444:
people who traveled allowed an emergence of comparative serial analysis, which had previously not occurred in medicine. Historian
Maxilimilian Schochow has called Dürrge a pivotal figure in the changing medical field of the 19th century, which was just beginning to use new techniques to evaluate interrelated parts of the body. By precisely documenting the examination procedures and providing graphic visual representations, physicians attempted to explain the case and importance of their specialized skills, realizing that errors would call their competence into question.
275:, passed in 1794, women were subordinate to their husbands and expected to work in the home performing the duties of a wife and mother. Married women, though they no longer had to obey their husbands, had no control over their legal affairs, assets, or property, and husbands could determine if a wife could obtain employment outside the home. Single women or widows could work only in professions prescribed for their social class. Articles 19-24 of the same laws enabled hermaphrodites to choose to live as either male or female from the age of majority.
248:, chief of surgery at the Charité hospital's medical school, examined Dürrge and designated him as female based upon the lack of testicles, but noted the characteristics of both sexes. F. F. Monorchis, (which may have been a pseudonym), a pamphleteer, also examined Dürrge at Charité hospital and pronounced that though both male and female characteristics were visible, the fact that Dürrge was unable to sexually perform as either sex and was likely infertile, meant the patient was not a hermaphrodite, but a misshaped woman. Dürrge was next examined by
271:. Privy Councilor, Dr. Johann Friedrich Fritze, who was a member of the Collegium Medico-Chirurgicum, and Surgeon-General Gericke, both from Berlin, counseled Dürrge to wear men's clothing. Gaining physicians' endorsement to live as a man placed intersex people at a legal advantage over women, as it bestowed "all civil rights, freedoms, and responsibilities of the male sex" upon them. Under the provisions of the
226:
resulted in physicians assigning (or reassigning) the category of male or female to intersex people and at times performing "corrective" surgical treatment. Their observation was limited to the testimony of the patient and what was visible on the external body, or what could be determined by feel or through an examination under a microscope. Physicians held to the binary definitions of sex, believing that a "
443:
Dürrge's life is illustrative of how persons presumed to be one sex at birth but later found to have atypical genital morphology had some autonomy through legal codes which allowed them to choose their sex, including what would have been greater rights as men. Observation of Dürrge and other intersex
122:
man, who had been designated on birth documents as female. After discovering the presence of ambiguous external genitalia, Dürrge assumed a male identity and made a living as a medical specimen. Dürrge's life provides insight into the way that persons with intersex variations were treated under the
225:
and clinical practice challenged medical teachings based on philosophy, a binary sex model emerged. By the 19th century, the idea that the differences in men and women were proven by their different bodies was firmly established. For people with indeterminate biological sex, examination typically
468:; such as Derge, Dörrge, Duerrge, D’urrgé, Dürrge, identifying that he had previously been known as Maria Dorothea Derrier. Other researchers reported that Dürrge was not Derrier, or that all traces of Derrier had disappeared after Fritze and Gericke recommended assuming a masculine appearance.
131:, Dürrge's case led to the establishment of guidelines for determining sex. Carrying their medical records with them, these intersex individuals helped develop the exchange of medical knowledge between physicians, leading to the application of serial analysis over time to the medical field.
380:, who reported a cystic uterus. In 1820, he met again with Feiler, who compared one of Dürrge's molds to Dürrge's actual body, once again pronouncing him a male. The report by Feiler marked the end of Dürrge's career as a traveling medical specimen. He gained employment in 1820 at the
302:, were established. Traveling intersex specimens also contributed to scientific exchanges between researchers, as they carried their "portfolio" of diagnostic statements with them. Reconstructing Dürrge's travels from the medical reports made, he left Berlin in 1801 and traveled to
408:. After providing a synopsis of the various reports, Mayer described in detail his examination of Dürrge from his feet to his head and from his external to internal appearance. Describing and measuring each external feature, and then each bone and organ, he reported finding a
314:, Franz Heinrich Martens. Martens compiled the varying reports which had been created by other physicians and came to the conclusion that the reason they were so different was a result in part of the patient's testimony. Stephanie Sera, a researcher at the
486:
In his notes, Feiler reported that when the patient pronounced his name, it did not sound like
Derrier, Dörje or Dürje, "but rather a mixture of all three names as they would sound in living language" and asked Dürrge to write down his name. He wrote
230:" would be able to perform as either sex and procreate. Many believed that "true hermaphroditism" could not exist in humans. In an effort to discover Dürrge's true sex, several physicians examined him, each arriving at different conclusions.
260:, but rather as a discharge from the urethra, following an injury. After manipulating Dürrge's phallus to erection, taking account of his testimony that he had experienced ejaculation and erections during sleep, and that he was exclusively
436:-like body near the left fallopian tube. Mayer described the possible ovary as having a texture more similar to an ovary than to a testicle and stated that the structure, which was covered by the
1233:Über angeborne menschliche Mißbildungen im Allgemeinen und Hermaphroditen insbesondere: ein Beitrag zur Physiologie, pathologsichen Anatomie, und gerichtlichen Arzneiwissenschaft
337:, a physician and professor of obstetrics and pathology at Ludwig Maximilian University, announced that Dürrge was offering to be examined by medical students or staff from the
440:, "consisted only of granulations and lumps of fat". Mayer's final diagnosis confirmed Dürrge's hermaphroditism, concluding that there were stronger female characteristics.
322:, which might have been influenced by female attire, a high-pitched voice, and shyness; or male attire and physical characteristics, such as facial hair and male breasts.
1253:
Hess, Volker (2011). "Das
Material einer guten Geschichte Register, Reglements und Formulare ". In Dickson, Sheila; Goldmann, Stefan; Wingertszahn, Christof (eds.).
189:. Dürrge's case became a sensational story, resulting in the most-noted physicians of the day not only examining him, but writing extensive reports on his genital
357:, explaining that a conclusive medical report was required for a judicial investigation to change his gender marker in official records. In 1809, Dürrge was in
127:, which allowed such individuals to choose either male or female sex when they came of age. Together with reports of other intersex persons, who allowed their
365:
in 1811. In 1816, he returned from Poland to
Germany and the following year made a tour that began in Paris, went to London and the Netherlands, and ended in
400:
of a stroke. He was autopsied meticulously by Mayer, who first scrutinized Dürrge's portfolio of diagnoses, finding unpublished reports of examinations by
1238:
On
Congenital Human Deformities in General and Hermaphrodites in Particular: A Contribution to Physiology, Pathological Anatomy, and Judicial Pharmacology
1645:
272:
124:
298:, exchanging permission to examine their bodies for food and lodging, or money. Out of these examinations, sexing standards, based on the presence of
372:
By 1817, Dürrge was selling molds of his genitalia made from colored wax to earn money. That year he underwent an examination by Georg
Steglehner, a
354:
1615:
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1376:
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155:. When hospital staff bathed Dürrge, it was discovered that Dürrge's genitalia were atypical. The eminent physician and one-time doctor to
249:
1600:"Marriage in the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation from the Fifteenth to Eighteenth Century: Moral, Legal, and Political Order"
1472:[An Unfinished Portrait: The Hermaphrodite Maria Derrier / Karl Dürrge in Medical Case Reports of the Early 19th Century].
1470:"Ein unvollendetes Porträt. Der Hermaphrodit Maria Derrier/Karl Dürrge in medizinischen Fallberichten des frühen 19. Jahrhunderts"
319:
515:
163:, made an examination of the patient. Though he noted a phallus-like structure, when Dürrge informed him he had intermittent
1546:
Hermaphrodismus und
Zeugungsunfähigkeit: Eine systematische Darstellung der Missbildungen der menschlichen Geschlechtsorgane
1207:"Fortsetzung der im vorigen Nro. abgebrochenen Anzeige: Medicinische Jahrbücher des k. k österreichischen Staates u. s. w."
385:
384:
and returned to using the surname
Derrier. He worked as a wax artist and oversaw the anatomical specimens collection for
1655:
315:
1607:
1525:
1293:
460:
Dürrge's use of a new name was only somewhat successful as it caused confusion at a time when the German language had
405:
282:
who had been recognized as men, Dürrge began traveling in men's attire, using the name Karl Dürrge from around 1807.
1551:
Hermaphrodism and
Inability to Conceive: A Systematic Representation of the Malformations of the Human Sexual Organs
361:; and then went to Prague, where he was examined by C. W. Kahlert, district doctor for the police; before moving to
160:
156:
1256:"Fakta, und kein moralisches Geschwätz": Zu den Fallgeschichten im "Magazin zur Erfahrungsseelenkunde" (1783–1793)
1368:
346:
238:
388:, a professor of anatomy. Mayer created presentations and lectures which discussed Dürrge's hermaphroditism.
291:
268:
214:
243:
295:
128:
1650:
1261:"Fact, and no moral gossip": To the case stories in the "Magazine of experience of the soul" (1783–1793)
464:. Many medical reports listed variants of his surname with or without an accented character known as an
209:
postulated that only one sex existed, as women were just "lesser men". Early medical practitioners saw
1640:
1635:
218:
190:
70:
66:
1280:"This is Not a Hermaphrodite: The Medical Assimilation of Gender Difference in Germany around 1800"
334:
279:
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461:
381:
338:
253:
227:
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1307:
1279:
1264:
1241:
1218:
1206:
401:
261:
1599:
1544:
1231:
1483:
1297:
516:"Allgemeines Landrecht für die Preußischen Staaten (01.06.1794), Erster Theil - section 20"
477:
In the dialect in use in Berlin at this time, Derrier and Dürrge are phonetically similar.
213:
as a sign of divine power and an illustration of the divine order of the universe. In the
164:
1209:[Continuation of the previous Nro.: Medicinal Yearbooks of the Austrian States].
89:
Maria
Dorothea Derrier, Carl Derrier, Carl D’urrgé, Karl Derge, Karl Dörrge, Karl Duerrge
256:. Answering Stark's questions, Dürrge advised that his bleeding did not emerge from the
421:
1410:
1629:
1503:
267:
In 1803, Stark's findings were validated by his colleague at the University of Jena,
311:
185:
366:
358:
350:
176:
1487:
1570:[The Hermaphrodite Maria Dorothea Derrier, also called Carl D'urrgé].
1474:
437:
148:
1583:
1495:
1401:
1311:
1245:
1222:
1558:
1424:
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206:
1319:
1263:] (in German). Göttingen, Germany: Wallstein Verlag. pp. 115–139.
1302:
417:
413:
342:
210:
172:
119:
377:
362:
307:
180:
168:
152:
144:
140:
48:
44:
1521:
The Secrets of Generation: Reproduction in the Long Eighteenth Century
429:
425:
330:
299:
257:
1419:] (in German). Tübingen, Germany: Christian Friedrich Osiander.
1453:(3rd ed.). New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers.
1254:
1482:(1). France: École des hautes études en sciences sociales: 51–68.
1346:] (in German). Vol. 1: A-G. Munich, Germany: K. G. Saur.
758:
756:
754:
433:
409:
397:
326:
62:
318:, points out that physicians did not take into account their own
1568:"Der Zwitter Maria Dorothea Derrieer, auch Carl D'urrgé genannt"
303:
151:
hospital in Berlin, suffering from a skin condition, possibly
1026:
1024:
911:
909:
907:
785:
783:
1442:] (in German). Landshut, Bavaria: Verlag Joseph Thomann.
1440:
Speech to celebrate the memory of Johann Anton Schmidtmüller
1396:] (in German). Leipzig, Germany: Dr. Werner Klinkhardt.
894:
892:
890:
888:
875:
873:
552:
550:
548:
1435:
Rede zur Feier des Andenkens an Johann Anton Schmidtmüller
940:
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and began using the name Karl Dürrge. He was examined by
290:
Dürrge and other intersex persons of the period, such as
175:. He based this diagnosis on the evidence that there was
167:, Hufeland concluded the patient was female and that the
1553:] (in German). Berlin, Germany: Verlag H. Barsdorf.
535:
533:
531:
529:
836:
834:
1217:. Innsbruck, Austria: Rauchifchen Schriften: 209–224.
1160:
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1240:] (in German). Landshut, Bavaria: Verlag Krüll.
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341:. After remaining for some time, in 1807 he went to
101:
93:
85:
77:
55:
30:
23:
1572:Beiträge zur gesammten Natur- und Heilwissenschaft
1364:Romanticism, Origins, and the History of Heredity
1205:Ehrhart, Johann Nepomuk, ed. (15 February 1838).
520:Allgemeines Landrecht für die Preußischen Staaten
762:
264:to women, Stark concluded Dürrge was masculine.
1518:Stephanson, Raymond; Wagner, Darren N. (2015).
607:
252:, a professor from the medical faculty at the
510:
508:
8:
1543:Taruffi, Cesare; Teuscher, Reinhold (1903).
1336:"Feiler, Joseph Johann Nepomuk Bartholomäus"
139:Dürrge was born in 1780 to a silk worker in
1340:Große Bayerische Biographische Enzyklopädie
1030:
915:
568:
927:
898:
879:
864:
556:
273:General State Laws for the Prussian States
183:was located at its base surrounded by the
20:
1301:
1081:
650:
638:
626:
310:, where he was examined by physician and
1344:Great Bavarian Biographical Encyclopedia
1122:
944:
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852:
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539:
504:
453:
1134:
1069:
840:
129:bodies to be used for medical research
1409:Osiander, Friedrich Benjamin (1819).
1386:Neugebauer, Franz Ludwig von (1908).
7:
1566:Weitenweber, Wilhelm Rudolf (1838).
1285:Canadian Bulletin of Medical History
1188:
1164:
1149:
1098:
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1042:
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1000:
981:
801:
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686:
674:
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583:
1602:. In Menchi, Silvana Seidel (ed.).
1578:(3). Prague: C. W. Medau: 346–351.
1450:Social History of Germany 1648–1914
278:In line with other intersex people
143:, which at the time was located in
1334:Körner, Hans-Michael, ed. (2005).
177:no opening on the tip of the penis
14:
1646:History of human subject research
1211:Medicinisch-chirurgische Zeitung
1389:Hermaphroditismus beim Menschen
1230:Feiler, Johann Nepomuk (1820).
1468:Sera, Stephanie (April 2019).
147:. In 1801, he was admitted to
1:
1604:Marriage in Europe: 1400–1800
1361:Lehleiter, Christine (2014).
234:Medical and legal examination
1412:Hanbuch der Entbindungskunst
763:Stephanson & Wagner 2015
355:Ludwig Maximilian University
316:University of Duisburg-Essen
118:: 1780–1835) was a Prussian
59:1835 (aged 54–55)
1608:University of Toronto Press
1526:University of Toronto Press
1432:Röschlaub, Andreas (1809).
1367:. Lewisburg, Pennsylvania:
1294:University of Toronto Press
608:Taruffi & Teuscher 1903
406:Friedrich Benjamin Osiander
296:traveling medical specimens
1672:
1488:10.14220/lhom.2019.30.1.51
347:Johann Anton Schmidtmüller
306:. In 1802, he moved on to
161:Christoph Wilhelm Hufeland
1394:Hermaphroditism in Humans
1369:Bucknell University Press
1278:Johnson, Matthew (2005).
239:Christian Ludwig Mursinna
396:Dürrge died in 1835 in
325:In 1803, Dürrge was in
1598:Wunder, Heide (2016).
1417:Handbook of Childbirth
1292:(2). Toronto, Canada:
292:Katharina/Karl Hohmann
269:Franz Heinrich Martens
250:Johann Christian Stark
221:, as science based on
116:Maria Dorothea Derrier
97:human research subject
1447:Sagarra, Eda (2009).
1303:10.3138/cbmh.22.2.233
959:, pp. 238, 251.
930:, pp. 181, 220.
748:, pp. 247, 250.
462:variable orthography
339:University of Prague
71:German Confederation
67:Grand Duchy of Hesse
1656:People from Potsdam
1606:. Toronto, Canada:
1524:. Toronto, Canada:
792:, pp. 237–238.
641:, pp. 127–128.
598:, pp. 236–237.
416:, and an atrophied
1610:. pp. 61–93.
382:University of Bonn
262:sexually attracted
254:University of Jena
228:true hermaphrodite
223:empirical evidence
1617:978-1-4426-3750-4
1535:978-1-4426-4696-4
1460:978-1-4128-3431-5
1378:978-1-61148-566-0
1353:978-3-11-097344-0
1270:978-3-8353-0992-0
1045:, pp. 62–63.
402:Franz Joseph Gall
349:, a professor of
171:was an oversized
109:
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102:Years active
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392:Death and legacy
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165:menstrual cycles
86:Other names
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114:(also known as
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961:
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932:
920:
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903:
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884:
882:, p. 220.
869:
867:, p. 340.
857:
855:, p. 418.
845:
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828:, p. 410.
818:
816:, p. 238.
806:
804:, p. 115.
794:
779:
777:, p. 248.
767:
765:, p. 150.
750:
738:
726:
724:, p. 237.
703:
701:, p. 247.
691:
679:
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655:
653:, p. 131.
651:Lehleiter 2014
643:
639:Lehleiter 2014
631:
629:, p. 130.
627:Lehleiter 2014
612:
600:
588:
573:
571:, p. 349.
561:
559:, p. 314.
544:
542:, p. 236.
525:
522:. 1 June 1794.
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211:hermaphrodites
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1574:(in German).
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1552:
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1547:
1541:
1537:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1522:
1516:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1478:(in German).
1477:
1476:
1471:
1466:
1462:
1456:
1452:
1451:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1436:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1413:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1390:
1384:
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1374:
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1366:
1365:
1359:
1355:
1349:
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1234:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1213:(in German).
1212:
1208:
1203:
1202:
1197:
1191:, p. 57.
1190:
1185:
1182:
1178:
1173:
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1167:, p. 67.
1166:
1161:
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1152:, p. 66.
1151:
1146:
1144:
1140:
1137:, p. 86.
1136:
1131:
1128:
1124:
1123:Osiander 1819
1119:
1116:
1112:
1107:
1104:
1101:, p. 64.
1100:
1095:
1093:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1078:
1075:
1071:
1066:
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1060:, p. 65.
1059:
1054:
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1048:
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1036:
1032:
1027:
1025:
1021:
1018:, p. 54.
1017:
1012:
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1006:
1003:, p. 63.
1002:
997:
995:
993:
991:
987:
984:, p. 53.
983:
978:
976:
974:
972:
970:
968:
966:
962:
958:
953:
950:
946:
945:Osiander 1819
941:
939:
937:
933:
929:
924:
921:
917:
912:
910:
908:
904:
900:
895:
893:
891:
889:
885:
881:
876:
874:
870:
866:
861:
858:
854:
849:
846:
843:, p. 88.
842:
837:
835:
831:
827:
822:
819:
815:
810:
807:
803:
798:
795:
791:
786:
784:
780:
776:
771:
768:
764:
759:
757:
755:
751:
747:
742:
739:
736:, p. 59.
735:
730:
727:
723:
718:
716:
714:
712:
710:
708:
704:
700:
695:
692:
689:, p. 51.
688:
683:
680:
677:, p. 61.
676:
671:
668:
665:, p. 52.
664:
659:
656:
652:
647:
644:
640:
635:
632:
628:
623:
621:
619:
617:
613:
610:, p. 24.
609:
604:
601:
597:
592:
589:
586:, p. 58.
585:
580:
578:
574:
570:
565:
562:
558:
553:
551:
549:
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541:
536:
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532:
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480:
474:
471:
467:
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441:
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431:
427:
423:
420:, as well as
419:
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389:
387:
383:
379:
375:
370:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
340:
336:
335:Johann Feiler
332:
328:
323:
321:
320:gender baises
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
285:
283:
281:
280:of the period
276:
274:
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142:
134:
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130:
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125:Prussian Code
121:
117:
113:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
58:
54:
50:
46:
33:
29:
22:
19:
1651:Intersex men
1603:
1587:. Retrieved
1575:
1571:
1550:
1545:
1520:
1507:. Retrieved
1479:
1473:
1449:
1439:
1434:
1416:
1411:
1393:
1388:
1363:
1343:
1339:
1323:. Retrieved
1289:
1283:
1260:
1255:
1237:
1232:
1214:
1210:
1198:Bibliography
1184:
1177:Johnson 2005
1172:
1130:
1118:
1111:Ehrhart 1838
1106:
1077:
1065:
1038:
957:Johnson 2005
952:
923:
860:
853:Sagarra 2009
848:
826:Sagarra 2009
821:
814:Johnson 2005
809:
797:
790:Johnson 2005
775:Johnson 2005
770:
746:Johnson 2005
741:
729:
722:Johnson 2005
699:Johnson 2005
694:
682:
670:
658:
646:
634:
603:
596:Johnson 2005
591:
564:
540:Johnson 2005
519:
482:
473:
456:
442:
395:
371:
324:
312:privatdozent
289:
277:
266:
237:
205:
186:labia majora
184:
138:
115:
111:
110:
18:
16:Intersex man
1641:1835 deaths
1636:1780 births
1296:: 233–252.
1135:Feiler 1820
1070:Körner 2005
841:Wunder 2016
386:Franz Mayer
359:Ludwigsburg
351:gynaecology
242: [
197:Controversy
112:Karl Dürrge
78:Nationality
25:Karl Dürrge
1630:Categories
495:References
438:peritoneum
202:Background
191:morphology
135:Early life
94:Occupation
1584:716047151
1504:166501980
1496:2194-5071
1402:253328683
1312:0823-2105
1246:559898596
1223:799646591
1189:Sera 2019
1165:Sera 2019
1150:Sera 2019
1099:Sera 2019
1058:Sera 2019
1043:Sera 2019
1016:Sera 2019
1001:Sera 2019
982:Sera 2019
802:Hess 2011
734:Sera 2019
687:Sera 2019
675:Sera 2019
663:Sera 2019
584:Sera 2019
500:Citations
487:"Dürrge".
374:prosector
367:Göttingen
294:, became
207:Aristotle
105:1801–1835
1559:67831533
1425:42431348
1320:16482692
418:testicle
414:prostate
343:Landshut
333:, where
179:and the
173:clitoris
120:intersex
1475:L'Homme
434:ovarian
432:and an
378:Bamberg
363:Legnica
353:at the
308:Leipzig
181:urethra
169:phallus
153:scabies
149:Charité
145:Prussia
141:Potsdam
49:Prussia
45:Potsdam
36: (
1614:
1589:31 May
1582:
1557:
1532:
1509:30 May
1502:
1494:
1457:
1423:
1400:
1375:
1350:
1325:30 May
1318:
1310:
1267:
1244:
1221:
466:umlaut
430:vagina
426:uterus
331:Prague
300:gonads
286:Career
258:vagina
157:Goethe
81:German
1549:[
1500:S2CID
1438:[
1415:[
1392:[
1342:[
1259:[
1236:[
448:Notes
410:penis
398:Mainz
327:Fulda
246:]
63:Mainz
1612:ISBN
1591:2019
1580:OCLC
1555:OCLC
1530:ISBN
1511:2019
1492:ISSN
1455:ISBN
1421:OCLC
1398:OCLC
1373:ISBN
1348:ISBN
1327:2019
1316:PMID
1308:ISSN
1265:ISBN
1242:OCLC
1219:OCLC
424:, a
404:and
329:and
304:Jena
217:and
215:17th
56:Died
38:1780
34:1780
31:Born
1484:doi
1298:doi
376:in
369:.
1632::
1528:.
1498:.
1490:.
1480:30
1371:.
1338:.
1314:.
1306:.
1290:22
1288:.
1282:.
1157:^
1142:^
1089:^
1050:^
1023:^
1008:^
989:^
964:^
935:^
906:^
887:^
872:^
833:^
782:^
753:^
706:^
615:^
576:^
547:^
528:^
518:.
507:^
428:,
412:,
244:de
193:.
159:,
69:,
65:,
47:,
1620:.
1593:.
1576:3
1561:.
1538:.
1513:.
1486::
1463:.
1427:.
1404:.
1381:.
1356:.
1329:.
1300::
1273:.
1248:.
1225:.
1215:1
40:)
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