming Street in 1940
432:
431:Donghou Street in 1940
372:Imperial Japanese Navy
310:
230:Imperial Japanese Army
226:Battle of Khalkhin Gol
173:Imperial Japanese Army
84:29.87409°N 121.54869°E
2315:"不能忘却的钜祸——开明街鼠疫灾难陈列馆"
963:
830:National Diet Library
796:
633:
625:
604:
592:
576:
560:
552:
532:
474:
430:
306:
1866:. 3 September 2015.
1692:. 3 September 2015.
971:National Humiliation
930:Tokyo District Court
917:The Devil's Gluttony
242:attack in Zhejiang.
2129:. 25 January 2001.
1966:China Archives News
1346:Guillemin, Jeanne.
680:On 5 November, the
496:, with no cases of
467:Immediate responses
189:biological warfares
139:traditional Chinese
89:29.87409; 121.54869
80: /
32:
2536:Biological warfare
2281:The New York Times
2162:The New York Times
1768:"1940年宁波鼠疫"敌机散毒"考"
1728:"1940年宁波鼠疫"敌机散毒"考"
1505:. 14 August 2014.
1006:Gold, Hal (2004).
966:
799:
636:
628:
607:
595:
579:
563:
555:
535:
477:
433:
333:, 50 kilograms of
311:
153:biological warfare
131:simplified Chinese
103:Biological warfare
2508:
2507:
2283:. 20 April 2005.
2032:Zhejiang Archives
1894:Phoenix New Media
1828:孙金鉐; 倪维熊 (2013).
1539:978-7-213-06170-7
1503:Zhejiang Archives
1316:Zhejiang Archives
1081:978-7-5203-3419-8
845:Teikyo University
703:. On 5 December,
490:septicemic plague
456:malignant malaria
149:
123:
122:
16:(Redirected from
2558:
2400:
2393:
2386:
2377:
2372:
2370:
2368:
2362:
2355:
2335:
2334:
2332:
2330:
2311:
2305:
2304:
2302:
2300:
2273:
2267:
2266:
2264:
2262:
2234:
2228:
2227:
2225:
2223:
2195:
2186:
2185:
2183:
2181:
2164:. 20 July 2005.
2154:
2143:
2142:
2140:
2138:
2119:
2110:
2109:
2107:
2105:
2085:
2079:
2078:
2076:
2074:
2059:"京都发现日军对中国细菌战证据"
2054:
2048:
2047:
2045:
2043:
2024:
2018:
2017:
2015:
2013:
1993:
1982:
1981:
1979:
1977:
1958:
1952:
1951:
1949:
1947:
1927:
1910:
1909:
1907:
1905:
1886:
1880:
1879:
1877:
1875:
1856:
1850:
1849:
1847:
1845:
1825:
1794:
1793:
1791:
1789:
1783:
1772:
1763:
1754:
1753:
1751:
1749:
1743:
1732:
1723:
1706:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1682:
1663:
1662:
1660:
1658:
1646:The Beijing News
1636:
1605:
1604:
1602:
1600:
1580:
1574:
1573:
1571:
1569:
1550:
1544:
1543:
1525:
1519:
1518:
1516:
1514:
1495:
1482:
1481:
1479:
1477:
1457:
1444:
1443:
1441:
1439:
1399:
1382:
1381:
1379:
1377:
1361:
1352:
1351:
1343:
1332:
1331:
1329:
1327:
1308:
1299:
1298:
1296:
1294:
1288:
1281:
1270:
1261:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1236:
1211:
1210:
1208:
1206:
1186:
1169:
1168:
1166:
1164:
1137:
1131:
1130:
1129:– via 新浪网.
1128:
1126:
1105:
1086:
1085:
1067:
1036:
1035:
1033:
1031:
1003:
946:Tokyo High Court
780:Indirect sources
730:Robert Pollitzer
502:Hwa Mei Hospital
498:pneumonic plague
458:. People sought
412:Archibald Crouch
330:Salmonella typhi
177:Jianqiao Airport
150:
147:
144:
136:
95:
94:
92:
91:
90:
85:
81:
78:
77:
76:
73:
40:
33:
21:
2566:
2565:
2561:
2560:
2559:
2557:
2556:
2555:
2511:
2510:
2509:
2504:
2412:
2404:
2366:
2364:
2363:on 15 July 2023
2360:
2353:
2346:
2343:
2341:Further reading
2338:
2328:
2326:
2319:Zhejiang Online
2313:
2312:
2308:
2298:
2296:
2275:
2274:
2270:
2260:
2258:
2236:
2235:
2231:
2221:
2219:
2197:
2196:
2189:
2179:
2177:
2156:
2155:
2146:
2136:
2134:
2121:
2120:
2113:
2103:
2101:
2090:"京都發現日軍實施細菌戰紀錄"
2087:
2086:
2082:
2072:
2070:
2056:
2055:
2051:
2041:
2039:
2026:
2025:
2021:
2011:
2009:
2002:Chongqing Daily
1995:
1994:
1985:
1975:
1973:
1960:
1959:
1955:
1945:
1943:
1929:
1928:
1913:
1903:
1901:
1888:
1887:
1883:
1873:
1871:
1858:
1857:
1853:
1843:
1841:
1827:
1826:
1797:
1787:
1785:
1781:
1770:
1765:
1764:
1757:
1747:
1745:
1741:
1730:
1725:
1724:
1709:
1699:
1697:
1684:
1683:
1666:
1656:
1654:
1638:
1637:
1608:
1598:
1596:
1582:
1581:
1577:
1567:
1565:
1558:731部隊・細菌戦資料センター
1552:
1551:
1547:
1540:
1527:
1526:
1522:
1512:
1510:
1497:
1496:
1485:
1475:
1473:
1466:Zhejiang Online
1459:
1458:
1447:
1437:
1435:
1401:
1400:
1385:
1375:
1373:
1363:
1362:
1355:
1345:
1344:
1335:
1325:
1323:
1318:. 6 June 2016.
1310:
1309:
1302:
1292:
1290:
1286:
1279:
1272:
1271:
1264:
1254:
1252:
1238:
1237:
1214:
1204:
1202:
1195:Zhejiang Online
1188:
1187:
1172:
1162:
1160:
1153:
1139:
1138:
1134:
1124:
1122:
1117:. 7 July 2005.
1114:Southern Weekly
1107:
1106:
1089:
1082:
1069:
1068:
1039:
1029:
1027:
1020:
1005:
1004:
995:
991:
982:Haishu District
958:
909:
888:
883:
850:Yersinia pestis
841:Military Secret
825:Keio University
821:Matsamura Takao
813:
791:
782:
777:
738:
709:Chiang Kai-shek
700:Yersinia pestis
695:
667:
662:
657:
620:
527:
469:
425:
420:
386:
336:Vibrio cholerae
301:
299:Decision-making
296:
254:cities such as
248:
210:Geneva Protocol
206:
201:
88:
86:
82:
79:
74:
71:
69:
67:
66:
48:27 October 1940
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2564:
2562:
2554:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2523:
2513:
2512:
2506:
2505:
2503:
2502:
2488:
2483:or Nami Unit (
2478:
2468:
2463:or Tama Unit (
2458:
2448:
2438:
2428:
2417:
2414:
2413:
2405:
2403:
2402:
2395:
2388:
2380:
2374:
2373:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2336:
2306:
2268:
2229:
2187:
2144:
2111:
2080:
2049:
2019:
1983:
1953:
1938:(2): 221–228.
1911:
1881:
1864:Ningbo Evening
1851:
1795:
1777:(6): 103–114.
1755:
1737:(6): 103–114.
1707:
1690:Ningbo Evening
1664:
1606:
1575:
1545:
1538:
1520:
1483:
1445:
1414:(2): 278–288.
1383:
1353:
1333:
1300:
1262:
1212:
1170:
1151:
1132:
1087:
1080:
1037:
1018:
992:
990:
987:
957:
954:
934:bacteriologist
908:
905:
887:
884:
882:
879:
812:
809:
790:
787:
781:
778:
776:
773:
737:
734:
716:Shishi Gongbao
705:Huang Shaohong
694:
691:
682:Shishi Gongbao
666:
663:
661:
658:
656:
655:Investigations
653:
619:
616:
540:Shishi Gongbao
526:
523:
519:Shishi Gongbao
494:bubonic plague
468:
465:
448:Shishi Gongbao
424:
421:
419:
416:
385:
382:
300:
297:
295:
292:
247:
244:
205:
202:
200:
197:
121:
120:
117:
113:
112:
109:
105:
104:
101:
97:
96:
64:
58:
57:
54:
50:
49:
46:
42:
41:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2563:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2531:1940 in China
2529:
2527:
2526:1940 in Japan
2524:
2522:
2519:
2518:
2516:
2500:
2496:
2493:or Oka Unit (
2492:
2489:
2486:
2482:
2479:
2476:
2472:
2469:
2466:
2462:
2459:
2456:
2452:
2449:
2446:
2442:
2439:
2436:
2432:
2429:
2426:
2422:
2419:
2418:
2415:
2411:
2408:
2401:
2396:
2394:
2389:
2387:
2382:
2381:
2378:
2359:
2352:
2351:
2345:
2344:
2340:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2310:
2307:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2272:
2269:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2233:
2230:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2194:
2192:
2188:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2153:
2151:
2149:
2145:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2118:
2116:
2112:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2084:
2081:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2053:
2050:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2023:
2020:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1992:
1990:
1988:
1984:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1957:
1954:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1926:
1924:
1922:
1920:
1918:
1916:
1912:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1885:
1882:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1855:
1852:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1824:
1822:
1820:
1818:
1816:
1814:
1812:
1810:
1808:
1806:
1804:
1802:
1800:
1796:
1780:
1776:
1769:
1762:
1760:
1756:
1740:
1736:
1729:
1722:
1720:
1718:
1716:
1714:
1712:
1708:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1675:
1673:
1671:
1669:
1665:
1652:
1648:
1647:
1642:
1635:
1633:
1631:
1629:
1627:
1625:
1623:
1621:
1619:
1617:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1607:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1579:
1576:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1549:
1546:
1541:
1535:
1531:
1524:
1521:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1494:
1492:
1490:
1488:
1484:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1456:
1454:
1452:
1450:
1446:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1398:
1396:
1394:
1392:
1390:
1388:
1384:
1371:
1367:
1360:
1358:
1354:
1349:
1342:
1340:
1338:
1334:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1307:
1305:
1301:
1285:
1278:
1277:
1273:金子順一 (1949).
1269:
1267:
1263:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1235:
1233:
1231:
1229:
1227:
1225:
1223:
1221:
1219:
1217:
1213:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1185:
1183:
1181:
1179:
1177:
1175:
1171:
1158:
1154:
1152:1-4289-1066-2
1148:
1144:
1143:
1136:
1133:
1120:
1116:
1115:
1110:
1104:
1102:
1100:
1098:
1096:
1094:
1092:
1088:
1083:
1077:
1073:
1066:
1064:
1062:
1060:
1058:
1056:
1054:
1052:
1050:
1048:
1046:
1044:
1042:
1038:
1025:
1021:
1019:0-8048-3565-9
1015:
1011:
1010:
1002:
1000:
998:
994:
988:
986:
983:
978:
976:
972:
962:
955:
953:
951:
947:
943:
938:
935:
931:
925:
921:
918:
914:
906:
904:
900:
896:
893:
885:
880:
878:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
851:
846:
842:
837:
835:
831:
826:
822:
817:
811:Kaneko thesis
810:
808:
805:
795:
788:
786:
779:
774:
772:
770:
765:
763:
758:
755:
750:
747:
743:
735:
733:
731:
726:
720:
717:
712:
710:
706:
702:
701:
692:
690:
688:
683:
678:
676:
672:
664:
659:
654:
652:
648:
644:
640:
632:
624:
617:
615:
611:
603:
599:
591:
587:
583:
575:
571:
569:
559:
551:
547:
545:
541:
531:
524:
522:
520:
515:
509:
505:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
482:
473:
466:
464:
461:
457:
453:
449:
444:
442:
438:
429:
422:
417:
415:
413:
408:
402:
398:
396:
392:
383:
381:
378:
373:
369:
365:
361:
357:
353:
349:
344:
342:
338:
337:
332:
331:
326:
322:
317:
309:
305:
298:
293:
291:
289:
285:
284:Lishe Airport
280:
277:
273:
268:
265:
261:
257:
253:
250:Before 1937,
245:
243:
240:
236:
231:
227:
222:
219:
215:
211:
203:
198:
196:
192:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
140:
132:
128:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
93:
65:
63:
59:
56:Ningbo, China
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
34:
19:
2461:Unit Ei 1644
2365:. Retrieved
2358:the original
2349:
2327:. Retrieved
2318:
2309:
2297:. Retrieved
2280:
2271:
2259:. Retrieved
2243:The Guardian
2242:
2232:
2220:. Retrieved
2204:The Guardian
2203:
2178:. Retrieved
2161:
2135:. Retrieved
2126:
2102:. Retrieved
2093:
2083:
2071:. Retrieved
2062:
2052:
2040:. Retrieved
2031:
2022:
2010:. Retrieved
2001:
1974:. Retrieved
1965:
1956:
1944:. Retrieved
1935:
1902:. Retrieved
1893:
1884:
1872:. Retrieved
1863:
1854:
1842:. Retrieved
1833:
1786:. Retrieved
1774:
1746:. Retrieved
1734:
1698:. Retrieved
1689:
1655:. Retrieved
1644:
1597:. Retrieved
1588:
1578:
1566:. Retrieved
1557:
1548:
1529:
1523:
1511:. Retrieved
1502:
1474:. Retrieved
1465:
1436:. Retrieved
1411:
1407:
1374:. Retrieved
1347:
1324:. Retrieved
1315:
1291:. Retrieved
1275:
1253:. Retrieved
1244:
1203:. Retrieved
1194:
1161:. Retrieved
1141:
1135:
1123:. Retrieved
1112:
1109:"日军利用细菌攻击中国"
1071:
1028:. Retrieved
1008:
979:
967:
939:
926:
922:
916:
913:Tokyo Trials
910:
907:Tokyo, Japan
901:
897:
889:
848:
838:
818:
814:
800:
783:
766:
759:
751:
739:
721:
715:
713:
698:
696:
681:
679:
668:
649:
645:
641:
637:
612:
608:
596:
584:
580:
564:
543:
539:
536:
518:
510:
506:
478:
447:
445:
434:
423:Early spread
403:
399:
387:
350:between the
345:
334:
329:
323:, bound for
319:Unit 731 in
312:
281:
269:
249:
223:
207:
193:
155:launched by
126:
124:
2367:24 February
2329:23 February
2299:24 February
2261:24 February
2222:24 February
2180:24 February
2137:24 February
2104:23 February
2073:24 February
2042:24 February
2012:23 February
1976:24 February
1946:24 February
1904:24 February
1874:23 February
1844:24 February
1788:24 February
1748:24 February
1700:23 February
1657:23 February
1599:23 February
1568:24 February
1513:24 February
1476:23 February
1438:24 February
1326:24 February
1312:"日军侵浙细菌战档案"
1293:24 February
1255:23 February
1205:23 February
1125:24 February
789:Field study
437:piped water
377:Shiro Ishii
368:Ningbo Port
308:Shiro Ishii
214:Shiro Ishii
87: /
75:121°32′55″E
62:Coordinates
2515:Categories
1163:28 October
1030:28 October
989:References
932:, Chinese
861:, Ningbo,
671:Chen Wanli
568:Laolongwan
525:Quarantine
514:lymph node
481:Yin County
239:diphtheria
199:Background
72:29°52′27″N
2499:Singapore
2491:Unit 9420
2485:Guangzhou
2481:Unit 8604
2471:Unit 1855
2425:Changchun
2289:0362-4331
2251:0261-3077
2212:0261-3077
2170:0362-4331
1834:文史资料（第二辑）
1589:The Paper
1428:0268-4527
1245:The Paper
956:Memorials
871:Guangfeng
804:Unit 1644
746:Chongqing
407:Chongqing
384:Air raids
316:Unit 1644
294:Operation
274:in 1937,
218:Unit 1644
2451:Unit 543
2441:Unit 516
2435:Pingfang
2431:Unit 731
2421:Unit 100
2323:Archived
2293:Archived
2255:Archived
2216:Archived
2174:Archived
2131:Archived
2127:BBC News
2098:Archived
2067:Archived
2063:BBC News
2036:Archived
2006:Archived
1970:Archived
1940:Archived
1898:Archived
1896:. 2013.
1868:Archived
1838:Archived
1779:Archived
1739:Archived
1694:Archived
1651:Archived
1593:Archived
1562:Archived
1507:Archived
1470:Archived
1432:Archived
1370:Archived
1320:Archived
1284:Archived
1249:Archived
1199:Archived
1157:Archived
1119:Archived
1024:Archived
867:Guangxin
762:Yu Jimin
687:Qingyuan
418:Epidemic
348:Hangzhou
325:Hangzhou
321:Pingfang
252:Zhejiang
181:Hangzhou
165:Zhejiang
108:Reporter
53:Location
2475:Beijing
2465:Nanjing
2445:Qiqihar
2094:Newtalk
1530:宁波市海曙区志
1276:金子順一論文集
969:Forget
863:Changde
855:Nong'an
769:Changde
618:Burning
460:quinine
441:rodents
370:by the
362:, with
288:Zhenhai
235:tetanus
143:開明街鼠疫災難
135:开明街鼠疫灾难
31:开明街鼠疫灾难
2495:Malaya
2455:Hailar
2287:
2249:
2210:
2168:
1536:
1426:
1376:28 May
1149:
1078:
1016:
881:Trials
875:Yushan
859:Quzhou
675:Ningbo
486:plague
395:Yushan
391:Jinhua
364:Jinhua
360:Quzhou
356:Ningbo
276:Ningbo
264:Quzhou
262:, and
260:Jinhua
256:Ningbo
228:, the
185:Quzhou
161:Ningbo
141::
133::
116:Deaths
2361:(PDF)
2354:(PDF)
1782:(PDF)
1771:(PDF)
1742:(PDF)
1731:(PDF)
1287:(PDF)
1280:(PDF)
834:Kyoto
823:from
452:bubos
341:fleas
169:China
157:Japan
119:1,554
2497:and
2369:2024
2331:2024
2301:2024
2285:ISSN
2263:2024
2247:ISSN
2224:2024
2208:ISSN
2182:2024
2166:ISSN
2139:2024
2106:2024
2075:2024
2044:2024
2014:2024
1978:2024
1948:2024
1906:2024
1876:2024
1846:2024
1790:2024
1750:2024
1702:2024
1659:2024
1601:2024
1570:2024
1534:ISBN
1515:2024
1478:2024
1440:2024
1424:ISSN
1378:2020
1328:2024
1295:2024
1257:2024
1207:2024
1165:2020
1147:ISBN
1127:2024
1076:ISBN
1032:2020
1014:ISBN
873:and
752:The
358:and
237:and
148:lit.
125:The
100:Type
45:Date
1416:doi
832:in
454:or
179:in
2517::
2291:.
2279:.
2253:.
2245:.
2241:.
2214:.
2206:.
2202:.
2190:^
2172:.
2160:.
2147:^
2125:.
2114:^
2000:.
1986:^
1964:.
1934:.
1914:^
1892:.
1862:.
1832:.
1798:^
1775:史林
1773:.
1758:^
1735:史林
1733:.
1710:^
1688:.
1667:^
1649:.
1643:.
1609:^
1591:.
1587:.
1560:.
1556:.
1501:.
1486:^
1468:.
1464:.
1448:^
1430:.
1422:.
1412:34
1410:.
1406:.
1386:^
1368:.
1356:^
1336:^
1314:.
1303:^
1265:^
1215:^
1197:.
1193:.
1173:^
1155:.
1111:.
1090:^
1040:^
1022:.
996:^
869:,
865:,
857:,
732:.
258:,
167:,
163:,
145:;
137:;
2501:)
2487:)
2477:)
2473:(
2467:)
2457:)
2453:(
2447:)
2443:(
2437:)
2433:(
2427:)
2423:(
2399:e
2392:t
2385:v
2371:.
2333:.
2303:.
2265:.
2226:.
2184:.
2141:.
2108:.
2077:.
2046:.
1980:.
1950:.
1908:.
1878:.
1848:.
1792:.
1752:.
1704:.
1603:.
1572:.
1542:.
1517:.
1442:.
1418::
1380:.
1330:.
1297:.
1259:.
1209:.
1167:.
1084:.
1034:.
129:(
20:)
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