Organ trade - Knowledge (XXG)

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targets for transplant tourists because they are the most in need of money. While some supporters of the organ trade argue that it helps lift some people out of poverty by providing compensation to donors, evidence of this claim is hotly debated. In many cases, people who sell their organs in order to pay off debt do not manage to escape this debt and remain trapped in debt cycles. Often, people feel like they have no choice but to donate their kidneys due to extreme poverty. In some cases, organs are sold to family members, either from parents to offspring, or from adult children to parents. This is more frequent in nations where waitlists are less formal, and among families which cannot afford to leave the country for transplants.

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involved in illegal organ transplants is hindered by medical confidentiality regulations. Without the ability to review medical records and histories to build an effective case against perpetrators, officials cannot fully enforce organ trade laws. Many critics state that in order to prohibit illegal organ trading effectively, criminal justice agencies must collaborate with medical authorities to strengthen knowledge and enforcement of organ trade laws. Critics also support other criminal justice actions to meet this goal, such as prioritizing organ trafficking issues among local legislative bodies; multidisciplinary collaboration in cross-border offenses; and further police training in dealing with organ trafficking crimes.

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to sell their organs. If a person's creditors or dependents suggest that said person sell their kidney to raise money, they could refuse on the grounds that it is illegal. In contrast, if organ sales were legalized, a destitute individual could face pressure from family and creditors to sell a kidney – and possibly endure social consequences such as scorn or guilt if they declined. Legalizing organ sales would create this unwanted pressure (and attendant disapproval) for all poor individuals, regardless of whether or not they wished to sell their kidneys. Thus a legal prohibition on selling organs is warranted to protect poor people from this undesirable pressure.

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traveled to India and other parts of Southeast Asia to obtain organs from poor donors. Since then, other destinations have emerged, such as Brazil and the Philippines. According to some allegations, China is involved in the trade of organs taken from executed prisoners. Organ sales continue in India despite new laws in the country that make this practice illegal in most regions. While current estimates suggest that the illicit organ trade remains relatively modest in Europe, this problem does not lose any of its seriousness, as it is very likely that with new medical advances, the gap between supply and demand for organs will continue to widen."

672:. With presumed consent laws (also known as "opt out" laws), consent for organ donation is assumed upon death unless the individual previously "opted out" by submitting documentation. This is in contrast to "opt-in" organ donation policies, which assume that a deceased person would not have wished to donate unless they had previously notified the government of their intention to donate. Presumed consent policies have already been adopted in various countries, including Brazil, certain jurisdictions of the United States, and several European nations. Research shows a 25–30% increase in the amount of available organs in "opt-out" countries. 1094:

countries. These policies can be either presumed consent (during life) or withdrawal (after death). In the category of withdrawal policies, organ donation is presumed after death, although it is possible to choose not to donate by submitting documents. Research has shown an increase of around 25 to 30% in the amount of organs available in countries with presumed consent policies. In the category of presumed consent policies, like the United States or France, a person may choose to donate their organs during their lifetime. In a presumed consent policy, families sometimes succeed in making the decision to donate the heart.

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harvesting through confidentiality agreements and laws, such as the Temporary Rules Concerning the Utilization of Corpses or Organs from the Corpses of Executed Prisoners. Critics further allege that organs were not distributed on the basis of need, but rather allocated through a corrupt system or simply sold to wealthy Chinese and foreign individuals. One source estimates that China executed at least 4,000 prisoners in 2006 to supply approximately 8,000 kidneys and 3,000 livers for foreign buyers. China was also accused of fueling its transplant industry with organs harvested from living

722:. Currently 32 countries allow prostitution; none of them allow for the sale of an organ. Views on legalization of prostitution have often viewed it as a "necessary evil" and of prostitution can be legalized as long as the sex worker's human rights such as freedom of speech, travel, work, immigration, health insurance, and housing, are not deprived. Similarly, many argue that as long as the donors rights are respected and the trade is regulated, it would be ethically responsible for organ trade to exist. 434:, it approved nine guiding principles for human organ transplant. The principles clearly stated that organs cannot be the subject of financial transactions. On May 22, 2004, these guidelines were slightly amended at the 57th World Health Assembly. They are intended for the use of governments worldwide. These global initiatives have served as a helpful resource for establishing medical professional codes and a legal framework for the issue, but have not provided the sanctions required for enforcement. 503:

strangers from donating to one another; a person can only donate to a relative, spouse, or someone bound by "affection". In practice, though, people evade the law's restrictions to continue the trade in organs. Often, claims of "affection" are unfounded and the organ donor has no connection to the recipient. In many cases, the donor may not be Indian or even speak the same language as the recipient. There have also been reports of the donor marrying the recipient to circumvent THOA's prohibition.

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donors' consent. Rather, they say that the dangers posed by donating an organ are too great to allow a person to voluntarily undertake them in exchange for money. As noted previously, critics of organ sales cite research suggesting that kidney sellers suffer serious consequences of the operation, faring far worse than altruistic kidney donors. Even if one assumes that kidney sellers will have similar outcomes to donors in a regulated market, one cannot ignore the fact that a

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University of Pittsburgh (Pitt) may have violated federal law by altering abortion procedures to harvest organs from babies who were old enough to live outside the womb." However, PolitiFact reported several months earlier that "There is no indication that the fetal tissues used in the experiments were 'purchased'," suggesting that the congress members' later description of this research as involving organ harvesting was inaccurate.

523:, even promoted "all-inclusive" kidney transplant packages that retailed for roughly $ 25,000. The donors themselves often received as little as $ 2,000 for their kidneys. The country was a popular destination for transplant tourism. One high-ranking government official estimated that 800 kidneys were sold annually in the country prior to 2008, and the WHO listed it as one of the top five sites for transplant tourists in 2005. 865:

organ, leaving comparatively little money left for the donor. Because the mainstream medical establishment is barred from participating in the transplantation, the procedure typically occurs in substandard facilities and not according to best practices. Afterwards, the donors often do not receive important medical follow-up because they are afraid that their role in the crime will be discovered. There have also been reports of

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ranging from $ 4,000 to $ 157,000. Though livers are regenerative, making liver donations non-fatal, they are much less common due to an excruciating post-operative recovery period that deters donors. Other high-priced body parts commonly sold include corneas ($ 24,400) and unfertilized eggs ($ 12,400), while lower-priced bodily commodities include blood ($ 25–337), skin ($ 10 per square inch), and bones/

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will be poor and can expect the same dangerous consequences. Proponents of organ markets respond by blaming these bad outcomes on the fact that kidney sellers have been forced into the black market, with minimal oversight, follow-up care, or legal protections from abuse; thus in a regulated market in the developed world, kidney sellers could expect to see outcomes more akin to those of kidney donors

1037:"donations" between donor and recipients are allowed. However, the government also supplements this donation with incentives such as free/discounted medical health insurance, exemptions from co payments/contribution shares, priority when receiving an organ in the future, priority when finding a job, income tax exemptions for salaried employees, and free or discounted public utilities. 240:(WHO), illegal organ trade occurs when organs are removed from the body for the purpose of commercial transactions. Despite ordinances against organ sales, this practice persists, with studies estimating that anywhere from 5% to 42% of transplanted organs are illicitly purchased. Research indicates that illegal organ trade is on the rise, with a recent report by 738:. Further more, donor shortages still persists in the United States. To avoid lawsuits, providers would violate UAGA and side with the next of kin and ignore any preexisting organ donation requests. As such, if organ trade is legalized, there will need to be ethical consideration on if a physician has a duty to perform financially motivated organ transplants. 659:, distracts attention from the illegal organ trade. They call for increased scientific research on illegal organ trade, so that organ trafficking legends can be replaced by scientific fact. Meyer argues: "Only then will be taken seriously by all governments affected and will the results constitute a solid ground for the field of policy-making." 224:

cannot to due to antibody incompatibilities. However, your kidney is a good match for a stranger who happens to be married to someone whose kidney would be compatible with your spouse. In a paired donation, you would agree to donate your kidney to the stranger, in exchange for the stranger's spouse promising to donate a kidney to your spouse.

474:. In 2007, China banned foreign transplant patients and formally outlawed the sale of organs and collecting a person's organs without their consent. In China, minorities including Uighurs, Tibetans, Muslims and Christians are targeted for 'organ harvesting', with Falun Gong practitioners being the primary victims of this brutal practice. 563:

outcomes, and 96% of donors stated that they regretted donating. These findings are relatively consistent across all countries: those who sell their organs on the market tend to have poorer overall health. Substandard conditions during transplant surgeries can also lead to transmission of diseases like

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transplantation and donation on an international level. It is nonbinding, but over 100 transplant organizations support its principles, including countries such as China, Israel, the Philippines, and Pakistan, which strengthened their laws against illegal organ trading after the declaration's release.

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Though many statutes regarding organ trade exist, law officials have failed to enforce these mandates successfully. One barrier to enforcement is a lack of communication between medical authorities and law enforcement agencies. Often, enforcement officials' access to information regarding individuals

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In 1994, the country passed the Transplantation of Human Organs Act (THOA), banning commerce in organs and promoting posthumous donation of organs. The law's primary mechanism for preventing the sale of organs was to restrict who could donate a kidney to another person. In particular, the THOA bars

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had no legislation banning the sale of organs. Low costs and high availability brought in business from around the globe, and transformed India into one of the largest kidney transplant centers in the world. However, several problems began to surface. Patients were often promised payments that were

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that drives illegal organ trade, but not all medical tourism for organs is illegal. For example, in some cases, both the donor and the recipient of the organ travel to a country with adequate facilities to perform a legal surgery. In other cases, a recipient travels to receive the organ of a relative

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Although all nations apart from Iran prohibit financial transactions for organs, most permit "paired donations" or kidney swaps across multiple parties. Paired donations address the problem of tissue compatibility in organ transplants. For example, you may wish to donate a kidney to your spouse but

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recently legalized monetary compensation for living organ donors. Proponents of such initiatives say that these measures do not pay people for their organs; rather, these measures merely compensate donors for the costs associated with donating an organ. For example, Australian donors receive 9 weeks'

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is the only nation that allows organs to be bought and sold for money. Due to lack of infrastructure to maintain an efficient organ transplant system in the early 1980s, Iran legalized living non-related donation (LNRD) of kidneys in 1988. The Charity Association for the Support of Kidney Patients

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Another argument against organ markets is that they will give rise to a pressure to sell organs which would harm all people (even those who did not participate directly in the market). Under the current ban on the organ trade, debtors and heads of families in the developed world face little pressure

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organ transplantations have poorer clinical outcomes as compared with live organ donations. Legalizing payments for organs would encourage more people to donate their organs. Each organ sold on a market could potentially save the life (and improve the quality of life) of its recipient. For example,

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reported its interview with Cheng Pei Ming, the first known survivor of China’s forced organ harvesting. Cheng, a Falun Gong practitioner, recounted how he was subjected to repeated blood tests and a subsequent forced surgery while imprisoned in China and later discovered during medical exams in the

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The kidney is the most commonly sought-after organ in transplant tourism, with prices for the organ ranging from as little as $ 1,300 to as much as $ 150,000. Reports estimate that 75% of all illegal organ trading involves kidneys. The liver trade is also prominent in transplant tourism, with prices

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However, other critics argue that such a free market system for organ trade would encourage organ theft through murder and neglect of sick individuals for financial gain. Advocates for the free market of organs counter these claims by saying that murder for financial gain already happens; sanctions

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who was instrumental in exposing illegal international organ-selling rings. Scheper-Hughes is famous for her investigations, which have led to several arrests due to people from developing countries being forced or fooled into organ donations. Like the World Health Organization, Organs Watch seeks

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Critics of legalization argue that proponents exaggerate the impact that a market would have on the supply of organs. In particular, they note that legalized organ sales may “crowd out” altruistic donations. In other words, people who would otherwise give their organs to relatives may decline to do

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Some critics challenge the proponents' assumptions that legalization will eliminate the black market for organs or its problems. For example, one scholar argues that once the organ trade became legalized in Iran, it did not end the under-the-table sales in organs. Instead, people made deals outside

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Other physicians and philosophers argue that legalization will remedy the abuses of the illicit trade in organs. The current ban on the sale of organs has driven both sellers and buyers into the black market, out of sight of the law. Criminal middlemen often take a large cut of the payment for the

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and chronic kidney disease), to report reduced overall health, and to suffer from psychological side effects such as depression. Opponents of markets usually ascribe these worse outcomes to the fact that kidney sellers are drawn from the ranks of the poor; if organ sales are permitted, most sellers

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The ethical debate of organ trade rests on whether or not people have an inherent right to sell their own organs and, if so, whether or not the potential harms of organ sales override that right. While in most democratic countries, there is an implied ethical right to what happens to one’s body, in

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On September 21, 2021, 92 Republican members of the U.S. Senate and House asked the heads of multiple federal agencies to investigate organ harvesting for research purposes. The letter stated, "We are alarmed by public records obtained from the National Institutes of Heath (NIH) which show that the

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Many non-profit organizations and international jurists are skeptical that China has truly reformed its organ transplant industry. In particular, although the number of organs taken from prisoners has dropped dramatically, there is no prohibition on collecting organs from deceased inmates who sign

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of organs, paying a standard price set by law and then distributing the organs to its citizens. This safeguard is designed to prevent unscrupulous buyers from taking advantage of potential donors and to ensure that the benefits of the increased organ supply are not limited to the rich. Moreover,

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change if the patient received an organ through illegal means. Further more, if organ trade is legalized, an obligation for a physician to respect the patients wish to sell an organ. In the US, there is controversy on whether organ donation wishes are legally enforceable. The primary law governing

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Many people in the United States believe that adopting a system for regulating organ trading similar to Iran's will help to decrease the national shortage of kidneys. They argue that the U.S. could adopt similar policies to promote accountability, ensure safety in surgical practices, employ vendor

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in order for their organs to be removed. In addition to books and films, stories of organ trafficking are often depicted through television, tabloid magazines, emails, and the Internet. Many of the organ trafficking tales depicted in the media contain unsubstantiated claims. For example, the 1993

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In the 2000s, the country came under increasing international and domestic pressure to end the practice of using organs from prisoners. Since then, it has implemented a number of reforms addressing these allegations. It has developed a registry of voluntary, non-incarcerated donors; it is believed

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Proponents of legalized organ trade have hailed the Iranian system as an example of an effective and safe organ trading model. In addition, the LNRD model is compatible with the social climate in the country. Religious practices in Iran stymies donation culture in the country as organ donations is

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organizations match donors to recipients, setting up tests to ensure compatibility. Donors receive tax credit compensation from the government, free health care insurance, and often direct payment from the recipient with the average donor being paid $ 1,200. Some donors are also offered employment

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that every human being is a creature of innate dignity, who must always be regarded as an end to itself and never just a means to an end. A market for organs would reduce body parts to commodities to be bought and sold. Critics argue that, by permitting such transactions, society would reduce the

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Another proposed method is to enact laws that would hold doctors accountable for not reporting suspected organ trafficking. Scheper-Hughes has written extensively on the issue of doctors knowingly performing illegal operations with illicit organs. She argues that though doctors might be violating

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Impoverished donors' economic outcomes are no better than their health outcomes. A study of Indian donors found that while 96% of donors sold a kidney to pay off debts, 75% still required operative care that is not provided by the buyer. Donors in all countries often report weakness after surgery

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Reports by the World Health Organization show decreased health and economic well-being for those who donate organs through transplant tourism. In Iran (where organ sales are legal), 58% of donors reported negative health consequences. In Egypt, as many as 78% of donors experienced negative health

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Since the late 1980s, China relied on executed prisoners to provide the bulk of its transplanted organs. This ready source of organs made it second only to the United States for numbers of transplantations performed. There is evidence that the government attempted to downplay the scope of organ

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on organ trafficking and transplant tourism. The Declaration of Istanbul defines transplant commercialism, organ trafficking, and transplant tourism. It condemns these practices based on violations to equity, justice, and human dignity. The declaration aims to promote ethical practices in organ

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Many people in the United States believe that adopting a regulated organ trading system similar to Iran's would help to reduce the shortage of kidneys for transplantation. They believe that the United States should adopt similar policies to ensure the safety of surgery, provide lifelong care for

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by reporting suspected organ trafficking, their legal obligation to the patient is superseded by public interest in ending medical violations of human rights. If accountability measures were imposed, doctors would be liable as accomplices if they knowingly performed operations with black market

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Poor people are also more likely to volunteer to sell their organs. One of the primary reasons donors articulate for why they sell their organs is to pay off debt. Migrants for instance may use the money to pay off human traffickers. The most impoverished are frequently viewed as more reliable

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Some opponents of markets adopt a paternalistic stance that prohibits organ sales on the grounds that the government has a duty to prevent harm to its citizens. Unlike the "coercion by poverty" line of argumentation discussed above, these critics do not necessarily question the validity of the

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Various solutions have been proposed to staunch the flow of illegal organs around the globe. The primary strategy is to increase the supply of legally donated organs, thereby decreasing the demand that drives the illicit organ trade. One way to accomplish this goal is for states to implement

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A program to reduce organ trafficking is supposed to have several ways to work. These laws help to increase the amount of organs available, which reduces the number of patients who turn to the black market. At the same time, the increase in the supply of organs reduces the financial cost of a

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There are several proposed solutions to increase the number of legally available human organs and reduce the growing illicit trade in these organs around the world. Policies of presumed consent have been successful in different countries, including Brazil, the United States, and many European

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The incentivized Kidney Donation Model (IKDM) exists as an intermediate between complete Free Market Model and Erin Harris Model, with strong government regulation and rewards with free market approach to donations. Currently in place in Turkey, Iran, in which a free organ market exists which

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Iran does place restrictions on the commercial organ trade in an attempt to limit transplant tourism. The market is contained within the country; that is, foreigners are not allowed to buy the organs of Iranian citizens. Additionally, organs can only be transplanted between people of the same

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In its report on organ trafficking in Europe, the Social, Health and Family Affairs Committee of the Council of Europe wrote: "On a global scale, organ trafficking is not a new problem. In the 1980s, experts began to notice a practice that was later dubbed 'transplant tourism': wealthy Asians

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The main argument made in favor of legalized organ sales is that it would increase the number of organs available for transplantation. Although governments have implemented other initiatives to increase organ donation – such as public awareness campaigns, presumed consent laws, and the legal

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for migrants can help to document information on detected missing organs, and even previously done surgeries. Some projects have been started to keep personal health records of immigrants. Detection of missing organs and associated surgeries is an important first step to detect illicit organ

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Though claims of organ trafficking are difficult to substantiate due to lack of evidence and reliable data, cases of illegal organ trade have been tried and prosecuted. The persons and entities prosecuted have included criminal gangs, hospitals, third-party organ brokers, nephrologists, and

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participation in the market would be confined to citizens of the state where the market is located, to prevent the unilateral movement of organs from developing nations to the developed world. Erin and Harris's model has been endorsed by a number of prominent advocates of organ markets.

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Many proponents argue for legalized organ sales on the grounds of autonomy. Individuals are generally free to buy or sell their possessions and their labor. Advocates of organ markets say that, likewise, people ought to be free to buy or sell organs as well. According to this perspective,

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In March 2008, the government passed new legislation enforcing the ban on organ sales. After the crackdown on the practice, the number of transplants has decreased from 1,046 in 2007 to 511 in 2010. Since then, the government has taken a much more active stance against transplant tourism.

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Such paired donations are arguably a form of organ sale – instead of purchasing a kidney for a loved one with cash, a person pays for it with their own kidney. In fact, in the United States, the spread of kidney paired donations was initially stymied due to language in the National Organ

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registries, and provide donors with lifetime care. They further argue that private insurance companies and the federal government would be invested in providing such care for donors, and that laws could be enacted to make long-term care an inviolable condition of any donation agreement.

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so, opting instead to purchase the organ (or rely on the government to buy one) for their relatives. Proponents of markets counter that while altruistic donations might decrease slightly if organ sales were legalized, this decrease would be more than offset by the influx of organs.

892:: such individuals may feel like they have no choice but to agree to sell a kidney. Under these circumstances, the decision to sell cannot be regarded as truly voluntary. Consequently, it is appropriate for the government to protect poor people by prohibiting the sale of organs. 386:. In 2007, for example, 2,500 kidneys were purchased in Pakistan, with foreign recipients making up two-thirds of the buyers. In the same year, in Canada and the United Kingdom, experts estimated that about 30 to 50 of their transplant patients illegally purchased organs abroad. 478:

agreements purporting to donate their organs. There continue to be reports of prison officials offering death row inmates the opportunity to "voluntarily" donate their organs upon death, with the implication that those who decline may get worse treatment from their jailers.

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The first scientific report of the phenomenon dates back to a publication in The Lancet in 1990. The study tracked 131 patients from the United Arab Emirates and Oman who underwent kidney transplants in Bombay and who reportedly experienced numerous post-operative problems

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intrusion upon individuals' freedom. Proponents acknowledge that, unlike selling a material possession such as a car, selling a kidney does carry some risk of harm. However, they note that people are able to undertake dangerous occupations (such as logging, soldiering, or

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Proponents of organ sales claim that this line of argument confuses the kidney with the whole person; so long as the transaction is conducted in a way that minimizes risks to the donor and fairly compensates him or her, that person is not reduced to a means to an end.

3220: 2872: 555:) are more likely to fall victim of organ theft. Accounts of this practice usually characterize the victims as unemployed individuals (often but not always men) between the ages of 20 and 40 who were seeking work and were taken out of the country for operations. 550:

Data from the World Health Organization indicates that donors in the illegal organ trade are predominantly impoverished people in developing nations. In one study of organ donors in India, for example, 71% of all donors fell below the poverty line. Poor people

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donors found that they reported a higher quality of life than the average non-donor. Proponents of organ markets argue that, given the comparative safety of donating a kidney, individuals should be permitted to undergo this operation in exchange for payment.

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Another proposed method is to adopt laws that would impose on doctors the responsibility to report suspected organ traffickers. Chiper Hughes has written extensively on the issue of doctors who perform illegal operations while knowing that they are illegal.

57:(WHO), organ trade is a commercial transplantation where there is a profit, or transplantations that occur outside of national medical systems. There is a global need or demand for healthy body parts for transplantation, which exceeds the numbers available. 788:

Proponents also assert that organ sales ought to be legal because the procedure is relatively safe for donors. The short-term risk of donation is low – patients have a mortality rate of 0.03%, similar to that of certain elective cosmetic procedures such as

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However, this autonomy is limited in organ trade as governments and some ethicist argue the potential harm of organ trade outweighs the rights of an individual. The closest legalized comparison of a right to bodily autonomy for financial gain would be

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trade in organs is difficult to obtain). The question of whether to legalize and regulate the organ trade to combat illegal trafficking and the significant global organ shortage is greatly debated. This discussion typically centers on the sale of

6136: 141:, as over 70% of donors are poor. There is no short-term or long-term follow-up on the health of organ donors. In fact, there is evidence that Iranian donors experience highly negative outcomes, both in terms of health and emotional well-being. 470:

that these living and deceased donors supply most of the organs transplanted in the country today. China also standardized its organ collection process, specifying which hospitals can perform operations and establishing the legal definition of

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Critics often argue that organ sales should remain prohibited because any market solution will take advantage of the poor. Specifically, they fear that a large financial incentive for donating organs will prove irresistible to individuals in

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seller of the organ to an object of commerce – a mere means to an ends. Assigning a monetary value to a key organ is essentially assigning a value to its bearer, and putting a price on a human being violates his or her intrinsic dignity.

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kidnapping people and illegally harvesting their organs for sale on the black market. Proponents of legalization argue that it will result in better medical care for donors and recipients alike, as well as larger payments to the donors.

344:, corruption, and insufficiencies in legislation and enforcement drive the prevalence of the illegal organ trade. These factors also pose difficulties in tracking accurate statistics of the trade and market forces across countries. 356:

defines transplant tourism as "the purchase of a transplant organ abroad that includes access to an organ while bypassing laws, rules, or processes of any or all countries involved". The term "transplant tourism" describes the

68:. Recent bans on the commercial organ trade (e.g. India in 1994 and the Philippines in 2008) have increased the availability of transplants and the safety of the procedures. Despite these prohibitions, organ trafficking and 60:

As of January 2020, there are more than 100,000 candidates waiting for organ transplant in the United States. The median wait time for heart and liver transplants in the U.S. between 2003 and 2014, was approximately 148 days.

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had been removed without his consent while he was hospitalized in a mental facility. Reggi later disputed this claim, saying that his corneas were still intact, and he had just been suffering from an acute eye infection.

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is an invasive procedure that – by definition – inflicts some injury upon the patient. These critics argue that the government has a duty to prevent these harms, even if the would-be seller is willing to undertake them.

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Toews, Maeghan; Giancaspro, Mark; Richards, Bernadette; Ferrari, Paolo (September 2017). "Kidney Paired Donation and the "Valuable Consideration" Problem: The Experiences of Australia, Canada, and the United States".

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In 2023 reports from regional sources have shared details on how Iran began accepting bartered payments for organs in poor rural areas in lieu of traditional payments, in some cases even accepting goats as payment.

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living abroad. Transplant tourism raises concerns because it involves the transfer of healthy organs in one direction, depleting the regions where organs are bought. This transfer typically occurs in trends: from

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Transplantation Act barring the transfer of human organs for "valuable consideration". It was only after the law was amended to specifically allow for kidney paired donations that the practice became popular.

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donors. They also consider that private insurance companies will invest in providing this care to donors, which would make long-term care laws more favorable by protecting the terms of any donation agreement.

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have proposed a much more heavily regulated model for organ transactions. Under this scheme, would-be sellers of organs do not contract with would-be recipients. Instead, a government agency would be the

793:. Moreover, they argue, the long-term risks are also relatively minimal. A 2018 systematic review found that kidney donors did not die earlier than non-donors. Donors did have a slightly increased risk of 4440: 201:

federal law prohibits the sale of organs, it does permit state governments to compensate donors for travel, medical, and other incidental expenses associated with their donation. In 2004, the state of

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Hemphill, Joan E. (2007). "China's Practice of Procuring Organs From Executed Prisoners: Human Rights Groups Must Narrowly Tailor Their Criticism and Endorse the Chinese Constitution to End Abuses".

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The World Health Organization (WHO) has also played a prominent role in condemning the illegal organ trade. The WHO first declared organ trade illegal in 1987, stating that such a trade violates the

856:) which carry significant chance of bodily harm. If individuals are allowed to take on that risk in exchange for money, then they ought to be able to take on the risks of selling a kidney as well. 2677: 2517: 1537: 426:. It also condemns the practice on the grounds that it "is likely to take unfair advantage of the poorest and most vulnerable groups, undermines altruistic donation and leads to profiteering and 406:

The international community has issued many ordinances and declarations against the organ trade. Examples include the World Medical Authority's 1985 denouncement of organs for commercial use; the

398:, transplant tourism and organ trafficking of these parts is very rare due to the sophisticated nature of the transplant surgery and the state-of-the-art facilities required for such transplants. 4467: 2800: 2986: 780:, looking at the publications of 72 economic researchers who have studied organ trade, reached a similar conclusion: 68% supported legalization of the organ trade, while only 21% opposed it. 244:

estimating that the illegal organ trade generates profits between $ 600 million and $ 1.2 billion per year, with a span over many countries. These countries include, but are not limited to:

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A similar argument focuses on the fact that selling a kidney involves the loss of something unique and essentially irreplaceable on the part of the donor. Given the special value placed on

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Organ trade also raises ethical and legal concerns for healthcare providers towards the treatment of patient. Specifically, currently there is little to no guidance on how does the

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Glaser, Sheri R. 2005. "Formula to Stop the Illegal Organ Trade: Presumed Consent Laws and Mandatory Reporting Requirements for Doctors". Human Rights Brief. Volume 12: Issue 20

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revolves around an illegal drug and organ trafficking ring in outer space, which is run cooperatively by a multinational pharmaceutical corporation and corrupt police officers.

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for organs at zero dollars. This price ceiling affects supply and demand, creating a shortage of organs in the face of a growing demand. According to a report published by the

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much higher than what they actually received. Other patients reported that their kidneys were removed without their consent after they underwent procedures for other reasons.

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5,000, but some donors receive as little as $ 1,000. In addition, these black market transplants are often dangerous to both the donor and recipient, with some contracting

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and Julio Elias estimated that a $ 31,700 compensation would provide enough kidneys for everyone on the wait list. The government could pay the compensation to guarantee

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against such acts exist to minimize their occurrence; and with proper regulation and law enforcement, such incidents in a legal organ trade could be minimized as well.

162:, the same kidney can be worth over $ 100000, with most of proceeds taken up by middlemen. The typical price paid to donors on the black market is thought to be about 4486: 1643: 5844: 4512: 3861: 2605: 516: 4930: 4748: 734:(UAGA). However, it is widely considered inadequate as it is up to each state to regulate and uphold this law, with enforcement varying between states for cadaver 6487: 4419: 2741: 5642: 4387: 4243:

Caulfield, Timothy; Duijst, Wilma; Bos, Mike; Chassis, Iris; Codreanu, Igor; Danovitch, Gabriel; Gill, John; Ivanovski, Ninoslav; Shin, Milbert (February 2016).

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Avci, Ercan (September 2018). "Should We Formulate an Incentivized Model Facilitating Kidney Donation from Living Donors? A Focus on Turkey's Current System".

5520:"An Open Letter to President Barack Obama, Secretary of Health and Human Services Sylvia Mathews Burwell, Attorney General Eric Holder and Leaders of Congress" 4639: 4124: 3189: 3143: 2648: 2487: 6086: 2015: 702: 134:

often viewed as taboo. In 2017, from a possible 8,000 cases of brain death, 4,000 organs were viable, but only 808 were transplanted due to lack of consent.

5068: 4661: 600:

There have been various portrayals of illegal organ trade and organ trafficking in the mass media over the past few decades. Many, such as the 1993 book

2669: 2509: 1529: 466:

concluded that China was guilty of this practice; however, the report has come under criticism for its methodology, by both Chinese and Western sources.

411: 4464: 2461: 1305: 3451: 4570: 2796: 1259: 899:

Legalization of human organ trading has been opposed by a variety of human rights groups. One such group is Organs Watch, which was established by

5907: 4008: 2339: 118: 2309: 1760: 635:

made a number of claims about organ trafficking that later proved to be false. The program investigated alleged organ and tissue trafficking in

5232: 3628: 1184: 3501: 423: 4727: 821:

Critics challenge this view of transplantation as being overly optimistic. Specifically, they cite research suggesting that individuals who

367: 2763: 2133: 6349: 6230: 6225: 5837: 3095: 2699: 2415: 2106: 1738: 5668: 1054:

released a song in 2021 titled "Inhumane Harvest", which has lyrical content about organ harvesting. The song was also released with a

5358: 2374: 3886:

Moazam, F., R. M. Zaman, et al. (2009). Conversations with Kidney Vendors in Pakistan: An ethnographic study, Hastings Centre Report.

3837: 3650: 3476: 2162: 1703: 5894: 5617: 4871:"A Criminological Perspective: Why Prohibition of Organ Trade Is Not Effective and How the Declaration of Istanbul Can Move Forward" 4610: 4320: 3332: 2411:"A Criminological Perspective: Why Prohibition of Organ Trade Is Not Effective and How the Declaration of Istanbul Can Move Forward" 1680: 1628: 5125: 3790: 1644:

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Goat-breeds-distribution-by-region-in-Iran-A-Marghoz-B-Raeini-C-Nadushan-D-Hairy_fig2_252932781

3356: 1960: 6156: 6141: 5872: 3611: 2627: 1011: 552: 353: 2894: 726: 6270: 5523: 5008:

Delmonico, F. L.; Martin, D.; Domínguez-Gil, B.; Muller, E.; Jha, V.; Levin, A.; Danovitch, G. M.; Capron, A. M. (2015-05-01).

3689: 3267: 3003: 1849: 612:

of an individual who wakes up in a hotel bathtub to discover that one of his or her kidneys has been removed. The 1977 novel

6275: 6246: 6220: 5830: 2597: 1123: 448: 4245:"Trafficking in Human Beings for the Purpose of Organ Removal and the Ethical and Legal Obligations of Healthcare Providers" 3949:

Leventhal, Todd. 1994. "The Child Organ Trafficking Rumor: A Modern Urban Legend." United States Information Agency Report.

6151: 6131: 4483: 3555: 1135: 773: 520: 4504: 6189: 6116: 4922: 4594: 4411: 2731: 1931: 6568: 6194: 5634: 4371: 3972: 3186: 2226:

Delmonico, Francis L. (2009). "The Implications of Istanbul Declaration on organ trafficking and transplant tourism".

731: 5157: 2925: 997:

system to combat the organ shortage that helps drive illegal organ trade. The organ trade's illegal status creates a

908:

to protect and benefit the poverty-stricken individuals who participate in the illegal organ trade out of necessity.

4631: 4116: 3580: 3534: 3133: 1230: 394:($ 5,465). While there is a high demand, and correspondingly a very high price, for vital organs such as hearts and 6199: 6055: 5977: 4145:"World Charter for Prostitutes' Rights: International Committee for Prostitutes' Rights February 1985, Amsterdam". 3301: 2825:

Lee Mendoza Roger (2010). "Kidney black markets and legal transplants: Are they opposite sides of the same coin?".

2640: 5947: 5584: 5440: 3768: 2483: 1982: 6542: 6081: 5952: 5107: 3651:"Formula to Stop the Illegal Organ Trade: Presumed Consent Laws and Mandatory Reporting Requirements for Doctors" 3268:"Formula to Stop the Illegal Organ Trade: Presumed Consent Laws and Mandatory Reporting Requirements for Doctors" 2163:"The State of the International Organ Trade: A Provisional Picture Based on Integration of Available Information" 976: 765:

who receive a kidney transplant from a living donor typically live 7 to 15 years longer than those who depend on

583:

that leads to decreased employment opportunities, especially for those who make a living through physical labor.

414:

of 1997 and its 2002 Optional Protocol Concerning Transplantation of Organs and Tissues of Human Origin; and the

237: 54: 463: 6573: 6146: 5972: 3874:

Scheper-Hughes, N 2000, ‘The global traffic in human organs’, Current Anthropology, vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 191–224

1150: 713:"Every human being of adult years and sound mind has a right to determine what shall be done with her own body" 677: 3819: 6313: 6258: 6009: 5917: 2453: 1395: 415: 3838:"PolitiFact - NIH helped fund research involving donated fetal tissue, but Fauci was not directly involved" 1212:(Carney, Scott. 2011. "The Red Market." Wired 19, no. 2: 112–1. Internet and Personal Computing Abstracts.) 6537: 6522: 6443: 6263: 6121: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5957: 3447: 3298:"Bloody Harvest: Revised Report into Allegations of Organ Harvesting of Falun Gong Practitioners in China" 1251: 1140: 942: 806: 794: 684: 218: 122: 4537: 2926:"Trafficking of Persons for the Removal of Organs and the Admission of Guilt of a South African Hospital" 1655: 6527: 6464: 6411: 6375: 6303: 5984: 5962: 5942: 5853: 655:

Critics, such as Silke Meyer, argue that this sensationalized view of organ trafficking, often based in

619: 431: 130:

nationality – so, for example, an Iranian cannot purchase a kidney from a refugee from another country.

50: 5174: 5164:, Jonathan A. Winston, M.D., Program Chair, April 19, 2010, Kidney & Urology Foundation of America. 4000: 2335: 6563: 6334: 6091: 5967: 5932: 904: 900: 579:

and other mental illnesses brought on by the stress of donating and insufficient care after surgery.

108: 3325:

The Slaughter: Mass Killings, Organ Harvesting, and China's Secret Solution to Its Dissident Problem

6427: 5922: 5884: 5879: 5867: 5193: 3606: 3008: 2736: 2704: 1313: 1280: 1176: 706: 4186:"Organ Transplantation in Iran; Current State and Challenges with a View on Ethical Consideration" 1734: 1464:"Organ Transplantation in Iran; Current State and Challenges with a View on Ethical Consideration" 126:

opportunities. Charity organizations support recipients that cannot afford the cost of the organ.

6298: 5432: 5339: 5224: 5099: 4719: 4689: 4166: 3917: 3742: 3404: 3060: 2850: 2579: 2251: 2101: 2069: 1923: 1581: 1021: 874:

the government-sanctioned system to acquire organs from more desirable (i.e., healthier) donors.

829:

their organs. Kidney sellers are more likely to have renal problems after the operation (such as

1024:. This would save public money, as dialysis for kidney failure patients is far more expensive. 194:

advocacy organizations in both countries have expressed their support for this new initiative.

6532: 6512: 6507: 6406: 6308: 6060: 5796: 5788: 5747: 5712: 5613: 5576: 5568: 5500: 5482: 5424: 5416: 5366: 5331: 5323: 5288: 5216: 5091: 5049: 5041: 4990: 4972: 4900: 4892: 4851: 4843: 4808: 4681: 4602: 4562: 4379: 4352: 4316: 4282: 4264: 4225: 4207: 4158: 4098: 4060: 4052: 4047: 4030: 3855: 3734: 3620: 3396: 3328: 3217:"China used to harvest organs from prisoners. Under pressure, that practice is finally ending" 3114: 3052: 2958: 2842: 2571: 2434: 2243: 2192: 2125: 2061: 2007: 1915: 1831: 1823: 1624: 1503: 1485: 1422: 1368: 1350: 1081: 802: 777: 576: 545: 427: 407: 283: 81:

by living donors, since human beings are born with two kidneys but need only one to survive.

6354: 5912: 5778: 5739: 5702: 5664: 5558: 5490: 5474: 5408: 5315: 5278: 5270: 5208: 5083: 5031: 5021: 4980: 4964: 4882: 4835: 4798: 4790: 4673: 4552: 4344: 4308: 4272: 4256: 4215: 4197: 4150: 4090: 4042: 3909: 3726: 3388: 3104: 3044: 2948: 2940: 2834: 2563: 2424: 2285: 2235: 2182: 2174: 2115: 2053: 1997: 1907: 1813: 1803: 1764: 1573: 1564: 1493: 1475: 1412: 1404: 1358: 1155: 926: 719: 623: 241: 4951:

Berman, Elisheva; Lipschutz, Jonathan M.; Bloom, Roy D.; Lipschutz, Joshua H. (June 2008).

2276:

Meyer, Silke (2006). "Trafficking in Human Organs in Europe: A Myth or an Actual Threat?".

2200: 776:

members is that organ trade should be allowed, with 70% in favor and 16% opposed. Another

6339: 6179: 6037: 6019: 5937: 5927: 5161: 4490: 4471: 3661: 3193: 2366: 1881: 1711: 1449: 1051: 938: 889: 866: 801:(a condition sometimes seen in pregnancy). The review found no difference in the rates of 766: 379: 69: 1672: 3377:

Watts, Jonathan (9 June 2007). "China Introduces New Rules to Deter Human Organ Trade".

2554:

Mendoza, Roger Lee (2010). "Colombia's organ trade: Evidence from Bogotá and Medellín".

6401: 6318: 6111: 6047: 5495: 5462: 5283: 5258: 4985: 4968: 4952: 4803: 4778: 4277: 4244: 4220: 4185: 3959: 3348: 2187: 1530:"Organ Sales and Moral Travails: Lessons from the Living Kidney Vendor Program in Iran" 1498: 1463: 1417: 1390: 1363: 1338: 1145: 1006: 1002: 762: 669: 486:

U.S. that segments of his liver and a portion of his lung had been surgically removed.

328: 191: 4465:

The Policy Views of American Economic Association Members: The Results of a New Survey

4348: 3392: 1952: 929:

in society, it is appropriate to outlaw the sale of body parts to protect that value.

6557: 6469: 6459: 6380: 6344: 6174: 6032: 6027: 5989: 5902: 5155:

Transplantation in the USA: The Shortage of Available Organs and Public Health Policy

5036: 4887: 4870: 4474:, Robert Whaples, Econ Journal Watch, Volume 6, Number 3, September 2009, pp. 337–48. 4094: 3921: 3897: 3422: 3109: 3090: 2429: 2410: 2255: 1818: 1585: 1559: 1009:

think tank, eliminating the price ceiling would eliminate the organ shortage. In the

998: 798: 735: 515:, prior to 2008 the practice was tolerated and even endorsed by the government. The 358: 333: 206: 198: 5519: 5436: 5343: 5103: 4693: 3746: 2854: 2838: 2583: 1927: 1621:

The Last Commodity: Post-Human Ethics, Global (In)Justice, and the Traffic in Organs

6396: 6370: 5228: 3898:"Kidneys and Controversies in the Islamic Republic of Iran: The Case of Organ Sale" 3408: 3138: 3064: 2538: 2073: 1787: 1560:"Kidneys and Controversies in the Islamic Republic of Iran: The Case of Organ Sale" 1115: 830: 810: 614: 609: 605: 482: 383: 363: 323: 159: 73: 46: 5563: 5412: 4677: 4493:, Jon Diesel, Econ Journal Watch, Volume 7, Number 3, September 2010, pp. 320–36. 4260: 3164:"Human organ black market exploiting poverty and hope," China Post, May 10, 2010. 2239: 772:

Economists generally lean in favor of legalizing organ markets. The consensus of

6474: 6126: 4923:"Desperate Brits buying kidney transplants on Pakistan black market for £47,000" 3091:"Organ Trafficking and Transplant Tourism: A Commentary on the Global Realities" 2057: 1408: 1063: 1055: 1047: 1017: 994: 918: 844: 790: 753: 647:, and Russia. One episode discussed a man named Pedro Reggi, reporting that his 568: 564: 512: 471: 313: 5783: 5766: 3559: 2539:

Roger Lee Mendoza (2012). Transplant management from a vendor’s perspective.

2289: 2120: 5610:

The International Trafficking of Human Organs: A Multidisciplinary Perspective

5306:

Cohen, Cynthia B. (2002-03-01). "Public Policy and the Sale of Human Organs".

5212: 4839: 3730: 3379: 2567: 656: 459: 273: 121:(CFSD) control the trade of organs, with the support of the government. These 64:

Commercial trade in human organs is currently illegal in all countries except

5792: 5691:"Introducing Incentives in the Market for Live and Cadaveric Organ Donations" 5572: 5486: 5420: 5370: 5327: 5045: 4976: 4896: 4847: 4606: 4383: 4356: 4268: 4211: 4184:

Kiani, Mehrzad; Abbasi, Mahmoud; Ahmadi, Mehdi; Salehi, Bahare (2018-03-05).

4162: 4102: 4056: 3913: 3717:

Turner, Leigh (2009). "Commercial Organ Transplantation in the Philippines".

2575: 2002: 1827: 1577: 1489: 1462:

Kiani, Mehrzad; Abbasi, Mahmoud; Ahmadi, Mehdi; Salehi, Bahare (2018-03-05).

1354: 4794: 4312: 3686:"The trade in human organs in Tamil Nadu: the anatomy of regulatory failure" 2944: 2510:"Murder for Organs Broker China Considers Financial Incentives for Donation" 981: 853: 644: 636: 202: 186: 182: 167: 5800: 5751: 5716: 5580: 5504: 5428: 5335: 5220: 5095: 5053: 4994: 4904: 4855: 4812: 4685: 4566: 4286: 4229: 4064: 3738: 3624: 3400: 3118: 3056: 2962: 2846: 2438: 2247: 2196: 2129: 2065: 2011: 1919: 1895: 1835: 1507: 1426: 1372: 17: 5319: 5292: 5154: 3584: 2178: 6517: 6204: 5478: 5274: 5087: 4662:"Assessing the likely harms to kidney vendors in regulated organ markets" 4557: 2700:"Kidney traffickers selling organs to Israelis go on trial in Costa Rica" 2641:"Traffickers targeting Haiti's children, human organs, PM says - CNN.com" 1222: 1072: 972: 848: 640: 391: 268: 138: 5822: 4953:"The Bioethics and Utility of Selling Kidneys for Renal Transplantation" 5743: 5707: 5690: 5546: 5396: 5010:"Living and Deceased Organ Donation Should Be Financially Neutral Acts" 4202: 3297: 2310:"Desperation, Lack of Donors Drives Organ Trafficking in Latin America" 1792:"Living and Deceased Organ Donation Should Be Financially Neutral Acts" 1480: 757: 341: 5026: 5009: 4170: 4029:

Hanto, D. W.; Peters, T. G.; Howard, R. J.; Cornell, D. (2005-09-01).

3760: 2953: 1911: 1808: 1791: 1786:

Delmonico, F. L.; Martin, D.; Domínguez-Gil, B.; Muller, E.; Jha, V.;

1077: 648: 371: 318: 303: 293: 258: 253: 248: 155: 78: 3962:"Sonata for Solo Organ" and "Harvest" storyline on organ harvesting 3477:"First Known Survivor of China's Forced Organ Harvesting Speaks Out" 3048: 1983:"Kidney Paired Donation and Optimizing the Use of Live Donor Organs" 4154: 27:

Buying and selling of human body parts, usually for transplantation

5635:"Organs for Cash? How Legitimizing the Organ Trade May Save Lives" 4632:"Living kidney donors have low but elevated risk of renal failure" 825:

their organs fare worse after the procedure than those who freely

814: 495: 298: 288: 278: 263: 42: 4303:

Starzl, Thomas (2007-04-27), "Live-Donor Organ Transplantation",

2670:"Israel Became Hub in International Organ Trade Over Past Decade" 756:– the waitlist for vital organs continues to grow. Further more, 190:

paid leave at a rate corresponding to the national minimum wage.

6184: 627: 395: 375: 308: 113: 65: 5826: 3296:

David Matas, Esq.; Hon. David Kilgour, Esq. (31 January 2007).

3187:

The Transplantation Society’s Policy on Interactions With China

163: 3836:

Washington, District of Columbia 1800 I. Street NW; Dc 20006.

3134:"Illegal kidney trade booms as new organ is 'sold every hour'" 572: 171: 2484:"CHINA FACES ENORMOUS CHALLENGES IN ENDING ORGAN TRAFFICKING" 2278:

European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice

1896:"Singapore legalises compensation payments to kidney donors" 626:, tells of unsuspecting medical patients who are put into a 5359:"Is it ethical to purchase human organs? | Samuel Kerstein" 5069:"Constraint, Consent, and Well-Being in Human Kidney Sales" 4749:"Legal Issues in Payment of Living Donors for Solid Organs" 4001:"What's Organ Donation Got to Do With Human Rights Anyway?" 1761:"Organ trafficking and transplantation pose new challenges" 1679:. The Economist Newspaper Limited 2011. November 16, 2006. 137:

Some critics argue that the Iranian system is in some ways

5767:"Organ trafficking: global solutions for a global problem" 4081:

Farnell (April 1914). "New York State Hospital Bulletin".

2102:"Organ Trafficking: Global Solutions for a Global Problem" 72:

remain widespread (however, the data on the extent of the

5181:. Vol. 82 (9th ed.). World Health Organization. 5179:

Organ Trafficking and Transplantation Pose New Challenges

4484:

Do Economists Reach a Conclusion on Organ Liberalization?

2732:"Israeli organ-smuggling 'mastermind' arrested in Cyprus" 1710:. American Association of Kidney Patients. Archived from 1098:

transplant and, therefore, the need for medical tourism.

5194:"Kidney sales and the analogy with dangerous employment" 4779:"Human organs, scarcities, and sale: morality revisited" 3500:

Unnithan, Sandeep; Datta, Damayanti (14 February 2008).

3035:

Khalili, Mohammed I. (2016). "Organ Trading in Jordan".

2820: 2818: 4826:

Greenberg, Orfa (July 2013). "The Global Organ trade".

1981:

Segev; Gentry; Warren; Reeb; Montgomery (20 Apr 2005).

1129:

Organ harvesting from Falun Gong practitioners in China

453:

Organ harvesting from Falun Gong practitioners in China

4538:"Potential risks of living kidney donation – a review" 3761:"Cabral warns: No more organs for sale in Philippines" 1080:

who find themselves in the clutches of an underground

941:

human beings. This argument typically starts with the

937:

Another criticism of legalized organ sales is that it

813:, or mental illness. Multiple studies of American and 5817: 3423:"Chinese doctors jailed for illegal organ harvesting" 1623:. Penang: Multiversity & Citizens International. 2895:"Police nab cartel member in organ trafficking case" 2336:"Brazilian doctors convicted over organ trafficking" 546:

Human trafficking § Trafficking for organ trade

6500: 6452: 6436: 6420: 6389: 6363: 6327: 6291: 6284: 6239: 6213: 6165: 6100: 6074: 6046: 6018: 5893: 5860: 3531:"Organ Shortage Fuels Illicit Trade in Human Parts" 2598:"Four Arrested in Costa Rica For Organ Trafficking" 2486:. The Laogai Research Foundation. 13 January 2014. 2303: 2301: 2299: 4076: 4074: 2987:"United States of America v. Levy Izhak Rosenbaum" 2764:"Lawyer: Slaves In Libya Are Used For Organ Trade" 340:individuals attempting to sell their own organs. 209:to living donors to defray the costs of donation. 3132:Campbell, Denis; Davison, Nicola (May 27, 2012). 2869:"philippines illegal organ trade – Google zoeken" 511:Although the sale of organs was not legal in the 3244:Pacific Rim Law & Policy Journal Association 3089:Budiani-Saberi, D. A.; Delmonico, F. L. (2008). 2791: 2789: 1790:; Danovitch, G. M.; Capron, A. M. (2015-05-01). 1281:"Human traffic: exposing the brutal organ trade" 575:. Donors' poor health is further exacerbated by 5259:"Bodily Integrity and the Sale of Human Organs" 4372:"Opinion | Why Selling Kidneys Should Be Legal" 2797:"Mexico cartel member held in organ theft case" 2361: 2359: 2357: 1704:"A New Outlook on Compensated Kidney Donations" 993:Many scholars advocate the implementation of a 49:, tissues, or other body products, usually for 6488:List of organ transplant donors and recipients 5547:"The best argument against kidney sales fails" 3882: 3880: 3300:. organharvestinvestigation.net. p. 237. 1854:, Australian Government Department of Health, 5838: 5461:Harris, John; Erin, Charles A. (2003-06-01). 1384: 1382: 370:, from developing to developed nations, from 8: 6087:Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder 5603: 5601: 4117:"Countries Where Prostitution Is Legal 2021" 2156: 2154: 2152: 2150: 1667: 1665: 1339:"Paying kidney donors: time to follow Iran?" 3860:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 3172: 3170: 1452:, The Wall Street Journal, January 8, 2010. 1391:"Iranian Organ Donation: Kidneys on Demand" 1076:focuses on a group of American tourists in 6288: 5845: 5831: 5823: 4869:Ambagtsheer, F.; Weimar, W. (2011-12-07). 3712: 3710: 3708: 3706: 3084: 3082: 3080: 3078: 3076: 3074: 1614: 1612: 1610: 1608: 1606: 843:prohibitions against selling organs are a 412:Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine 5782: 5706: 5562: 5494: 5397:"Choice, pressure and markets in kidneys" 5282: 5124:Delmonico, Francisco (29 December 2015). 5035: 5025: 4984: 4886: 4802: 4556: 4441:"To Save Lives, Legalize Trade in Organs" 4276: 4219: 4201: 4083:The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 4048:10.1001/virtualmentor.2005.7.9.ccas2-0509 4046: 4031:"Family Disagreement over Organ Donation" 3945: 3943: 3261: 3259: 3257: 3108: 3004:"Gambler tried to sell his kidney online" 2952: 2428: 2186: 2167:Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2119: 2001: 1953:"Organ Trafficking Laws in Key Countries" 1817: 1807: 1523: 1521: 1519: 1517: 1497: 1479: 1416: 1362: 438:Illicit organ trade in specific countries 4916: 4914: 4828:Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 3719:Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 2228:Current Opinion in Organ Transplantation 2095: 2093: 2091: 2089: 2087: 2085: 2083: 784:Minimal negative consequences for donors 154:In Iran's legal markets, the price of a 5818:Doctors Against Forced Organ Harvesting 2404: 2402: 2400: 2398: 2396: 2394: 2392: 2271: 2269: 2267: 2265: 2221: 2219: 2217: 1884:, Rashida Yosufzai, AAP, APRIL 07, 2013 1735:"Black Market Kidneys, $ 160,000 a Pop" 1208: 1206: 1204: 1202: 1167: 705:through the court's opinion by Justice 158:ranges from $ 28000 to $ 45000. On the 119:Charity Foundation for Special Diseases 5526:from the original on 26 September 2018 5126:"Our Body Parts Shouldn't Be For Sale" 4531: 4529: 4406: 4404: 3853: 3789:Agence France-Presse (July 28, 2010). 3454:from the original on 30 September 2013 2712:from the original on 11 September 2017 2342:from the original on 26 September 2018 1851:Supporting Living Organ Donors Program 1438: 1436: 701:the US this right was dictated by the 205:took advantage of this law to provide 5136:from the original on 14 December 2018 4412:"Kidney Transplant | BIDMC of Boston" 4298: 4296: 3995: 3993: 3471: 3469: 3210: 3208: 3206: 3204: 3202: 2774:from the original on 13 December 2017 2038: 2036: 1741:from the original on November 4, 2012 424:Universal Declaration of Human Rights 7: 3928:from the original on 16 October 2015 3801:from the original on August 12, 2017 3304:from the original on 8 December 2017 2744:from the original on 23 January 2019 2608:from the original on 26 October 2021 2409:Ambagtsheer, F.; Weimar, W. (2011). 1875:Live donors to get financial support 1683:from the original on 25 October 2017 1332: 1330: 6231:Canadian Society of Transplantation 6226:American Society of Transplantation 5771:American Journal of Kidney Diseases 5463:"An ethical market in human organs" 5308:Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 5238:from the original on 10 August 2017 5192:Malmqvist, Eri (23 December 2013). 5014:American Journal of Transplantation 4875:American Journal of Transplantation 4545:Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation 3896:Diane M. Tober (1 September 2007). 3223:from the original on 4 October 2017 3215:Denyer, Simon (15 September 2017). 3096:American Journal of Transplantation 2875:from the original on 3 January 2020 2454:"Can China Stop Organ Trafficking?" 2416:American Journal of Transplantation 2107:American Journal of Kidney Diseases 1796:American Journal of Transplantation 5765:Jafar, Tazeen H. (December 2009). 5076:Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 4969:10.1016/j.transproceed.2008.03.095 3791:"Ban on human organ sales working" 3016:from the original on 30 March 2019 2905:from the original on 30 March 2019 2464:from the original on 31 March 2019 2377:from the original on 6 August 2018 1733:Martinez, Edecio (July 27, 2009). 1528:Hippen, Benjamin E. (2008-03-20). 1187:from the original on 15 April 2021 954:Unwanted pressure to sell an organ 178:Government compensation for donors 25: 5645:from the original on 20 July 2015 4718:Fry-Revere, Sigrid (2007-05-01). 4666:The American Journal of Bioethics 4503:Yanklowitz, Shmuly (2015-10-27). 3502:"Life and crimes of a kidney don" 3002:Stephanie Condron (11 May 2007). 2803:from the original on 2 April 2019 2520:from the original on 2 April 2019 2490:from the original on 2 April 2019 1337:Major, Rupert WL (January 2008). 6157:United Network for Organ Sharing 6142:National Transplant Organization 5695:Journal of Economic Perspectives 4888:10.1111/j.1600-6143.2011.03864.x 4370:Berger, Alexander (2011-12-05). 4095:10.1097/00005053-191404000-00017 3612:Indian Journal of Medical Ethics 3146:from the original on May 7, 2019 3110:10.1111/j.1600-6143.2008.02200.x 2628:Human organ trafficking in Egypt 2452:Fan, Jiayang (10 January 2014). 2430:10.1111/j.1600-6143.2011.03864.x 2021:from the original on 16 May 2017 1012:Journal of Economic Perspectives 354:United Network for Organ Sharing 6271:Organ transplantation in Israel 5671:from the original on 2008-09-14 5587:from the original on 2018-12-06 5443:from the original on 2018-12-14 5377:from the original on 2018-12-15 5357:Kerstein, Samuel (2016-06-29). 4933:from the original on 2018-12-14 4759:from the original on 2018-12-14 4730:from the original on 2019-03-30 4700:from the original on 2018-12-14 4642:from the original on 2018-12-05 4613:from the original on 2017-10-25 4576:from the original on 2021-10-26 4515:from the original on 2018-10-12 4422:from the original on 2018-12-14 4390:from the original on 2018-12-14 4335:"Uniform Anatomical Gift Act". 4127:from the original on 2019-04-30 4011:from the original on 2019-04-30 3979:from the original on 2020-08-11 3820:University of Pittsburgh letter 3771:from the original on 2020-11-24 3631:from the original on 2018-12-21 3512:from the original on 2018-12-21 3359:from the original on 2018-10-09 3278:from the original on 2020-12-05 2969:from the original on 2021-10-26 2839:10.1016/j.healthpol.2009.10.005 2680:from the original on 2018-09-20 2651:from the original on 2018-08-27 2316:from the original on 2017-09-26 2136:from the original on 2021-02-01 1963:from the original on 2018-08-28 1934:from the original on 2019-03-30 1858:from the original on 2018-12-05 1592:from the original on 2015-10-16 1540:from the original on 2019-09-22 1534:Cato Institute: Policy Analysis 1262:from the original on 2019-11-07 1233:from the original on 2017-10-01 6276:Organ transplantation in Japan 6247:Organ transplantation in China 6221:American Society of Nephrology 3037:Politics and the Life Sciences 2367:"Organ Trafficking Is No Myth" 1619:Scheper-Hughes, Nancy (2008). 1124:Organ transplantation in China 878:Arguments against legalization 696:Ethical debate for organ trade 449:Organ transplantation in China 1: 6152:Trillium Gift of Life Network 6132:National Marrow Donor Program 5564:10.1136/medethics-2014-102390 5413:10.1136/medethics-2017-104192 5395:Koplin, Julian (2018-05-01). 4349:10.1016/s0001-2092(08)71128-1 3393:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60897-6 1136:Fetus Farming Prohibition Act 912:Direct harms of organ selling 774:American Economic Association 517:Philippine Information Agency 6190:Halachic Organ Donor Society 6117:Gift of Life Marrow Registry 4921:Evans, Sophie (2017-01-25). 4678:10.1080/15265161.2014.947041 4505:"Give a Kidney, Get a Check" 4305:Living Donor Transplantation 4261:10.1097/txd.0000000000000566 4190:Journal of Clinical Medicine 3826:, September 21, 2021, page 1 3556:"Hub For Global Organ Trade" 2541:Journal of Health Management 2240:10.1097/MOT.0b013e32832917c9 1702:Schall, John A. (May 2008). 1656:"Iran live sheep deal boost" 1468:Journal of Clinical Medicine 1389:Griffin, Anne (March 2007). 1306:"Trafic d'organes en Europe" 631:British/Canadian TV program 6195:Kidney Foundation of Canada 5545:Semrau, Luke (2015-06-01). 5257:Wilkinson, Stephen (1996). 4957:Transplantation Proceedings 4595:"Psst, wanna buy a kidney?" 4307:, CRC Press, pp. 1–6, 3450:. Chinaview.wordpress.com. 2543:, 14, 1 (March 2012): 67–74 2058:10.1097/TP.0000000000001778 1673:"Psst, wanna buy a kidney?" 1409:10.1136/bmj.39141.493148.94 732:Uniform Anatomical Gift Act 727:doctor–patient relationship 6590: 6252:harvesting from Falun Gong 6200:National Kidney Foundation 6056:Non-heart-beating donation 5784:10.1053/j.ajkd.2009.08.014 5732:Developing World Bioethics 4720:"The Right to Sell Organs" 3958:Two episodes of TV series 2290:10.1163/157181706777978739 2161:Shimazono, Yosuke (2007). 2121:10.1053/j.ajkd.2009.08.014 1343:McGill Journal of Medicine 883:Susceptibility to coercion 742:Arguments for legalization 543: 446: 242:Global Financial Integrity 216: 106: 6483: 6082:Graft-versus-host disease 5608:Territo, Leonard (2011). 5551:Journal of Medical Ethics 5467:Journal of Medical Ethics 5401:Journal of Medical Ethics 5263:Journal of Medical Ethics 5213:10.1007/s10728-013-0270-3 4840:10.1017/s0963180113000042 4783:Journal of Medical Ethics 4121:worldpopulationreview.com 3795:The Sydney Morning Herald 3731:10.1017/S0963180109090318 3649:Glaser, Sheri R. (2007). 3266:Glaser, Sheri R. (2007). 2626:Read more in the article 2568:10.1007/s10389-010-0320-3 2308:Edward Fox (2012-07-19). 2100:Jafar, Tazeen H. (2009). 1957:Christian Science Monitor 238:World Health Organization 55:World Health Organization 6147:NHS Blood and Transplant 5067:Hughes, Paul M. (2009). 4343:(5): 131–132. May 1969. 3914:10.1177/1357034X07082257 2556:Journal of Public Health 2003:10.1001/jama.293.15.1883 1578:10.1177/1357034x07082257 1256:optn.transplant.hrsa.gov 1227:optn.transplant.hrsa.gov 1151:Organ donation in Israel 678:doctor-patient privilege 608:, are variations of the 430:." In 1991, at the 44th 6523:Immunosuppressive drugs 6259:Organ donation in India 4795:10.1136/jme.2004.009621 4660:Koplin, Julian (2014). 4313:10.3109/9781420019650-2 3605:Jafarey, Aamir (2007). 3323:Gutmann, Ethan (2014). 1396:British Medical Journal 1177:"The Rise of theMarket" 963:Models for legalization 685:Personal health records 633:The Body Parts Business 622:, made into a movie by 587:Issues with enforcement 553:including poor migrants 416:Declaration of Istanbul 213:Kidney paired donations 6543:Frankenstein's monster 6538:Total body irradiation 6264:Gurgaon kidney scandal 6122:Human Tissue Authority 5612:. Hoboken: CRC Press. 4249:Transplantation Direct 1252:"National Data – OPTN" 1141:Gurgaon kidney scandal 905:medical anthropologist 795:chronic kidney disease 747:Increased organ supply 730:organ donation is the 715: 703:Scheloendorff decision 219:Kidney paired donation 6528:Lung allocation score 6465:Jean-Michel Dubernard 5854:Organ transplantation 5689:Becker, Gary (2007). 5639:The Apollonian Revolt 5633:Luu, Brandon (2014). 5320:10.1353/ken.2002.0002 5037:10536/DRO/DU:30082355 4536:Gai, Massimo (2007). 4149:(37): 183–185. 1993. 2945:10.1093/medlaw/fwr001 2179:10.2471/blt.06.039370 1819:10536/DRO/DU:30082355 1763:. WHO. Archived from 1558:Tober, Diane (2007). 1070:The 2006 horror film 711: 432:World Health Assembly 6335:J. Hartwell Harrison 6092:Transplant rejection 5479:10.1136/jme.29.3.137 5275:10.1136/jme.22.6.334 5201:Health Care Analysis 4777:Kishore, RR (2005). 3607:"Asia's organ farms" 3581:"India Kidney Trade" 3327:. Prometheus Books. 2768:huffingtonpost.co.za 1714:on 27 September 2011 1285:New Internationalist 1061:The 1994 video game 975:Charles A. Erin and 901:Nancy Scheper-Hughes 838:Respect for autonomy 464:Kilgour–Matas report 109:Kidney trade in Iran 6444:André van der Merwe 6428:Richard C. Lillehei 6101:Transplant networks 5885:Xenotransplantation 5880:Autotransplantation 5868:Allotransplantation 5130:The Washington Post 4753:www.americanbar.org 3009:The Daily Telegraph 2924:Allain, J. (2011). 2770:. 3 December 2017. 2737:The Times of Israel 2705:The Times of Israel 2604:. 11 October 2013. 2338:. 9 February 2014. 1767:on 15 February 2014 1310:archive.wikiwix.com 811:high blood pressure 462:practitioners. The 232:Illegal organ trade 53:. According to the 33:(also known as the 6569:Trade by commodity 6299:Christiaan Barnard 5895:Organs and tissues 5744:10.1111/dewb.12192 5708:10.1257/jep.21.3.3 5160:2016-12-11 at the 5088:10.1093/jmp/jhp049 4558:10.1093/ndt/gfm480 4489:2018-04-25 at the 4470:2013-05-09 at the 4376:The New York Times 4203:10.3390/jcm7030045 3973:"PHR for migrants" 3902:Body & Society 3658:Human Rights Brief 3448:"Organ harvesting" 3272:Human Rights Brief 3192:2018-07-12 at the 2933:Medical Law Review 2740:. 9 January 2009. 2373:. 9 January 2009. 1894:Bland, B. (2008). 1880:2018-12-06 at the 1481:10.3390/jcm7030045 1448:2014-04-11 at the 1089:Proposed solutions 1041:In popular culture 943:Kantian assumption 663:Proposed solutions 540:Impact on the poor 519:, a branch of the 348:Transplant tourism 70:transplant tourism 6551: 6550: 6533:Machine perfusion 6513:Edmonton protocol 6508:Biomedical tissue 6496: 6495: 6407:Vladimir Demikhov 6309:Adrian Kantrowitz 6061:Organ procurement 5518:Truog, Robert D. 5027:10.1111/ajt.13232 4551:(11): 3122–3127. 3387:(9577): 1917–18. 2901:. 17 March 2014. 1996:(15): 1883–1890. 1912:10.1136/bmj.a2456 1809:10.1111/ajt.13232 1677:Organ transplants 989:Free market model 968:Erin Harris model 778:literature review 428:human trafficking 408:Council of Europe 236:According to the 98:Legal organ trade 16:(Redirected from 6581: 6355:Michael Woodruff 6289: 6020:Medical grafting 5847: 5840: 5833: 5824: 5805: 5804: 5786: 5777:(6): 1145–1157. 5762: 5756: 5755: 5727: 5721: 5720: 5710: 5686: 5680: 5679: 5677: 5676: 5665:"Price Ceilings" 5661: 5655: 5654: 5652: 5650: 5630: 5624: 5623: 5605: 5596: 5595: 5593: 5592: 5566: 5542: 5536: 5535: 5533: 5531: 5515: 5509: 5508: 5498: 5458: 5452: 5451: 5449: 5448: 5392: 5386: 5385: 5383: 5382: 5354: 5348: 5347: 5303: 5297: 5296: 5286: 5254: 5248: 5247: 5245: 5243: 5237: 5198: 5189: 5183: 5182: 5171: 5165: 5152: 5146: 5145: 5143: 5141: 5121: 5115: 5114: 5112: 5106:. 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Merrill 6323: 6280: 6235: 6214:Joint societies 6209: 6180:Blood Cancer UK 6167: 6161: 6104: 6102: 6096: 6070: 6042: 6038:Vascular bypass 6014: 5889: 5856: 5851: 5814: 5809: 5808: 5764: 5763: 5759: 5729: 5728: 5724: 5688: 5687: 5683: 5674: 5672: 5663: 5662: 5658: 5648: 5646: 5632: 5631: 5627: 5620: 5607: 5606: 5599: 5590: 5588: 5544: 5543: 5539: 5529: 5527: 5517: 5516: 5512: 5460: 5459: 5455: 5446: 5444: 5394: 5393: 5389: 5380: 5378: 5356: 5355: 5351: 5305: 5304: 5300: 5256: 5255: 5251: 5241: 5239: 5235: 5196: 5191: 5190: 5186: 5175:Nullis-Kapp, C. 5173: 5172: 5168: 5162:Wayback Machine 5153: 5149: 5139: 5137: 5123: 5122: 5118: 5110: 5071: 5066: 5065: 5061: 5007: 5006: 5002: 4950: 4949: 4945: 4936: 4934: 4920: 4919: 4912: 4868: 4867: 4863: 4825: 4824: 4820: 4776: 4775: 4771: 4762: 4760: 4747: 4746: 4742: 4733: 4731: 4717: 4716: 4712: 4703: 4701: 4659: 4658: 4654: 4645: 4643: 4630: 4629: 4625: 4616: 4614: 4593: 4592: 4588: 4579: 4577: 4573: 4540: 4535: 4534: 4527: 4518: 4516: 4502: 4501: 4497: 4491:Wayback Machine 4482: 4478: 4472:Wayback Machine 4463: 4459: 4450: 4448: 4439: 4438: 4434: 4425: 4423: 4410: 4409: 4402: 4393: 4391: 4369: 4368: 4364: 4334: 4333: 4329: 4323: 4302: 4301: 4294: 4242: 4241: 4237: 4183: 4182: 4178: 4144: 4143: 4139: 4130: 4128: 4115: 4114: 4110: 4080: 4079: 4072: 4028: 4027: 4023: 4014: 4012: 3999: 3998: 3991: 3982: 3980: 3971: 3970: 3966: 3960:Law & Order 3957: 3953: 3948: 3941: 3931: 3929: 3895: 3894: 3890: 3885: 3878: 3873: 3869: 3852: 3846: 3844: 3835: 3834: 3830: 3818: 3814: 3804: 3802: 3788: 3787: 3783: 3774: 3772: 3759: 3758: 3754: 3716: 3715: 3704: 3695: 3693: 3684: 3683: 3679: 3670: 3668: 3664: 3653: 3648: 3647: 3643: 3634: 3632: 3604: 3603: 3599: 3590: 3588: 3579: 3578: 3574: 3565: 3563: 3554: 3553: 3549: 3540: 3538: 3529: 3528: 3524: 3515: 3513: 3499: 3498: 3494: 3485: 3483: 3481:thediplomat.com 3475: 3474: 3467: 3457: 3455: 3446: 3445: 3441: 3432: 3430: 3421: 3420: 3416: 3376: 3375: 3371: 3362: 3360: 3347: 3346: 3342: 3335: 3322: 3321: 3317: 3307: 3305: 3295: 3294: 3290: 3281: 3279: 3265: 3264: 3255: 3241: 3240: 3236: 3226: 3224: 3214: 3213: 3200: 3194:Wayback Machine 3184: 3180: 3175: 3168: 3163: 3159: 3149: 3147: 3131: 3130: 3126: 3088: 3087: 3072: 3049:10.2990/26_1_12 3034: 3033: 3029: 3019: 3017: 3001: 3000: 2996: 2985: 2981: 2972: 2970: 2928: 2923: 2922: 2918: 2908: 2906: 2893: 2892: 2888: 2878: 2876: 2867: 2866: 2862: 2824: 2823: 2816: 2806: 2804: 2795: 2794: 2787: 2777: 2775: 2762: 2761: 2757: 2747: 2745: 2730: 2729: 2725: 2715: 2713: 2698: 2697: 2693: 2683: 2681: 2668: 2667: 2663: 2654: 2652: 2639: 2638: 2634: 2625: 2621: 2611: 2609: 2596: 2595: 2591: 2553: 2552: 2548: 2537: 2533: 2523: 2521: 2508: 2507: 2503: 2493: 2491: 2482: 2481: 2477: 2467: 2465: 2451: 2450: 2446: 2408: 2407: 2390: 2380: 2378: 2365: 2364: 2355: 2345: 2343: 2334: 2333: 2329: 2319: 2317: 2307: 2306: 2297: 2275: 2274: 2263: 2225: 2224: 2215: 2206: 2204: 2160: 2159: 2148: 2139: 2137: 2099: 2098: 2081: 2046:Transplantation 2042: 2041: 2034: 2024: 2022: 2018: 1985: 1980: 1979: 1975: 1966: 1964: 1951: 1950: 1946: 1937: 1935: 1893: 1892: 1888: 1882:Wayback Machine 1873: 1869: 1861: 1859: 1848: 1847: 1843: 1785: 1784: 1780: 1770: 1768: 1759: 1758: 1754: 1744: 1742: 1732: 1731: 1727: 1717: 1715: 1701: 1700: 1696: 1686: 1684: 1671: 1670: 1663: 1654: 1653: 1649: 1642: 1638: 1631: 1618: 1617: 1604: 1595: 1593: 1557: 1556: 1552: 1543: 1541: 1527: 1526: 1515: 1461: 1460: 1456: 1450:Wayback Machine 1443:The Meat Market 1441: 1434: 1388: 1387: 1380: 1336: 1335: 1328: 1319: 1317: 1304: 1303: 1299: 1290: 1288: 1279: 1278: 1274: 1265: 1263: 1250: 1249: 1245: 1236: 1234: 1221: 1220: 1216: 1211: 1200: 1190: 1188: 1175:Carney, Scott. 1174: 1173: 1169: 1164: 1112: 1091: 1052:Cannibal Corpse 1043: 1034: 1016:Nobel laureate 991: 970: 965: 956: 935: 933:Objectification 914: 890:extreme poverty 885: 880: 862: 840: 786: 749: 744: 698: 665: 598: 596:Media portrayal 589: 548: 542: 533: 509: 492: 455: 445: 440: 404: 402:Global reaction 380:people of color 350: 234: 221: 215: 180: 152: 144: 111: 105: 100: 87: 51:transplantation 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6587: 6585: 6577: 6576: 6571: 6566: 6556: 6555: 6549: 6548: 6546: 6545: 6540: 6535: 6530: 6525: 6520: 6515: 6510: 6504: 6502: 6501:Related topics 6498: 6497: 6494: 6493: 6491: 6490: 6484: 6481: 6480: 6478: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6462: 6456: 6454: 6450: 6449: 6447: 6446: 6440: 6438: 6434: 6433: 6431: 6430: 6424: 6422: 6418: 6417: 6415: 6414: 6412:James D. Hardy 6409: 6404: 6402:Joel D. Cooper 6399: 6393: 6391: 6387: 6386: 6384: 6383: 6378: 6376:James D. Hardy 6373: 6367: 6365: 6361: 6360: 6358: 6357: 6352: 6350:Elizabeth Ward 6347: 6342: 6337: 6331: 6329: 6325: 6324: 6322: 6321: 6319:Norman Shumway 6316: 6311: 6306: 6304:James D. Hardy 6301: 6295: 6293: 6286: 6282: 6281: 6279: 6278: 6273: 6268: 6267: 6266: 6256: 6255: 6254: 6243: 6241: 6237: 6236: 6234: 6233: 6228: 6223: 6217: 6215: 6211: 6210: 6208: 6207: 6202: 6197: 6192: 6187: 6182: 6177: 6171: 6169: 6163: 6162: 6160: 6159: 6154: 6149: 6144: 6139: 6134: 6129: 6124: 6119: 6114: 6112:Eurotransplant 6108: 6106: 6103:and government 6098: 6097: 6095: 6094: 6089: 6084: 6078: 6076: 6072: 6071: 6069: 6068: 6063: 6058: 6052: 6050: 6048:Organ donation 6044: 6043: 6041: 6040: 6035: 6030: 6024: 6022: 6016: 6015: 6013: 6012: 6007: 6002: 5997: 5992: 5987: 5982: 5981: 5980: 5970: 5965: 5960: 5955: 5950: 5945: 5940: 5935: 5930: 5925: 5920: 5915: 5910: 5905: 5899: 5897: 5891: 5890: 5888: 5887: 5882: 5877: 5876: 5875: 5864: 5862: 5858: 5857: 5852: 5850: 5849: 5842: 5835: 5827: 5821: 5820: 5813: 5812:External links 5810: 5807: 5806: 5757: 5738:(3): 279–290. 5722: 5681: 5656: 5625: 5618: 5597: 5557:(6): 443–446. 5537: 5510: 5473:(3): 137–138. 5453: 5407:(5): 310–313. 5387: 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1973: 1959:. 2004-06-09. 1944: 1886: 1867: 1841: 1778: 1752: 1725: 1694: 1661: 1658:. 28 May 2014. 1647: 1636: 1629: 1602: 1550: 1513: 1454: 1432: 1378: 1326: 1297: 1272: 1243: 1214: 1198: 1181:Foreign Policy 1166: 1165: 1163: 1160: 1159: 1158: 1153: 1148: 1146:Organ donation 1143: 1138: 1133: 1132: 1131: 1126: 1118: 1111: 1108: 1090: 1087: 1086: 1085: 1068: 1059: 1042: 1039: 1033: 1030: 1003:Cato Institute 990: 987: 969: 966: 964: 961: 955: 952: 934: 931: 913: 910: 884: 881: 879: 876: 867:criminal gangs 861: 860:Harm reduction 858: 839: 836: 785: 782: 763:kidney disease 761:patients with 752:definition of 748: 745: 743: 740: 697: 694: 664: 661: 602:The Baby Train 597: 594: 588: 585: 541: 538: 532: 529: 508: 505: 491: 488: 444: 441: 439: 436: 403: 400: 349: 346: 337: 336: 331: 329:United Kingdom 326: 321: 316: 311: 306: 301: 296: 291: 286: 281: 276: 271: 266: 261: 256: 251: 233: 230: 214: 211: 207:tax deductions 192:Kidney disease 179: 176: 151: 148: 104: 101: 99: 96: 86: 83: 26: 24: 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