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Lag causes numerous problems for issues such as accurate rendering of the game state and hit detection. In many games, lag is often frowned upon because it disrupts normal gameplay. The severity of lag depends on the type of game and its inherent tolerance for lag. Some games with a slower pace can tolerate significant delays without any need to compensate at all, whereas others with a faster pace are considerably more sensitive and require extensive use of compensation to be playable (such as the first-person shooter genre). Due to the various problems lag can cause, players that have an insufficiently fast
Internet connection are sometimes not permitted, or discouraged from playing with other players or servers that have a distant server host or have high latency to one another. Extreme cases of lag may result in extensive desynchronization of the game state.
821:. There is also much controversy about the lag associated with cloud gaming. In multiplayer games using a client/server network architecture, the player's computer renders the game's graphics locally and only information about the player's in-game actions are sent to the server. For example, when the player presses a button, the character on-screen instantly performs the corresponding action. However, the consequences of the action such as an enemy being killed are only seen after a short delay due to the time taken for the action to reach the server. This is only acceptable as long as the response to the player's input is fast enough.
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all but eliminate most problems related to lag. Unfortunately, it also relies on the assumption that the client is honest. There is nothing that prevents a player from modifying the data they send, directly at the client or indirectly via a proxy, in order to ensure they will always hit their targets. In online games, the risk of cheating may make this solution unfeasible, and clients will be limited to sending relative states (i.e. which vector it moved on or shot in).
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player to start moving before the server has responded to the command. These changes will generally be accepted under normal conditions and make delay mostly transparent. Problems will arise only in the case of high delays or losses, when the client's predictions are very noticeably undone by the server. Sometimes, in the case of minor differences, the server may even allow "incorrect" changes to the state based on updates from the client.
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to send to the server and processing the received packets can only be done as often as the client is able to update its local state. Although packets could theoretically be generated and sent faster than this, it would only result in sending redundant data if the game state cannot be updated between each packet. A low frame rate would, therefore, make the game less responsive to updates and may force it to skip outdated data.
472:. Ping is also affected by geographical location. For instance, if someone is in India, playing on a server located in the United States, the distance between the two is greater than it would be for players located within the US, and therefore it takes longer for data to be transmitted. However, the amount of packet-switching and network hardware in between the two computers is often more significant. For instance,
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itself. If the client cannot update the game state at a quick enough pace, the player may be shown outdated renditions of the game, which in turn cause various problems with hit- and collision detection. If the low update rate is caused by a low frame rate (as opposed to a setting on the client, as some games allow), these problems are usually overshadowed by numerous problems related to the
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position and subsequently making the player much more difficult to target. To counter this, many game servers automatically kick players with a ping higher than average. Conversely, a high ping can make it very difficult for the player to play the game due to negative effects occurring, making it difficult for the player to track other players and even move their character.
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server. This need to communicate causes a delay between the clients and the server, and is the fundamental cause behind lag. While there may be numerous underlying reasons for why a player experiences lag, they can be summarized as insufficient hardware in either the client or the server, or a poor connection between the client and server.
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to determine what the shooting client saw at the time the shot was fired. This will usually result in the server seeing the client firing at the target's old position and thus hitting. In the worst case, a player will be so far behind that the server runs out of historical data and they have to start leading their targets.
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The extra input lag can also make it very difficult to play certain single player games. For example, if an enemy takes a swing at the player and the player is expected to block, then by the time the player's screen shows that the enemy has commenced attacking, the enemy would have already struck and
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When using cloud gaming, inputs by the player can lead to short delays until a response can be seen by them. Inputs must first be transmitted to the remote server, then the server must start rendering the graphics of the action being performed and stream the video back to the player over the network,
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Another way to address the issue is to store past game states for a certain length of time, then rewind player locations when processing a command. The server uses the latency of the player (including any inherent delay due to interpolation; see above) to rewind time by an appropriate amount in order
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Often, in order to allow smooth gameplay, the client is allowed to do soft changes to the game state. While the server may ultimately keep track of ammunition, health, position, etc., the client may be allowed to predict the new server-side game state based on the player's actions, such as allowing a
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Interpolation ensures that objects will move between valid positions only and will produce good results with constant delay and no loss. Should dropped or out-of-order packets overflow the interpolation buffer the client will have to either freeze the object in position until a new packet arrives, or
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Extrapolation is an attempt to estimate a future game state. As soon as a packet from the server is received, the position of an object is updated to the new position. Awaiting the next update, the next position is extrapolated based on the current position and the movement at the time of the update.
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The noticeable effects of lag vary not only depending on the exact cause, but also on all techniques for lag compensation that the game may implement (described below). As all clients experience some delay, implementing these methods to minimize the effect on players is important for smooth gameplay.
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refers to a ping that causes a severe amount of lag; while any level of ping may cause lag, severe lag is usually indicated by a ping of over 100 ms. This usage is a gaming cultural colloquialism and is not commonly found or used in professional computer networking circles. In games where timing
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and is sent downstream and decompressed by the thin client. For the cloud gaming experience to be acceptable, the round-trip lag of all elements of the cloud gaming system (the thin client, the
Internet and/or LAN connection the game server, the game execution on the game server, the video and audio
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Extended extrapolation also results in remote players becoming visible (though not vulnerable) when they should not be: for example if a remote player sprints up to a corner then stops abruptly at the edge, other clients will render them sprinting onward, into the open, for the duration of their own
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Lag due to network delay is, in contrast, often less of a problem. Though more common, the actual effects are generally smaller, and it is possible to compensate for these types of delays. Without any form of lag compensation, the clients will notice that the game responds only a short time after an
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requires it to be maintained on a central server in order to avoid inconsistencies between individual clients. As such, the client has no direct control over the central game state and may only send change requests to the server, and can only update the local game state by receiving updates from the
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One design issue that arises from rewinding is whether to stop rewinding a dead player's lagged commands as soon as they die on the server, or to continue running them until they "catch up" to the time of death. Cutting compensation off immediately prevents victims from posthumously attacking their
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Many problems can be solved simply by allowing the clients to keep track of their own state and send absolute states to the server or directly to other clients. For example, the client can state exactly at what position a player's character is or who the character shot. This solution works and will
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There are various methods for reducing or disguising delays, though many of these have their drawbacks and may not be applicable in all cases. If synchronization is not possible by the game itself, the clients may be able to choose to play on servers in geographical proximity to themselves in order
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Lag due to an insufficient update rate between client and server can cause some problems, but these are generally limited to the client itself. Other players may notice jerky movement and similar problems with the player associated with the affected client, but the real problem lies with the client
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and Lag (video games) as the central game state is located on the server, the updated information must be sent from the client to the server in order to take effect. In addition, the client must receive the necessary information from the server in order to fully update the state. Generating packets
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Hardware related issues cause lag due to the fundamental structure of the game architecture. Generally, games consist of a looped sequence of states, or "frames". During each frame, the game accepts user input and performs necessary calculations (AI, graphics etc.). When all processing is finished,
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In some first-person shooter games, a high ping may cause the player to unintentionally gain unfair advantages, such as disappearing from one location and instantaneously reappearing in another, simulating the effect of teleportation, thus making it hard for other players to judge their character's
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Unlike clients, the server knows the exact current game state, and as such prediction is unnecessary. The main purpose of server-side lag compensation is instead to provide accurate effects of client actions. This is important because by the time a player's command has arrived time will have moved
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The problem with extrapolating positions is fairly obvious: it is impossible to accurately predict the future. It will render movement correctly only if the movement is constant, but this will not always be the case. Players may change both speed and direction at random. This may result in a small
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Interpolation works by essentially buffering a game state and rendering the game state to the player with a slight, constant delay. When a packet from the server arrives, instead of updating the position of an object immediately, the client will start to interpolate the position, starting from the
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Internet
Service Providers and choosing an optimal route between server and user. In addition, insufficient bandwidth and congestion, even if not severe enough to cause losses, may cause additional delays regardless of distance. As with the hardware issues, packets that arrive slowly or not at all
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solution that allows players to aim directly at what they are seeing. But the price is an aggravation of the effects of latency when a player is under fire: not only does their own latency play a part, but their attacker's too. In many situations, this is not noticeable, but players who have just
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As clients are normally not allowed to define the main game state, but rather receive it from the server, the main task of the client-side compensation is to render the virtual world as accurately as possible. As updates come with a delay and may even be dropped, it is sometimes necessary for the
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Conversely, the same holds true for the server. The frame rate (or tick rate) of the server determines how often it can process data from clients and send updates. This type of problem is difficult to predict and compensate for. Apart from enforcing minimum hardware requirements and attempting to
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A less common lag solution is to do nothing on the server and to have each client extrapolate (see above) to cover its latency. This produces incorrect results unless remote players maintain a constant velocity, granting an advantage to those who dodge back and forth or simply start/stop moving.
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processing itself. Both the display and controls will be sluggish and unresponsive. While this may increase the perceived lag, it is important to note that it is of a different kind than network-related delays. In comparison, the same problem on the server may cause significant problems for all
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clients involved. If the server is unable or unwilling to accept packets from clients fast enough and process these in a timely manner, client actions may never be registered. When the server then sends out updates to the clients, they may experience freezing (unresponsive game) and/or
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on, and the world will no longer be in the state that the player saw when issuing their command. A very explicit example of this is hit detection for weapons fired in first-person shooters, where margins are small and can potentially cause significant problems if not properly handled.
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BF3's hit model uses a combined client server model, a Hybrid Hit
Detection. The client says to the server "Hey, I shot him!" and the server does a check against the position of the two targets and determines if the player could reasonably have hit that target and then applies the
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taken cover will notice that they carry on receiving damage/death messages from the server for longer than their own latency can justify. This can lead more often to the (false) impression that they were shot through cover and the (not entirely inaccurate) impression of "laggy
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and hampers navigation and aiming in the game world. When rapidly inputting a long combination move, the on-screen character will not be synchronized with the button presses. This usually causes severe confusion in the player resulting in the failure of the combination move.
545:. Instead, the latency involved in transmitting data between clients and server plays a significant role. Latency varies depending on a number of factors, such as the physical distance between the end-systems, as a longer distance means additional transmission length and
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Rewinding can be criticized for allowing the high latency of one player to negatively affect the experience of low-latency players. Servers with lag compensation will sometimes reduce the length of player history stored, or enforce ping limits, to reduce this problem.
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to reduce latencies, or the servers may simply opt to drop clients with high latencies in order to avoid having to deal with the resulting problems. However, these are hardly optimal solutions. Instead, games will often be designed with lag compensation in mind.
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last known position. Over an interpolation interval, the object will be rendered moving smoothly between the two positions. Ideally, this interval should exactly match the delay between packets, but due to loss and variable delay, this is rarely the case.
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taking additional time. Thus, the player experiences a noticeable delay between pressing a button and seeing something happen on-screen. Depending on the skill and experience of the player, this can cause disorientation and confusion similar to
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the game will update the game state and produce an output, such as a new image on the screen and/or a packet to be sent to the server. The frequency at which frames are generated is often referred to as the
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killers, which meets expectations, but preserves the natural advantage of moving players who round a corner, acquire a target and kill them in less time than a round trip to the stationary victim's client.
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fall back on extrapolation instead. The downside of interpolation is that it causes the world to be rendered with additional latency, increasing the need for some form of lag compensation to be implemented.
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latency. On the other side of this problem, clients have to give remote players who just started moving an extra burst of speed in order to push them into a theoretically accurate predicted location.
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amount of "warping" as new updates arrive and the estimated positions are corrected, and also cause problems for hit detection as players may be rendered in positions that they are not actually in.
781:. Techniques include playing client-side animations as if the action took place immediately, reducing/removing built-in timers on the host machine, and using camera transitions to hide warping.
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the flow of the game. Since the state is updated in discrete steps, the client must be able to estimate a movement based on available samples. Two basic methods can be used to accomplish this;
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It is possible for clients to tell the server what they are doing and for the server to trust the data it receives. This method is avoided if at all possible due to its susceptibility to
480:, which is often more costly than the time it takes an electrical signal to traverse a typical span of cable. As such, lower ping can result in faster Internet download and upload rates.
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749:, for example, a "hybrid hit detection" system is used where clients tell the server that they hit and the server performs only a vague test of plausibility before accepting the claim.
732:: it is a simple matter to route network data through a second computer which inserts fabricated hit messages or modifies existing ones, a technique which cannot be detected by
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scene became popular, this expression became known as well. Many western players, professionals and amateurs alike, often type "kale" instead of "lag" in in-game chat and
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Essentially, the client will assume that a moving object will continue in the same direction. When a new packet is received, the position may be corrected slightly.
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High latency can cause lag. Game servers may disconnect a client if the latency is too high and may pose a detriment to other players' gameplay. Similarly, client
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through the air is faster than light through an optical fiber, wireless systems are often shared among many users and may suffer from latency incurred due to
809:) must be low enough that the user perception is that the game is running locally. Because of such tight lag requirements, distance considerations of the
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may be extremely indirect, resulting in far more transmission length (and consequent latency) than a direct route, although the cloud gaming service
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1188:"We're All in This (Game) Together: Transactive Memory Systems, Social Presence, and Team Structure in Multiplayer Online Battle Arenas"
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come into play, currently limiting the distance between a user and a cloud gaming game server to approximately 1000 miles, according to
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actions upstream to the game server. The game server then renders the next frame of the game video which is compressed using low-lag
537:(an outdated packet is in effect a loss) may all cause problems, but these problems are relatively rare in a network with sufficient
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918:, when some Chinese players typed it in chat to complain about their annoying game lags and request to pause. As the Chinese
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is a type of online gaming where the entire game is hosted on a game server in a data center, and the user is only running a
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will often mandate disconnection if the latency is too high. High ping may also cause servers to crash due to instability.
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581:) can cause transmitted packets to be lost, requiring a retransmission which incurs latency. Although
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1031:. The FU Foundation School of Engineering & Applied Science (Columbia University). Archived from
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402:(ms). The lower one's ping is, the lower the latency is and the less lag the player will experience.
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may be subject to significant lag, depending on the architecture of the wireless network and local
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with a slow pace may have a high threshold or even be mostly unaffected by high lag. A game with
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The player's ability to tolerate lag depends on the type of game being played. For instance, a
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with a considerably faster pace may require a significantly lower lag to provide satisfying
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will make both the client and server unable to update the game state in a timely manner.
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often build their own latency detection into existing game packets (usually based on the
1235:"Re: We need someone to create a guide for the new Network Interpolation Setting slider"
1157:"Latency Compensating Methods in Client/Server In-game Protocol Design and Optimization"
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However, the sheer scale of some games makes computationally expensive solutions like
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optimize the game for better performance, there are no feasible ways to deal with it.
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by allowing faster updates of game data between the players' clients and game server.
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Trusting a client's results otherwise has the same advantages and disadvantages as
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games, a low ping is always desirable, as a low ping means smoother
207:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
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impacting that network. Electromagnetic interference (e.g. from a
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compression and decompression, and the display of the video on a
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game maintains the main game state on the local machine, an
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1330:"D8 Video:OnLive demoed on iPad, PC, Mac, Console, iPhone"
1297:"I Shot You First: Networking the Gameplay of HALO: REACH"
1088:"Latency Can Kill: Precision and Deadline in Online Games"
1055:"Distributed Game Architecture To Overcome System Latency"
266:
1115:"Compensating For Network Latency In A Multi-Player Game"
1266:"Re: Will HoS present the netcode disadvantages of UE3?"
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required and therefore higher latency. Routing over the
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or equivalent. Ping time is an average time measured in
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It is possible to reduce the perception of lag through
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action is performed. This is especially problematic in
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has developed a solution to this issue by establishing
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1029:"The Process of Invention: OnLive Video Game Service"
952:. Vol. Summer. Future US, Inc. 2004. p. 49.
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An in-game display of lag rate is sometimes called a
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101:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
521:Perhaps the most common type of lag is caused by
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1021:
410:are commonly used terms in online gaming, where
992:Cronin, Eric; Filstrup, Burton; Anthony, Kurc.
994:"A Distributed Multiplayer Game Server System"
1186:Kahn, Adam S.; Williams, Dmitri (June 2016).
460:Some factors that might affect ping include:
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668:Both methods have advantages and drawbacks.
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64:Learn how and when to remove these messages
300:Learn how and when to remove this message
223:Learn how and when to remove this message
161:Learn how and when to remove this message
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252:instructions, advice, or how-to content
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1390:"当网游出现延迟的时候，中国玩家用lag，老外却用拼音说"kale"？"
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1357:. OnLive. 2010-01-21. Archived from
1355:"Beta Testing at the Speed of Light"
1067:from the original on 28 October 2017
946:"Optimize XP for Multiplayer Mayhem"
99:adding citations to reliable sources
1332:. Wall Street Journal. 2010-08-09.
476:must modulate digital signals into
332:, which has to be sent back to the
261:so that it is more encyclopedic or
1276:from the original on 10 March 2016
1241:from the original on 14 March 2017
1127:from the original on 28 April 2016
1006:from the original on 4 August 2016
441:Rather than using the traditional
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1233:Kertz, Alan (December 11, 2011).
1167:from the original on 30 June 2019
1086:Claypool, Mark; Claypool, Kajal.
964:"How to Get Rid of Lag | GeForce"
834:killed the player on the server.
45:This article has multiple issues.
1264:Gibson, John (5 December 2010).
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569:Online game systems utilizing a
474:wireless network interface cards
324:(input) and the reaction of the
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1336:from the original on 2011-02-12
1311:from the original on 2019-05-19
1301:Game Developers Conference 2011
974:from the original on 2018-09-13
86:needs additional citations for
53:or discuss these issues on the
916:Dota 2 Asia Championships 2015
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627:Solutions and lag compensation
492:A simplified game architecture
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896:referring to lag. It is from
575:electromagnetic interference
561:relationships with multiple
320:) between the action of the
203:the claims made and adding
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999:. University of Michigan.
1442:"What Is Kale in Dota 2?"
827:Delayed Auditory Feedback
449:to determine ping times,
1295:Aldridge, David (2011).
1204:10.1177/0093650215617504
1120:. United States Patent.
1060:. United States Patent.
914:) and was first used in
760:Make clients extrapolate
593:that introduce latency.
1476:Multiplayer video games
445:echo request and reply
1481:Video game terminology
1192:Communication Research
1155:Bernier, Yahn (2001).
796:locally that forwards
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462:communication protocol
451:video game programmers
110:"Lag" video games
1396:(in Chinese (China)).
621:first-person shooters
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394:as measured with the
1270:Tripwire Interactive
417:first-person shooter
353:first-person shooter
95:improve this article
1388:正惊游戏 (2018-09-01).
523:network performance
457:protocol) instead.
386:between a player's
259:rewrite the content
1113:Roelofs, Gregory.
587:network congestion
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421:real-time strategy
188:possibly contains
27:Delay on computers
1471:Computer networks
802:video compression
591:network protocols
583:radio propagation
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378:Ping time is the
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629:
599:
486:
464:used, Internet
447:network packets
376:
349:twitch gameplay
345:turn-based game
328:supporting the
306:
295:
294:
293:
288:
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256:
244:
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92:
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39:
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15:
12:
11:
5:
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1346:
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1287:
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1225:
1198:(4): 487–517.
1178:
1138:
1105:
1078:
1045:
1017:
984:
955:
936:
935:
933:
930:
885:, is a gaming
849:
841:
839:
836:
811:speed of light
807:display device
786:
783:
774:
771:
761:
758:
725:
722:
696:
693:
687:
684:
679:
678:
674:
641:
638:
628:
625:
598:
595:
579:microwave oven
563:Tier 1 network
485:
482:
375:
372:
312:In computers,
308:
307:
290:
289:
247:
245:
238:
231:
230:
185:
183:
176:
169:
168:
83:
81:
74:
69:
43:
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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1479:
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1437:
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1433:
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1427:
1422:
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1406:
1404:
1400:
1395:
1391:
1384:
1382:
1380:
1378:
1376:
1372:
1361:on 2012-12-16
1360:
1356:
1350:
1347:
1335:
1331:
1325:
1322:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
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1275:
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1267:
1260:
1257:
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1213:
1209:
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1201:
1197:
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1189:
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1179:
1166:
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1123:
1116:
1109:
1106:
1093:
1089:
1082:
1079:
1063:
1056:
1049:
1046:
1035:on 2012-12-20
1034:
1030:
1024:
1022:
1018:
1002:
995:
988:
985:
973:
969:
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951:
947:
941:
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927:
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892:
888:
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854:
848:
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842:
837:
835:
831:
828:
822:
820:
816:
815:optical fiber
812:
808:
803:
799:
795:
791:
784:
782:
780:
772:
770:
766:
759:
757:
755:
750:
748:
747:
746:Battlefield 3
742:
737:
735:
731:
724:Trust clients
723:
721:
717:
713:
711:
706:
701:
694:
692:
685:
683:
675:
671:
670:
669:
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662:
658:
656:
655:interpolation
652:
651:extrapolation
648:
639:
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616:
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603:
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594:
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588:
584:
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572:
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560:
556:
552:
548:
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540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
519:
515:
512:
506:
503:
499:
498:single-player
490:
483:
481:
479:
478:radio signals
475:
471:
467:
463:
458:
456:
452:
448:
444:
439:
435:
433:
428:
426:
422:
418:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
390:and the game
389:
385:
381:
380:network delay
373:
371:
369:
364:
362:
358:
357:fighting game
354:
350:
346:
342:
341:strategy game
337:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
304:
301:
286:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
254:
253:
248:This article
246:
237:
236:
227:
224:
216:
213:December 2008
206:
202:
198:
192:
191:
186:This article
184:
175:
174:
165:
162:
154:
143:
140:
136:
133:
129:
126:
122:
119:
115:
112: –
111:
107:
106:Find sources:
100:
96:
90:
89:
84:This article
82:
78:
73:
72:
67:
65:
58:
57:
52:
51:
46:
41:
32:
31:
19:
1466:Online games
1446:josuamarcelc
1445:
1420:
1393:
1363:. Retrieved
1359:the original
1349:
1338:. Retrieved
1324:
1313:. Retrieved
1300:
1290:
1280:18 September
1278:. Retrieved
1259:
1250:
1243:. Retrieved
1228:
1195:
1191:
1181:
1171:17 September
1169:. Retrieved
1129:. Retrieved
1108:
1096:. Retrieved
1092:the original
1081:
1069:. Retrieved
1048:
1037:. Retrieved
1033:the original
1008:. Retrieved
987:
976:. Retrieved
967:
958:
949:
940:
919:
909:
856:
852:
851:
844:
832:
823:
790:Cloud gaming
788:
785:Cloud gaming
776:
767:
763:
751:
744:
738:
727:
718:
714:
702:
698:
689:
680:
667:
663:
659:
643:
634:
630:
617:
604:
600:
589:, or due to
568:
520:
516:
507:
495:
459:
440:
436:
429:
411:
407:
403:
400:milliseconds
396:ping utility
377:
367:
365:
338:
313:
311:
296:
280:
257:Please help
249:
219:
210:
187:
157:
148:
138:
131:
124:
117:
105:
93:Please help
88:verification
85:
61:
54:
48:
47:Please help
44:
843:"Ka le" In
838:Special Use
794:thin client
779:game design
695:Rewind time
686:Server-side
640:Client-side
608:client-side
502:online game
267:Wikiversity
1460:Categories
1365:2010-01-23
1340:2010-08-19
1315:2014-07-14
1245:4 November
1039:2010-01-23
978:2018-09-13
950:Maximum PC
932:References
734:anti-cheat
703:This is a
645:client to
543:congestion
531:corruption
525:problems.
511:frame rate
466:throughput
384:round trip
351:such as a
316:is delay (
283:April 2016
275:Wikivoyage
197:improve it
151:April 2011
121:newspapers
50:improve it
1212:0093-6502
754:rewinding
741:rewinding
613:rollbacks
539:bandwidth
470:firewalls
412:high ping
404:High ping
374:Ping time
368:lagometer
271:Wikibooks
250:contains
201:verifying
56:talk page
1334:Archived
1309:Archived
1274:Archived
1239:Archived
1220:29776927
1165:Archived
1122:Archived
1062:Archived
1001:Archived
972:Archived
891:Internet
813:through
730:cheating
710:hitboxes
551:Internet
496:While a
432:software
425:gameplay
408:low ping
361:gameplay
1417:"Ka le"
1307:Vault.
1252:damage.
1131:16 July
1098:16 July
1071:16 July
1010:16 July
900:phrase
898:Chinese
736:tools.
705:WYSIWYG
647:predict
597:Effects
559:peering
547:routing
318:latency
195:Please
135:scholar
1218:
1210:
926:Twitch
921:Dota 2
908::
906:pinyin
894:phrase
846:Dota 2
819:OnLive
773:Design
555:OnLive
535:jitter
527:Losses
484:Causes
392:server
388:client
382:for a
334:client
326:server
265:it to
137:
130:
123:
116:
108:
1394:17173
1216:S2CID
1161:Valve
1125:(PDF)
1118:(PDF)
1065:(PDF)
1058:(PDF)
1004:(PDF)
997:(PDF)
887:slang
853:Ka le
355:or a
343:or a
273:, or
142:JSTOR
128:books
1282:2011
1247:2013
1208:ISSN
1173:2011
1133:2014
1100:2014
1073:2014
1012:2014
911:Kǎle
889:and
857:Kale
653:and
443:ICMP
419:and
406:and
330:task
322:user
263:move
114:news
1305:GDC
1200:doi
855:or
712:".
533:or
455:UDP
314:lag
199:by
97:by
1462::
1444:.
1429:^
1419:.
1402:^
1392:.
1374:^
1303:.
1299:.
1272:.
1268:.
1249:.
1237:.
1214:.
1206:.
1196:43
1194:.
1190:.
1163:.
1159:.
1141:^
1020:^
970:.
966:.
948:.
928:.
902:卡了
878:ɜː
872:ɑː
859:,
756:.
657:.
529:,
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336:.
269:,
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1284:.
1222:.
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1102:.
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255:.
226:)
220:(
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211:(
193:.
164:)
158:(
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149:(
139:·
132:·
125:·
118:·
91:.
66:)
62:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
