154:
344:, and hyperbolic investments in moral polarities of good and evil, virtue and villainy, are about investing the family with new symbolic potency ... In the context of Saint-Domingue and Louisiana, and in 'Le Mulâtre,' the symbolic crisis of the Law of the Father and of social legitimacy is lived literally and viscerally. The colonial family romance here really means killing the father, as the conflict between slave and slave master is, so often, a family drama too.
530:
his wife and children. As
Antoine harshly declaims at the beginning of the story, a slave's virtues as a man can never come to fruition: the institution corrupts virtue until it becomes monstrous, grotesque or destructive. Georges' heroic impulses are overwritten by gothic horror. He threatens to kill Alfred and drink his blood; his laugh becomes "infernal," his voice issues as if from a tomb, like "one of the damned."
480:
him carried home to his cabin to be cared for. But while demonstrating his gratitude with frequent visits, Alfred begins to desire
Georges' young and beautiful wife, Zélie, also a mulatto. Zélie is virtuous and dignified, and rejects Alfred. He lures her into a situation where he can attempt to rape her, but she pushes him away so forcefully that he falls and sustains a head injury. Zélie knows at once that by the
545:, who was a friend and patron of Séjour; he had another character named Laïza. In English-language literature by African Americans, the figure of the mulatto has usually been a victimized female, especially in works published after the Civil War and emancipation. Denied legitimate expressions of manhood, Georges exacts a horrific revenge that in the end consumes him.
521:
would have given ten years of his life to know the name of his father, but he dared not violate the solemn oath he had made to his dying mother. It was as if nature pushed him toward Alfred; he liked him, as much as one can like a man; and Alfred esteemed him, but with that esteem that the horseman bears for the most handsome and vigorous of his chargers.
566:". She is discarded, but allowed to live, as is her child, because she keeps silent about the master and father. By contrast, Zélie fights off the master's assault, preserving her virtue, at the cost of her death. By informing her husband of the assault, she also is a catalyst of his actions for revenge.
479:
has been terrorizing planters in the area, and
Georges learns that his master will be the next target. He tries to warn Alfred, who suspects Georges of being part of the plot. Georges defends Alfred against four assailants, and is seriously wounded. Alfred finally recognizes Georges' loyalty, and has
431:
who is of mixed ancestry also commits suicide, and the family is destroyed. Although the grand, classically constructed drama may seem removed from the abolitionist passion of "The
Mulatto," historical distance allows Séjour to show that categorizations by "blood" are socially constructed and subject
553:
African
Americans writing in French were far more explicit about sexuality than those writing in English at the time. In particular, the sexual exploitation of women of color by white men was often implied and indirect in 19th-century American fiction in English. Séjour describes the commodification
520:
Georges had all the talents necessary for becoming a well-regarded gentleman; yet he was possessed of a haughty, tenacious, willful nature; he had one of those oriental sorts of dispositions, the kind that, once pushed far enough from the path of virtue, will stride boldly down the path of crime. He
471:
The boy, Georges, grows up on the plantation without ever learning who his father is. Laïsa refuses to reveal his identity, fearing that Alfred would kill the child to protect his own public image. She gives
Georges a pouch that she says contains a portrait of his father. Georges promises his dying
467:
named Alfred outbids other potential buyers who covet her beauty. Alfred compels Laïsa to share his bed. When he fails to deprive her of her pride and self-containment, he grows bored and sends her to live in one of the poorest cabins on the plantation. There she gives birth to his mixed-race child,
315:
The first-person narrator as a visitor describes the verdant landscape as picturesque and exotic, expressive of "the sublime diversity of God's works." But
Antoine, as he begins to take over the narrative, points to the dominant man-made structure, "an edifice that ... in its peculiarity resembles a
529:
Helpless to save his wife, Georges suffers the "tragedy of masculinity" that
Antoine predicts as the fate of the enslaved "negro" male. Georges is subject to the patriarchal power denied to him although he is a male head of family; he is also denied the right to keep his family together and protect
525:
Georges is instinctively drawn toward his natural father, who can only regard
Georges as if he were a prized animal. Georges is Alfred's property rather than his heir. By law his white half-sibling, still an infant, may inherit ownership of Alfred. The mulatto, as he is called repeatedly throughout
494:
Three years later, Georges knows that Alfred has married and had a child with his wife. He chooses this moment of happiness for his revenge. He enters the mansion by stealth, gives the wife poison, and forces Alfred to watch her die, taunting him. He picks up an ax to behead Alfred. Only then does
612:
As an expatriate writer, Séjour associated with radicals in the salons of Paris, never returning to his native city. Although his career in France was rather unstable, he befriended a number of French authors of great influence to
Creoles of color in New Orleans throughout the 19th century—Cyril
486:
she will have to die: "Any slave who strikes his master, his mistress, the husband of his mistress, or their children, causing bruises or effusion of blood shall be punished by death." Although Georges begs Alfred to pardon her, Zélie is executed by hanging. Georges escapes to the depths of the
380:
in focusing on the violent disruption of family. In particular, he writes, "the biracial heir ... may be denied his birthright and inheritance by his father and hence have to engage in a quest for recognition." The character doomed by biracialism is a theme that recurs in later African-American
322:
and idlers would gather to play billiards and smoke Cuban cigars along with planters who were in town to buy slaves. As in gothic literature by white writers, a grand human façade contrasts with the beautiful otherness of nature and masks a horror within. The description of this "edifice" as a
502:
and realities of how slavery disrupted family life. European legal and ethical traditions allowed Africans to be deprived of legal personhood and the right to control their own bodies or family relationships. Within this system, the Maroons who reclaimed their freedom became outlaws.
335:
with the gothic elements of curses, suicide, murder, and the monstrous. It is an example of how European artistic forms were adapted for transatlantic slave-owning culture. Melodrama in a domestic setting was particularly transferable to interracial questions of family legitimacy:
212:". This visitor, addressed as "Master," is presumably white. The "I" of the introduction hears the story told by an "old negro," Antoine, who is a contemporary of the mulatto protagonist of the events related. The author gives Antoine license to tell the story from a nearly
17:
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A Louisiana state law passed in 1830 restricted the dissemination of "seditious" writing. Séjour's story detailing the injustice and cruelty of slavery was not published there, although it may have circulated privately through family connections.
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is unusual in that the protagonist is male rather than a beautiful woman. While it was common for stories employing this trope to end in the death of the mulatto, Séjour complicates his audience's response to the protagonist by having him commit
396:, set in 15th-century Spain, allows him to deal with racism and the concept of blood purity while evading the potential censorship that a more direct and contemporary treatment of slavery was likely to provoke. "Purity of blood" statutes (
561:
Laïsa and Zélie are presented as mirroring characters whose fate is determined by the sexual demands of the white master. Though "pure as the morning dew" before she is sold at auction, Laïsa is forced into concubinage that leaves her a
608:
in the late eighteenth century. Séjour's contemporary readers may have viewed the familial bloodshed at the end of "The Mulatto" as prefiguring the Haitian Revolution, with the author casting Haiti as "the cradle of black freedom".
150:, from French Caribbean colonies and the United States. Bissette published "Le Mulâtre" in the March 1837 issue, not long after the 19-year-old Séjour arrived from his native New Orleans to further his education and career.
495:
Alfred try to save himself by identifying as Georges's father—but too late. As Alfred says "father", Georges' blow beheads him. Georges at last opens the portrait pouch. When he learns the oedipal truth, he kills himself.
235:. The elder Séjour was a free mulatto whose parents were a white man and a free woman of color. Victor's mother was also a free woman of color. Séjour's baptismal record identifies him as a "free
604:: white revolutionaries in France and America who fought for freedom in the 1770s and 1790s held enslaved Africans and African Americans, and most opposed the black-led
406:, those who had converted to Christianity from Judaism or Islam, or who had descended from converts, making ancestry a liability the individual could not overcome.
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The setting established by the narrative frame—both the time of day and the site—enhances the story's themes. It begins as dawn is turning the black mountains white
223:, the city from which Séjour's father, a free man of color, had emigrated to New Orleans. Some of the writer's relatives still lived in Haiti, including a nephew,
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an audio program with a reading of Philip Barnard's English translation and discussion of the story's historical background and literary genre with Maisha Wester
1384:
99:
in 1859 had been considered the first African-American short story. French-language literature flourished from the late 18th and into the early 20th century in
427:. Around the same time, two other plays on Paris stages featured a mulatto character. Like the protagonist in Séjour's earlier short story, the character in
459:
The story Antoine tells compresses several years of horrific events into about 5,500 words. The instigating action is the sale at auction of a beautiful
447:("The Slave"), but the manuscript has never been found. In 1861, a journal reported that Séjour was planning a play about the American abolitionist
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temple, surrounded by fields "like young virgins at the foot of an altar," marks the violation of the black female body as a form of sacrifice.
596:
413:, and people of mixed African descent, creating an elaborate caste system related to blood purity. Séjour may have seen parallels to the
107:
literary community among people of color was intellectually rich and sophisticated. This reality was obscured by the identification of
72:
436:, and one of the acts in the anti-Semitic background of Séjour's play—was the year in which the New World was "discovered" by the
1338:
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Although the story is presented as a melodrama—the villainous slave-dealer twirls his mustache—it conveys the injustices of the
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searching for the identity of his father." It is one of the earliest works of fiction driven by the psychological trauma of
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mother that he won't look inside until he turns 25. Georges' high moral character is indicated by his keeping his promise.
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offers the interpretation that dawn and dusk are points in the 24-hour cycle that are neither night nor day, but both. The
1379:
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Séjour's strong use of dialogue points toward his future career as a noted playwright. Weiss suggests that Sejour's play
409:
In the New World, Spain applied the concept to the ethnicity of descendants of Spanish colonists, indigenous people and
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96:
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the story in place of his given name, is denied the oedipal knowledge of his identity that would prevent a tragic end.
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An English translation of "Le Mulâtre" was not published until 1997, when Philip Barnard's edition was included in the
1369:
1350:: overview with bibliography, illustrations, diagrams, and a map, along with the English translation of Philip Barnard
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541:, which had premiered two years earlier. Georges was the name given a mixed-race title character of an 1843 novel by
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1290:(Harvard University Press, 2009), p. 156, and interview with Maisha Wester in "'The Mulatto' by Victor Séjour,"
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with writing in English. The literary dynamism of New Orleans prepared Séjour to have a successful career as a
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author. It was noted as such when it was first translated in English, appearing in the first edition of the
440:. Séjour can be seen as linking traditions of racism in the Old and New worlds in order to criticize them.
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Georges is presented as a potential hero, though the seeds of destruction are present from the beginning:
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to change. The historical perspective also highlights that 1492—the year in which Jews were expelled from
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Sollors views "The Mulatto" and American slavery literature in general as having an inherent kinship with
197:
45:
578:, described by Séjour as "slaves who have fled the tyranny of their master". Georges already knows their
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Séjour's Georges may have been influenced by the "explosive rebel" named Georges in the play
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The following plot summary is based on the text and on the summary given by Sollors,
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Revolution, Romanticism, and the Afro-Creole Protest Tradition in Louisiana 1718–1868
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translated by Norman R. Shapiro (University of Illinois Press, 2002), pp. xvii–xxiii.
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or binary racial caste that predominated among some elements of American society.
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After the execution of his wife, Georges escapes with his young son and joins the
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Neither Black Nor White Yet Both: Thematic Explorations of Interracial Literature
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At the time of his death in 1874, Séjour was known to have written a play called
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of Laïsa's body in blunt terms, and is explicit about sexual assault and forced
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Werner Sollors, foreword, p. xii ff., and M. Lynn Weiss, introduction, in
1348:"Seeds of Rebellion in Plantation Fiction: Victor Séjour's 'The Mulatto'"
402:
236:
216:, but the story ends without returning to its initial narrative setting.
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Race, Theft, and Ethics: Property Matters in African American Literature
639:, "Creative Collaboration: As African American as Sweet Potato Pie," in
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451:, who led an attack on a US armory, but this work too remains unknown.
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362:
123:
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Exiles at Home: The Struggle to Become American in Creole New Orleans
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Creole Echoes: The Francophone Poetry of Nineteenth-century Louisiana
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Creole Echoes: The Francophone Poetry of Nineteenth-century Louisiana
239:". "The Mulatto" is the only extant work by Séjour to be set in the "
79:
Before the importance of French literature by writers of color from
647:(Infobase Publishing, 2009), p. 91; M. Lynn Weiss, introduction to
410:
312:—are symbolically situated between night (black) and day (white).
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woman, Laïsa. In a display of his superior wealth, a 22-year-old
1295:
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was Séjour's first play, accepted in 1843 for production at the
208:, a visitor to the place, identifies Saint Domingue as "now the
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Revolution, Romanticism, and the Afro-Creole Protest Tradition,
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Revolution, Romanticism, and the Afro-Creole Protest Tradition,
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Revolution, Romanticism, and the Afro-Creole Protest Tradition,
735:
Revolution, Romanticism, and the Afro-Creole Protest Tradition,
122:
revenge tale revolving around the psychological conflicts of a
259:
1189:
Telling Narratives: Secrets in African American Literature
381:
literature, including the short story "Father and Son" by
1247:(University of Illinois Press, 2004), p. xxxv; Lewis,
400:) had imposed a lesser political and social status on
782:
African American Gothic: Screams from Shadowed Places
821:
The French Atlantic: Travels in Culture and History
689:(University of Illinois Press, 2004), p. xxiii ff.
66:. It is the earliest extant work of fiction by an
711:Foster, "Creative Collaboration", p. 100, note 8.
1143:(Louisiana State University Press, 2007), p. 99.
702:(Louisiana State University Press, 1997), p. 94.
676:(Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 414, note 7.
146:from 1834 to 1842. Its contributors were mainly
316:temple and in its pretense a palace". Here the
170:Norton Anthology of African American Literature
142:was an abolitionist journal edited in Paris by
73:Norton Anthology of African American Literature
178:Multilingual Anthology of American Literature
8:
1191:(University of Illinois Press, 2007), p. 66.
823:(Liverpool University Press, 2009), p. 210.
660:Foster, "Creative Collaboration", p. 100.
586:, "Africa and freedom." Their use of the
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535:Marie, or, Slavery in the United States
487:forest, where he joins slave rebels or
118:"The Mulatto" has been described as "a
204:, however, is post-revolutionary: the
20:Victor Séjour, author of "The Mulatto"
270:, and was the mother of a black son,
48:. It was written in French, Séjour's
7:
1385:Short stories about American slavery
385:and the play he developed from it,
784:(Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), p. 72.
649:Victor Séjour: The Jew of Seville,
621:, and Alexandre Dumas among them.
14:
1232:Neither Black Nor White But Both,
1128:Neither Black Nor White But Both,
1115:Neither Black Nor White But Both,
1085:Neither Black Nor White But Both,
964:Neither Black Nor White But Both,
938:Neither Black Nor White Yet Both,
847:Neither Black Nor White But Both,
795:Neither Black Nor White Yet Both,
266:, had myths associating her with
219:The story is set specifically in
157:Cyril Bissette, publisher of the
95:in 1852, and "The Two Offers" by
594:, later codified into the motto
1354:"The Mulatto by Victor Séjour,"
1243:M. Lynn Weiss, introduction to
87:had conventionally begun with "
1390:African-American short stories
724:(Facts on File, 2004), p. 213.
188:The main story takes place in
1:
438:expedition sponsored by Spain
365:. The themes of slavery and "
83:was recognized, histories of
52:, and published in the Paris
1286:Shirley Elizabeth Thompson,
1165:Philip Barnhard translation.
597:liberté, egalité, fraternité
468:whom he never acknowledges.
97:Frances Ellen Watkins Harper
348:Séjour's treatment of the "
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172:. Another translation, by
1298:radio, starting at 48:10.
780:p. 96; Maisha L. Wester,
763:p. xvii and note; Bader,
1275:African American Gothic,
1215:African American Gothic,
1176:Race, Theft, and Ethics,
1154:African American Gothic,
886:African American Gothic,
873:African American Gothic,
860:African American Gothic,
765:African-American Writers
722:African-American Writers
214:omniscient point of view
85:African-American fiction
1260:Weiss, introduction to
1100:Weiss, introduction to
1070:Weiss, introduction to
1053:Weiss, introduction to
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1001:Weiss, introduction to
988:Weiss, introduction to
975:Weiss, introduction to
949:Weiss, introduction to
923:Weiss, introduction to
832:Weiss, introduction to
759:Weiss, introduction to
641:African-American Poets,
369:" are thus imbued with
292:George Washington Cable
176:, was published in the
28:" ("The Mulatto") is a
1395:Multiracial literature
1375:American short stories
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346:
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46:New Orleans, Louisiana
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992:pp. xxx and xxiv—xxv.
615:Alphonse de Lamartine
518:
338:
262:to the Greeks, Roman
206:first-person narrator
184:Structure and setting
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148:free persons of color
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1380:French short stories
1339:Text of "Le Mulâtre"
1204:, pp. 34–35, 65–66.
1089:The French Atlantic,
1059:The French Atlantic,
1029:The French Atlantic,
912:The French Atlantic,
899:The French Atlantic,
637:Frances Smith Foster
588:French Revolutionary
491:and bides his time.
38:free person of color
1249:Telling Narratives,
1221:, pp. 34–35, 65–66.
1217:pp. 73, 91; Lewis,
1102:The Jew of Seville,
1072:The Jew of Seville,
1055:The Jew of Seville,
1042:The Jew of Seville,
1016:The Jew of Seville,
1003:The Jew of Seville,
990:The Jew of Seville,
977:The Jew of Seville,
951:The Jew of Seville,
925:The Jew of Seville,
834:The Jew of Seville,
761:The Jew of Seville,
570:Political influence
539:Gustave de Beaumont
331:"The Mulatto" is a
297:The Foxes of Harrow
109:American literature
44:born and raised in
1370:1837 short stories
1219:Telling Narratives
1202:Telling Narratives
1087:p. 164; Marshall,
1057:p. xxx; Marshall,
698:Caryn Cossé Bell,
643:vol. 1, edited by
606:Haitian Revolution
584:Afrique et liberté
429:The Jew of Seville
421:The Jew of Seville
398:limpieza de sangre
394:The Jew of Seville
231:and writer of the
229:political activist
194:Haitian Revolution
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159:Revue des Colonies
140:Revue des Colonies
113:dramatist in Paris
93:Frederick Douglass
59:Revue des Colonies
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1187:Leslie W. Lewis,
425:Comédie Française
342:patriarchal right
306:The Black Madonna
256:Classical goddess
233:Romantic movement
225:Frédéric Marcelin
210:Republic of Haiti
196:, and is told in
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277:The Quadroon
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218:
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54:abolitionist
25:
23:
1342:(in French)
619:Victor Hugo
556:concubinage
387:The Mulatto
373:conflict.
361:as well as
302:Frank Yerby
192:before the
134:Publication
105:francophone
81:New Orleans
30:short story
1364:Categories
1322:Thompson,
1309:Thompson,
1277:pp. 74–75.
1178:pp. 97–98.
1074:p. xxxiii.
1027:Marshall,
910:Marshall,
897:Marshall,
862:pp. 71–72.
737:pp. 95–96.
625:References
613:Bissette,
507:Characters
475:A band of
461:Senegalese
449:John Brown
340:Dramas of
282:Mayne Reid
221:Saint Marc
174:Andrea Lee
103:, and the
26:Le Mulâtre
1230:Sollors,
1126:Sollors,
1083:Sollors,
962:Sollors,
936:Sollors,
927:p. xxiii.
845:Sollors,
793:Sollors,
767:, p. 213.
580:watchword
500:Code noir
483:Code noir
445:L'Esclave
403:conversos
359:patricide
333:melodrama
268:Aethiopia
241:New World
180:in 2000.
101:Louisiana
76:in 1997.
1294:series,
1273:Wester,
1264:p. xxxv.
1213:Wester,
1152:Wester,
1018:p. xxiv.
1005:p. xxix.
979:p. xxix.
953:p. xxii.
884:Wester,
871:Wester,
858:Wester,
836:p. xxii.
477:brigands
319:rentiers
237:quadroon
56:journal
1313:p. 156.
1200:Lewis,
1104:p. xvi.
1091:p. 211.
1061:p. 211.
1044:p. xix.
1031:p. 211.
966:p. 165.
940:p. 244.
914:p. 211.
797:p. 165.
600:, is a
592:liberté
576:Maroons
512:Georges
489:Maroons
465:planter
371:oedipal
363:suicide
304:, and "
124:mulatto
1251:p. 66.
1174:King,
1156:p. 91.
888:p. 90.
875:p. 74.
810:p. 96.
806:Bell,
776:Bell,
750:p. 97.
746:Bell,
733:Bell,
434:Toledo
411:mixtos
272:Memnon
264:Aurora
200:. The
120:gothic
354:trope
308:" by
91:" by
1296:WFHB
455:Plot
138:The
64:1837
40:and
36:, a
537:by
300:by
290:by
280:by
260:Eos
243:".
62:in
32:by
1366::
672:,
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582::
558:.
389:.
352:"
294:,
284:,
250:.
130:.
562:"
24:"
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